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Frequency Modulation

Courtesy by

Louis E. Frenzel, Jr.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
 A sine wave carrier can be modified for the purpose of
transmitting information from one place to another by
varying its frequency. This is known as frequency
modulation (FM).
 In FM, the carrier amplitude remains constant and the
carrier frequency is changed by the modulating signal.

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5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
 As the amplitude of the information signal varies, the
carrier frequency shifts proportionately.
 As the modulating signal amplitude increases, the
carrier frequency increases.
 With no modulation the carrier is at its normal center
or resting frequency.

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5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
 Frequency deviation (fd) is the amount of change in
carrier frequency produced by the modulating signal.
 The frequency deviation rate is how many times per
second the carrier frequency deviates above or below
its center frequency.
 The frequency of the modulating signal determines the
frequency deviation rate.
 A type of modulation called frequency-shift keying
(FSK) is used in transmission of binary data in digital
cell phones and low-speed computer modems.

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5-1: Basic Principles
of Frequency Modulation
Figure 5-1: FM and PM
signals. The carrier is drawn
as a triangular wave for
simplicity, but in practice it is
a sine wave. (a) Carrier. (b)
Modulating signal. (c) FM
signal. (d) PM signal.

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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation

 When the amount of phase shift of a constant-

frequency carrier is varied in accordance with a
modulating signal, the resulting output is a phase-
modulation (PM) signal.
 Phase modulators produce a phase shift which is a
time separation between two sine waves of the same
frequency.
 The greater the amplitude of the modulating signal,
the greater the phase shift.

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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation

 The maximum frequency deviation produced by a

phase modulator occurs during the time that the
modulating signal is changing at its most rapid rate.

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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation

Figure 5-3: A frequency shift

occurs in PM only when the
modulating signal amplitude
varies. (a) Modulating
signal. (b) FM signal. (c) PM
signal.

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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation

Relationship between the Modulating Signal and Carrier

Deviation
 In FM and in PM, the frequency deviation is directly
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
 In PM, the maximum amount of leading or lagging
phase shift occurs at the peak amplitudes of the
modulating signal.
 In PM the carrier deviation is proportional to both the
modulating frequency and the amplitude.

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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation

Figure 5-4: Frequency deviation as a function of (a) modulating signal amplitude and
(b) modulating signal frequency.
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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation

Converting PM into FM
 In order to make PM compatible with FM, the deviation
produced by frequency variations in the modulating
signal must be compensated for.
 This compensation can be accomplished by passing the
intelligence signal through a low-pass RC network.
 This RC low-pass filter is called a frequency-
correcting network, predistorter, or 1/f filter and
causes the higher modulating frequencies to be
attenuated.
 The FM produced by a phase modulator is called
indirect FM.

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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation

Phase-Shift Keying
 The process of phase modulating a carrier with binary
data is called phase-shift keying (PSK) or binary
phase-shift keying (BPSK).

 The PSK signal has a constant frequency, but the

phase of the signal from some reference changes as
the binary modulating signal occurs.

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5-2: Principles of Phase Modulation

Figure 5-6: Phase modulation of a carrier by binary data produces PSK.

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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
 Any modulation process produces sidebands.
 When a constant-frequency sine wave modulates a
carrier, two side frequencies are produced.
 Side frequencies are the sum and difference of the
carrier and modulating frequency.
 The bandwidth of an FM signal is usually much wider
than that of an AM signal with the same modulating
signal.

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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
Modulation Index
 The ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating
frequency is known as the modulation index (mf).
 In most communication systems using FM, maximum
limits are put on both the frequency deviation and the
modulating frequency.
 In standard FM broadcasting, the maximum permitted
frequency deviation is 75 kHz and the maximum
permitted modulating frequency is 15 kHz.
 The modulation index for standard FM broadcasting is
therefore 5.

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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
FM Signal Bandwidth
 The higher the modulation index in FM, the greater the
number of significant sidebands and the wider the
bandwidth of the signal.

 When spectrum conservation is necessary, the

bandwidth of an FM signal can be restricted by putting
an upper limit on the modulation index.

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5-3: Modulation Index
and Sidebands
FM Signal Bandwidth
 Example:
If the highest modulating frequency is 3 kHz and the
maximum deviation is 6 kHz, what is the modulation
index?
mf = 6 kHz/3 kHz = 2
What is the bandwidth?
BW = 2fmN
Where N is the number of significant* sidebands
BW = 2(3 kHz)(4) = 24 kHz
*Significant
sidebands are those that have an amplitude of greater than 1% (.01)
in the Bessel table.

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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM

 Noise is interference generated by lightning, motors,

automotive ignition systems, and power line switching
that produces transient signals.
 Noise is typically narrow spikes of voltage with high
frequencies.
 Noise (voltage spikes) add to a signal and interfere
with it.
 Some noise completely obliterates signal information.

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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM

 FM signals have a constant modulated carrier

amplitude.
 FM receivers contain limiter circuits that deliberately
restrict the amplitude of the received signal.
 Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM signal
are effectively clipped by limiter circuits.
 This amplitude clipping does not affect the information
content of the FM signal, since it is contained solely
within the frequency variations of the carrier.

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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM

Figure 5-11: An FM signal with noise.

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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM

Preemphasis
Noise can interfere with an FM signal and particularly with the
high-frequency components of the modulating signal.
Noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy and contains a lot of harmonics
and other high-frequency components.
To overcome high-frequency noise, a technique known as preemphasis is
used.
A simple high-pass filter can serve as a transmitter’s pre-emphasis circuit.
Pre-emphasis provides more amplification of only high-frequency
components.

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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM

Figure 5-13 Preemphasis and deemphasis. (a) Preemphasis circuit.

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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM

Preemphasis
 A simple low-pass filter can operate as a deemphasis
circuit in a receiver.
 A deemphasis circuit returns the frequency response to
its normal flat level.
 The combined effect of preemphasis and deemphasis is
to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for the high-
frequency components during transmission so that they
will be stronger and not masked by noise.

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5-4: Noise-Suppression Effects of FM

Figure 5-13 Preemphasis and deemphasis. (c) Deemphasis circuit.

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5-5: Frequency Modulation Versus
Amplitude Modulation
Advantages of FM
 FM typically offers some significant benefits over AM.
 FM has superior immunity to noise, made possible by
clipper limiter circuits in the receiver.
 In FM, interfering signals on the same frequency are
rejected. This is known as the capture effect.
 FM signals have a constant amplitude and there is
no need to use linear amplifiers to increase power
levels. This increases transmitter efficiency.

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5-5: Frequency Modulation Versus
Amplitude Modulation
Disadvantages of FM
 FM uses considerably more frequency spectrum space.
 FM has used more complex circuitry for modulation and
demodulation.
 In the past, the circuits used for frequency modulation
and demodulation involved were complex..

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