Unit 5: Radioactivity

A) The structure of the atom:

1) Electrons, protons & neutrons:
An atom has a central nucleus consisting of tightly packed subatomic particles called protons
and neutrons with electrons orbiting it.
Protons and neutrons are called nucleons since they are present in the nucleus of an atom.
Nucleons account for most of the mass of an atom.

2) The nuclear model of an atom:

In this experiment, a beam of alpha particles was aimed at a thin sheet of gold foil. The
experiment must be carried out in a vacuum tube to prevent alpha particles from being stopped
by air particles.
The paths of alpha particles are shown in these diagrams:

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Results:
1. Most of alpha particles pass straight through the
gold foil, because they do not pass close to the
nucleus
2. Some particles suffer some deflection. The
closer the particles are to the nucleus, the more
they are deflected.
3. few particles closely approach a gold nucleus so
they deflect backwards

Conclusions:
✓ From 1, we can conclude that the volume of
the nucleus is small as compared to the volume of the atom; the atom is mostly empty
space.
✓ From 2, we can conclude that the atom has a positively charged nucleus.
✓ From 3, we can conclude that the atom has a dense, relatively heavy nucleus; the nucleus
carries most of the atom’s mass.

3) The atomic notation:

The atomic (proton) number of an element, Z

This is the number of protons in the nucleus of each

atom of the element. Each element has its own
unique atomic number. The number of protons in an
atom identifies the element.

The mass (or nucleon) number of an element, A

This is the total number of protons and neutrons (nucleons) in the nucleus of an atom. To
represent an atom of an element whose chemical symbol is X, we use the shown notation.
Example: an atom of oxygen is represented by 168𝑂 meaning:
✓ O is the chemical symbol for oxygen.
✓ The atomic number is 8 (the nucleus contains 8 protons).
✓ The mass number is 16 (so it must have 8 neutrons).

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ISOTOPES:
They are atoms of the same element, having the same atomic number but different mass
numbers (different number of neutrons).
They have the same chemical properties but different physical properties.
This diagram is showing 3 isotopes of Hydrogen, having the same chemical symbol, H:

When we wish to talk about one particular isotope of an element we use the word nuclide;
referring to atoms with the same nucleon number as well as proton number. It’s a distinct kind
of atom or nucleus characterized by a specific number of protons and neutrons.

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B) Radioactivity:

1) Stability & radioactivity:

Some elements have atoms with unstable nuclei. These unstable nuclei emit high-energy
particles and rays called radiations.

Radioactive decay is the spontaneous random emission of alpha (α), beta (β) particles or gamma
(γ) rays from the nuclei of unstable atoms to become more stable.

Random means we cannot predict which particular nucleus will decay next, all nuclei have a
constant probability of decay.

Spontaneous means that the decay process is unaffected by environmental conditions such as
temperature, pressure, etc….

2) Types of nuclear radiation:

Nuclear radiations are sometimes called ionizing

radiations. This is because these radiations interact with
neutral atoms of air, which makes atoms gain or lose
electrons, forming ions.

The three types are:

✓ Alpha (α)
✓ Beta (β)
✓ Gamma (γ) radiation

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Properties of alpha, beta & gamma radiations are summarized as follows

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a) Alpha particles (α):
It is identical to the nucleus of a helium atom (i.e. a helium atom without its orbiting
electrons, it’s not a helium atom). Alpha particles make frequent collisions with gas
molecules along their paths, causing intense ionization. Accordingly, they have strong
ionizing power.

Here’s its nuclear equation:

𝐴 𝐴−4
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍−2𝑌 + 42𝐻𝑒
For example:
Radium atom → radon atom + alpha particle

222 218
88𝑅𝑎 → 86𝑅𝑛 + 42𝐻𝑒
Note that:
✓ The mass number is reduced by 4 and the atomic number is reduced by 2.

b) Beta particles (β):

A beta particle is a very fast moving electron that is ejected by a decaying nucleus, but how is
an electron ejected from the nucleus?!
A neutron in the nucleus splits into a proton & an electron. The proton remains in the nucleus
and the electron is ejected at high speed as a beta particle. This means that the atomic number
increases by 1, while the mass number stays the same. Beta particles are smaller & carry less
charge so they interact less frequently with matter in their paths. This is why they have weak
ionizing power.
Here’s its nuclear equation:
𝐴 𝐴 0
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍+1𝑌 + −1𝑒
For example:
Carbon atom →nitrogen atom + beta particle

14
6𝐶 → 14
7𝑁 + −10𝑒
Note that:
✓ The mass number stays the same while the atomic number increases by 1.
During alpha or beta decay, the atomic number will change so the nucleus changes to that of
a different element.

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c) Gamma rays (γ):
Gamma rays interact only occasionally with atoms in their paths so they have a very weak
ionizing power.
This figure shows the penetrating abilities of nuclear radiation. Keep in mind that the
penetrating power is related to the ionizing power. Accordingly, gamma rays are the most
penetrating but the least ionizing.

3) Deflection in electric & magnetic fields:

Alpha & beta particles are deflected by electric & magnetic fields, but because beta particles are
much lighter, they show greater deflections. Gamma rays (which are electromagnetic waves)
are neutral so they are not deflected in electric or
magnetic fields.

a) Deflection in electric fields:

Electric field lines represent the direction of an
electric field which is from the positive plate to
the negative plate. The positively charged alpha
particles are attracted to the negative plate while
the negatively charged beta particles are attracted
to the positive plate.

b) Deflection in magnetic fields:

Alpha & beta particles are deflected in directions
given by Fleming’s left hand rule. Keep in mind
that negative charges traveling to the right counts
as a conventional current to the left.

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4) Radiation & half-life:
The half-life time of a radioactive sample is the time taken for half the nuclei present in this
sample to decay (or the time taken for the activity of a radioactive sample to decrease to its
half).

The half-life is unaffected by temperature or pressure but each radioactive element has its own
definite half-life.

The decay curve:

The activity of a sample is the average number of decaying
atoms per unit time. If the activity of a sample is measured
at different times, a decay curve against time can be
plotted. The decay curve of a sample starting with an
activity of 200 radiations per hour is shown.

The curve shows that the activity falls by the same fraction
in successive equal intervals of time.
The half-life time of this sample is 1 hr.

5) Geiger-Muller (GM) tube:

When alpha, beta or gamma radiation enters a GM tube through a thin window, it ionizes the gas
inside (changes the gas into positive ions & electrons). These ions are attracted towards the
oppositely charged electrodes, which triggers a pulse of current, which is fed to the rate meter. A
rate meter gives the counts per second (or minute) or the count rate directly.

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6) Background radiation:

A GM tube will record some count rate even in the absence of a source. This count rate is due to
the ionizing radiation which is always present from the surroundings.
It is called background radiation and should be subtracted from the counts recorded when a
source is present to give the true count rate due to the source.

This background radiation has a number of sources, some of which are listed below:
a. Radon & Thoron gases in the air
b. Some rocks in the Earth’s crust.
c. Radioisotopes used in certain medical procedures.
d. Cosmic rays from outer space.
e. Emissions from nuclear power stations.

7) Applications of radioactivity:

Radioactive substances can be used in a wide variety of useful applications including medicine,
industry & dating.

a) Medical applications:
i. A radioactive sample is used to see if the thyroid gland is working properly. The thyroid
gland absorbs iodine, so a dose of radioactive iodine is given to a patient. Doctors then
measure the radioactivity of the patient’s throat, to see how well his thyroid gland is
working.
The isotope emits gamma radiation and has a short half-life so that the activity of the
sample decreases to a very low level in a few days (for the patient’s safety).

ii. High doses of ionizing radiation can kill living cells. If a strong beam of radiation is
directed onto a cancerous tissue, it can kill the cancer cells. The treatment has unpleasant
side-effects but it is often successful in slowing down the growth of, or even comlpetely
curing cancer.

iii. Radiation is also used to sterilize medical equipment such as syringes. The items are first
packed into sealed plastic bags and then exposed to gamma rays which kill any bacteria
present.

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b) Industrial applications:

i) Radioactive isotopes maybe used to detect leaks

in underground pipes. The source is fed into the
pipe and then a GM tube is used above the
ground to detect any increase in the radiation
level and hence the leak. This method is cheaper
and quicker than digging up the entire length of
the pipe.
The chosen source should emit gamma radiation
and its half-life matches the time needed for the
experiment; the activity of the source becomes
low after it has been used and so will not pose an
ongoing threat.

ii) A beta particle source may be used to

automatically control the thickness of paper,
plastic and metal sheets. The source is placed on
one side of the sheet and a GM tube on the other.
If the count rate falls, this means that the sheet
coming from the rollers is too thick and the rollers
are automatically moved together a little closer.
➢ Beta emitters are suitable for monitoring the
thickness of thin sheets but gamma emitters
would be needed for thicker materials. In both
cases, the source should have a long half-life
time.

iii) An alpha particle source is used in smoke detectors (because alpha particles are easily
absorbed).
➢ Radiation from the source falls on the detector. Since alpha radiation is charged, a
small current flows in the detector & the alarm is silent.
➢ When smoke enters the gap between the source and the detector, it absorbs the
radiation. Now no current flows in the detector so sounding the alarm.

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c) Radiocarbon dating:

All living things contain carbon. A tiny fraction of carbon is radioactive carbon-14. The idea
of radiocarbon dating is as follows: when a living organism dies, the carbon-14 in its body
decays. As time passes, the amount remaining decreases. If we measure the remaining
amount, we may work out when the organism was alive. (Since the half life time of carbon-
14 is known, we are able to discover how old objects & materials are).

8) Hazards of ionizing radiations:

We cannot avoid exposure to radiation in small doses but large doses can be dangerous to our
health. The ionizing effect produced by radiation causes damage to cells & tissues in our bodies
and can also lead to gene mutation. A higher dose of radiation can kill living cells.

Danger from α-particles is small, unless the source enters the body. This is because alpha
particles have weak penetrating power, but once the source enters the body, the particles are very
close to many different types of cells that may be damaged if the exposure is for a long time.

Beta & gamma radiations are of a serious health risk when outside the body. They, both, can
penetrate the skin and flesh causing cell damage by ionization. Beta & gamma emitters that are
absorbed by the body present less risk than alpha emitters, due to their lower ionizing power.

9) Safe handling of radioactive materials:

It is important to follow certain precautions to be as safe as possible from the hazards of

ionizing radiation:

i) The samples are stored in lead containers to block even the most penetrating form of
radiation, γ-rays, and the containers must be clearly labeled as a radiation hazard.
ii) The sources must always be lifted with forceps (never with hand), kept as far from the
body as possible and never held near the eye.
iii) The sources must be kept in their containers when not in use.
iv) Food should not be taken where the radioactive substance is being used.
v) Do not stay unnecessarily in the region of a radioactive source.
vi) Any cuts on the hand must be covered before using sources.

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 10) Disposal of radioactive waste:

“How” to dispose “nuclear waste” presents a serious problem, because some of the products are
still highly radioactive & often have a very long half-life time.

➢ Nuclear waste is usually sealed in lead containers that are then buried deep underground.
➢ The sites for underground storage have to carefully selected:
✓ The rock must be impermeable to water & the geology of the site must be stable (away
from earthquake zones, areas of volcanic activity & floods).
✓ The sites must be far from urbanized regions & must have a facility to extract heat if too
much heat builds up due to the emitted radiations.

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