ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN

UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

(Department of Economics)

Course: Research & Methodology (9318)

Semester: Spring, 2024
Assignment No # 02

Level: BS Economics

Q.1 What are the major sources of data collection?

Ans. Data collection is a crucial part of the research process, as it involves
gathering the necessary information to answer research questions, test
hypotheses, and achieve research objectives. There are several major
sources of data collection, each with its own strengths and applications.
Here’s an explanation of these sources:

1. Primary Data Sources

Primary data is original, first-hand information collected directly by the

researcher specifically for the study. This type of data is often considered
more reliable because it is tailored to the research question.

a. Surveys and Questionnaires

- Explanation: Surveys and questionnaires involve asking a series of

questions to participants. These can be administered in various forms,
including online, via telephone, or face-to-face.

- Strengths: They are versatile, can cover a large population, and allow for
both quantitative and qualitative data collection.

- Examples: Customer satisfaction surveys, employee feedback

questionnaires, public opinion polls.

b. Interviews

- Explanation: Interviews involve direct, in-depth questioning of

participants to gather detailed information. They can be structured, semi-
structured, or unstructured.

- Strengths: Provide deep insights, allow for probing and clarification, and
can capture rich, qualitative data.

- Examples: One-on-one interviews, expert interviews, focus group

discussions.

c. Observations
 - Explanation: Observation involves directly watching and recording
behaviors, events, or situations as they naturally occur. This can be done
either covertly or overtly.

- Strengths: Provides real-time, contextual data and can capture non-verbal

cues that other methods may miss.

- Examples: Ethnographic studies, classroom observations, workplace

behavior analysis.

d. Experiments

- Explanation: Experiments involve manipulating one or more variables to

observe the effect on another variable, usually in a controlled environment.

- Strengths: Allows for causal inferences, provides strong internal validity,

and can be replicated.

- Examples: Clinical trials, laboratory experiments, field experiments.

2. Secondary Data Sources

Secondary data is information that has already been collected, processed,

and published by others. This data is not collected specifically for the current
research but can be repurposed.

a. Published Sources

- Explanation: These include books, academic journals, newspapers, and

official reports that contain data and findings from previous research.

- Strengths: Easily accessible, cost-effective, and time-saving as the data is

already collected and analyzed.

- Examples: Government publications, industry reports, peer-reviewed

journal articles, historical records.

b. Official Statistics

- Explanation: Official statistics are data published by government agencies

or international organizations on a wide range of topics like demographics,
economics, health, and education.
 - Strengths: High credibility, usually covers large populations, and is often
available for free or at a low cost.

- Examples: Census data, labor market statistics, health surveys,

educational statistics.

c. Databases and Repositories

- Explanation: These are digital or physical collections of data sets that

researchers can access for analysis. They often include large amounts of
data across various fields.

- Strengths: Provides access to large, often well-organized datasets that

can be used for extensive analysis.

- Examples: Academic databases like JSTOR, PubMed, or government

databases like Data.gov.

d. Company Records

- Explanation: Internal records and documents from organizations or

businesses that can provide data on operations, sales, customer behavior,
and other business-related activities.

- Strengths: Specific to the organization, provides historical and real-time

data that can be directly relevant to the research.

- Examples: Sales reports, financial statements, customer databases,

employee records.

e. Online Sources

- Explanation: Data from websites, social media, blogs, and other online
platforms where information is regularly updated and accessible.

- Strengths: Real-time data, extensive reach, and often free to access. It

can provide both qualitative and quantitative data.

- Examples: Social media analytics, web traffic data, online reviews, digital
archives.
3. Tertiary Data Sources

Tertiary data sources compile and summarize primary and secondary data
sources, often used for quick reference or overviews.

a. Encyclopedias and Dictionaries

- Explanation: These sources compile existing knowledge on a wide range

of topics in a concise, easily accessible format.

- Strengths: Useful for quick reference, providing definitions, overviews,

and general information.

- Examples: Encyclopedia Britannica, Oxford English Dictionary.

b. Indexes and Bibliographies

- Explanation: Indexes and bibliographies list sources and references on

specific topics, often guiding researchers to primary and secondary data.

- Strengths: Helps researchers quickly find relevant literature and data

sources.

- Examples: Science Citation Index, MLA Bibliography.

Summary

The major sources of data collection include **primary data sources** (e.g.,
surveys, interviews, observations, experiments), **secondary data sources**
(e.g., published sources, official statistics, databases, company records,
online sources), and **tertiary data sources** (e.g., encyclopedias, indexes).
Each source has its own strengths and is suitable for different types of
research depending on the objectives, resources, and the nature of the data
required. Understanding these sources allows researchers to choose the
most appropriate methods for collecting data that will answer their research
questions effectively and accurately.
Q.2 Differentiate between probability and no-probability sampling.

Ans. Probability and non-probability sampling are two broad categories of

sampling techniques used in research. Each has its own methods,
advantages, and limitations. Here’s a detailed differentiation between the
two:

1. Definition

- Probability Sampling: This is a sampling technique where every member

of the population has a known, non-zero chance of being selected in the
sample. It relies on random selection methods.

- Non-Probability Sampling: This is a sampling technique where the

samples are selected based on non-random criteria, and not every member
of the population has a chance of being included in the sample.

2. Selection Method

- Probability Sampling: Involves random selection, meaning every

individual in the population has an equal or known chance of being selected.
Methods such as random number generators or drawing lots are often used.

- Non-Probability Sampling: Involves non-random selection, where the

researcher selects the samples based on subjective judgment, convenience,
or other criteria rather than random chance.

3. Examples of Techniques

- Probability Sampling:

- Simple Random Sampling: Every individual has an equal chance of being

selected.

- Systematic Sampling: Every nth individual is selected from a list after a

random start.

- Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into strata, and random

samples are taken from each stratum.
 - Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters, and a random
sample of clusters is selected, with all or random members from the chosen
clusters being studied.

- Non-Probability Sampling:

- Convenience Sampling: Samples are selected based on ease of access

or availability.

- Judgmental or Purposive Sampling: The researcher selects samples

based on who they think is most appropriate for the study.

- Snowball Sampling: Existing participants recruit future subjects from

among their acquaintances.

- Quota Sampling: Samples are selected to ensure that specific subgroups

are represented in the study in proportion to their occurrence in the
population.

4. Representation and Generalizability

- Probability Sampling: Because the selection is random, the sample is

more likely to be representative of the entire population. This allows for
generalizing the results to the larger population with a known level of
confidence.

- Non-Probability Sampling: The sample may not be representative of the

population, as the selection is based on non-random criteria. This limits the
ability to generalize the findings to the larger population.

5. Bias and Accuracy

- Probability Sampling: Reduces the risk of selection bias because of the

random selection process. The results are generally more accurate and
reliable.

- Non-Probability Sampling: Higher risk of selection bias as the researcher

may unintentionally select samples that are not representative of the
population. The results may be less accurate and more subjective.
6. Use in Research

- Probability Sampling: Often used in quantitative research where

generalization of results to a larger population is important. It is ideal for
large-scale surveys and studies that require statistical analysis.

- Non-Probability Sampling: Commonly used in qualitative research,

exploratory research, or situations where the research does not aim for
generalization but rather for in-depth understanding, case studies, or when
the population is hard to access.

7. Complexity and Cost

- Probability Sampling: Often more complex and costly to implement due to

the need for a complete population list and randomization processes.

- Non-Probability Sampling: Generally simpler and less costly, making it

more practical for smaller studies or when time and resources are limited.

8. Examples of Application

- Probability Sampling: Used in national opinion polls, health surveys, and

other studies where it is important to accurately reflect the views or
characteristics of a large population.

- Non-Probability Sampling: Used in case studies, pilot studies, or

exploratory research where the focus is on understanding specific
phenomena rather than generalizing to a larger population.

Summary

- Probability Sampling involves random selection methods where every

member of the population has a known chance of being included,
leading to more representative and generalizable results. It is more
complex and costly but ideal for quantitative research requiring
statistical accuracy.
 - Non-Probability Sampling involves non-random selection methods,
leading to samples that may not be representative of the population,
limiting generalizability. It is simpler, less costly, and often used in
qualitative research or exploratory studies where in-depth insights are
more important than statistical representation.

Q.3 Define plagiarism and its major consequences.

Ans. What is Plagiarism?

Plagiarism is the act of using someone else’s work, ideas, words, or

intellectual property without proper acknowledgment, presenting them as
your own. This can include copying text, paraphrasing ideas, or using
someone else’s data, research, or creative work without giving due credit.
Plagiarism is considered a serious ethical violation in academia, publishing,
and professional fields.

Types of Plagiarism:

1. Direct Plagiarism: Copying someone else’s work word-for-word without

citation.

2. Self-Plagiarism: Reusing your own previous work without acknowledging

that it has been submitted elsewhere.

3. Mosaic Plagiarism: Incorporating phrases, ideas, or text from different

sources without proper citation, even if mixed with original content.

4. Accidental Plagiarism: Unintentionally failing to cite sources correctly or

paraphrasing without acknowledgment.

Major Consequences of Plagiarism:

1. Academic Penalties

- Explanation: In educational settings, plagiarism can lead to severe

academic penalties, such as receiving a failing grade on an assignment,
failing a course, or even expulsion from an academic institution.

- Impact: These penalties can significantly impact a student’s academic

record and future opportunities.

2. Damage to Reputation

- Explanation: For professionals, researchers, and academics, being caught

plagiarizing can severely damage one’s reputation. It undermines trust and
credibility in their work.

- Impact: This damage can lead to loss of professional standing,

termination of employment, and difficulty in securing future opportunities.

3. Legal Consequences

- Explanation: Plagiarism can also lead to legal consequences, particularly

if the plagiarized material is copyrighted. This can result in lawsuits, fines,
and other legal actions.

- Impact: Legal consequences can be financially damaging and lead to

further reputational harm.

4. Loss of Opportunities

- Explanation: Plagiarism can result in loss of scholarships, research

funding, and publishing opportunities. Publishers may retract articles, and
organizations may withdraw funding if plagiarism is discovered.

- Impact: Loss of opportunities can hinder academic and professional

progress, limiting career advancement.
5. Ethical and Moral Consequences

- Explanation: Plagiarism is considered a breach of academic and

professional ethics. It reflects poorly on an individual’s integrity and
character.

- Impact: Ethical violations can lead to long-term consequences in one’s

personal and professional life, affecting relationships and trust.

6. Professional Disciplinary Actions

- Explanation: In some professions, plagiarism can result in disciplinary

actions from professional bodies, including loss of professional licenses,
membership, or certifications.

- Impact: This can severely restrict one’s ability to practice in their field or
result in permanent exclusion from professional organizations.

7. Academic Retraction and Loss of Academic Integrity

- Explanation: In academia, if plagiarism is discovered in published

research, it can lead to the retraction of papers and loss of academic
integrity.

- Impact: Retractions can damage the credibility of all associated research

and can have lasting effects on an academic’s career.

Summary

Plagiarism is the unethical practice of using another’s work without proper

acknowledgment. Its major consequences include academic penalties,
damage to reputation, legal issues, loss of opportunities, ethical
ramifications, professional disciplinary actions, and potential retraction of
published work. These consequences highlight the importance of maintaining
academic and professional integrity by properly citing and acknowledging all
sources of information.
Q. 4. What important steps we must keep in mind, while reporting
to the reader of Owner?

Ans. When reporting to the owner or a key stakeholder, it's essential to

communicate clearly, concisely, and effectively. Here are some important
steps to keep in mind:

1. Understand the Audience

- Explanation: Know the background, interests, and expectations of the

owner or reader. Understand what they prioritize (e.g., financial performance,
operational efficiency, market position) and tailor the report accordingly.

- Importance: This ensures that the report is relevant and resonates with
the owner, addressing their specific concerns and objectives.

2. Be Clear and Concise

- Explanation: Avoid unnecessary jargon, technical language, or lengthy

explanations. Use straightforward language and focus on the key points.

- Importance: The owner is likely busy and needs to grasp the report’s key
messages quickly. Clear and concise communication makes it easier for them
to make informed decisions.

3. Focus on Key Metrics and Data

 - Explanation: Highlight the most important metrics, data points, and
outcomes relevant to the owner's interests. Use charts, graphs, and tables to
present data visually.

- Importance: Focusing on key metrics helps the owner quickly assess the
situation and understand the implications of the report.

4. Provide Context and Analysis

- Explanation: Don’t just present data—interpret it. Explain the significance

of the findings, trends, or outcomes, and how they impact the business or
project.

- Importance: Context and analysis help the owner understand not just
what happened, but why it happened and what it means for the future

5. Highlight Achievements and Challenges

- Explanation: Clearly outline the successes and any challenges or

obstacles faced during the reporting period. Be honest about issues and
potential risks.

- Importance: Owners need a balanced view of performance. Highlighting

both achievements and challenges allows them to appreciate successes
while addressing potential problems.

6. Provide Actionable Recommendations

- Explanation: Offer clear, actionable recommendations based on the

report’s findings. Suggest next steps, potential strategies, or areas for
improvement.

- Importance: Recommendations help the owner understand what actions

are needed and guide their decision-making process.

7. Structure the Report Logically

- Explanation: Organize the report in a logical flow, typically starting with

an executive summary, followed by detailed sections, and concluding with
recommendations.
 - Importance: A well-structured report is easier to read and ensures that
the owner can follow the progression of ideas and information logically.

8. Use an Executive Summary

- Explanation: Begin the report with a concise executive summary that

outlines the key points, findings, and recommendations.

- Importance: The executive summary provides a quick overview, allowing

the owner to grasp the main points without reading the entire report.

9. Be Transparent and Objective

- Explanation: Present the information honestly and objectively, without

sugarcoating or omitting important details. Include both positive and
negative aspects.

- Importance: Transparency builds trust with the owner and ensures they
have a complete and accurate understanding of the situation

10. Consider the Timing

- Explanation: Deliver the report at an appropriate time, considering

deadlines, decision-making timelines, or key meetings.

- Importance: Timely reporting ensures that the information is relevant and

can be acted upon promptly

11. Use Professional Presentation

- Explanation: Ensure the report is well-presented, with a clean layout,

consistent formatting, and no grammatical or spelling errors.

- Importance: A professionally presented report reflects well on the writer

and enhances the credibility of the information provided.

12. Follow Up if Necessary

 - Explanation: After submitting the report, be prepared to follow up with
additional information, clarifications, or discussions as needed.

- Importance: Following up ensures that any questions are answered and

that the owner fully understands the report's content and implications.

Summary

When reporting to the owner or key stakeholder, it's essential to understand

their needs, communicate clearly and concisely, focus on key data, provide
context and actionable recommendations, and present the report
professionally. By following these steps, you ensure that the owner receives
the information they need in a manner that supports effective decision-
making and strategic planning.

Q.5 Explain the cluster sampling with appropriate examples.

Ans. Cluster Sampling is a type of probability sampling method where the

population is divided into distinct groups, or “clusters,” and a random sample
of these clusters is selected. After selecting the clusters, all or a random
sample of elements within each chosen cluster are surveyed. This method is
particularly useful when dealing with large populations spread over a wide
geographic area, as it can be more practical and cost-effective than other
sampling methods.

Steps in Cluster Sampling:

1. Define the Population and Clusters:

- Identify the entire population and divide it into non-overlapping clusters.

These clusters should ideally be heterogeneous within themselves but
homogeneous between each other.

2. Select Clusters:
 - Randomly select a sample of clusters from the total list of clusters. This
can be done using methods such as simple random sampling or systematic
sampling.

3. Survey Within Clusters:

- Collect data from all individuals within each selected cluster (one-stage
cluster sampling) or select a random sample of individuals within each
chosen cluster (two-stage cluster sampling).

4. Analyze Data:

- Combine the data from the selected clusters to make inferences about
the entire population.

Examples of Cluster Sampling:

1. Educational Research:

- Scenario: A researcher wants to study the educational outcomes of high

school students in a large country.

- Application: Instead of sampling individual students across the country,

the researcher might divide the country into clusters based on schools.
Randomly select a sample of schools (clusters), and then collect data from all
students within those selected schools.

2. Health Surveys:

- Scenario: A public health organization wants to assess the prevalence of a

specific health condition across a large region.

- Application: The region is divided into clusters based on geographic areas

or neighborhoods. A random sample of these geographic clusters is selected,
and health surveys are conducted within these clusters to estimate the
condition’s prevalence across the entire region.

3. Market Research:
 - Scenario: A company is conducting market research to understand
consumer preferences in a large city.

- Application: The city is divided into clusters based on neighborhoods or

districts. A random sample of these neighborhoods is chosen, and then
surveys are conducted within these selected neighborhoods to gather data
on consumer preferences.

4. Agricultural Studies:

- Scenario: An agricultural researcher is studying crop yields across a large

farming region.

- Application: The region is divided into clusters based on farms or fields. A

random sample of farms is selected, and then data on crop yields is collected
from these selected farms to make inferences about the entire region’s crop
yield.

Advantages of Cluster Sampling:

1. Cost-Effective: Cluster sampling can be more economical compared to

other methods, especially when the population is geographically
dispersed, as it reduces the need for extensive travel and logistics.

2. Practical: It simplifies the data collection process by focusing on

specific clusters rather than having to sample from the entire
population.

3. Convenient: It can be easier to implement in certain contexts, such as

large-scale surveys where a complete list of the population is difficult
to obtain.

Disadvantages of Cluster Sampling:

 1. Less Precision: The estimates from cluster sampling may be less
precise than those from simple random sampling, especially if the
clusters are not homogeneous within themselves.

2. Cluster Variability: If the clusters are very different from each other, the
results may not be as generalizable to the whole population.

3. Potential for Increased Sampling Error: The variability within clusters

can lead to increased sampling error compared to other sampling
methods.

Summary

Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method that involves dividing the

population into clusters and then randomly selecting some of these clusters
to survey. It is particularly useful for large populations spread over wide
areas, offering a cost-effective and practical way to gather data. However, it
may result in less precision and generalizability compared to other sampling
methods.