Practical Geography

for Advanced Secondary Schools

Student’s Book
Form Five and Six

Tanzania Institute of Education

© Tanzania Institute of Education 2022

Published 2022

ISBN: 978-9987-09-400-4

Tanzania Institute of Education

P.O. Box 35094
Dar es Salaam

Mobile numbers: +255 735 041 168/+255 735 041 170

Email: [email protected]
Web: www.tie.go.tz

All rights reserved. No part of this textbook may be reproduced, stored in any
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means whether electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the Tanzania Institute of Education.

ii Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Table of Contents
Acronyms and abbreviations ........................................................................iv
Acknowledgements.............................................................................................v
Preface.................................................................................................................vi

Chapter One: Application of statistics in geography.......................................1

Conceptualising statistics............................................................................1
Nature of data..............................................................................................4
Types of variable(s)....................................................................................6
Statistical measures.................................................................................... 11
Methods of presenting statistical data.......................................................34
Chapter Two: Field research techniques........................................................97
Conceptualising field research...................................................................97
Importance of research............................................................................102
Research proposal and report writing......................................................104
Chapter Three: Simple survey and mapping...............................................133
Concept of land survey............................................................................133
Specialised types of survey......................................................................158
Compass surveying..................................................................................158
Plane table survey....................................................................................179
Levelling survey......................................................................................193
Chapter Four: Maps and map interpretation..............................................215
Maps........................................................................................................215
Map scale and its importance..................................................................226
Measurements on topographical maps....................................................236
Representation of relief on a map............................................................270
Map interpretation...................................................................................273
Chapter Five: Photograph interpretation.....................................................296
Basic concept of photograph, image and sensors for imaging and
photography.............................................................................................296
Photograph interpretation........................................................................298
Glossary........................................................................................................... 330
Bibliography.................................................................................................... 331
Index................................................................................................................. 333

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools iii
 Acronyms and abbreviations
Gb Giga bite

GIS Geographic Information System

GWh Giga Watt per hour

JNIA Julius Nyerere International Airport

KIA Kilimanjaro International Airport

LEO Low Earth Orbiting

TMA Tanzania Meteorological Authority

TANESCO Tanzania Electric Supply Company

TPDC Tanzania Petroleum Development Cooperation

TN

iv Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Acknowledgements
The Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) would like to acknowledge the
contributions of all the organisations and individuals who participated in designing
and developing this textbook. In particular, TIE wishes to thank the University of
Dar es salaam (UDSM) and the University of Dodoma (UDOM), School Quality
Assurance (SQA) Department, teachers’ colleges and secondary schools. Besides,
the following individuals are acknowledged:
Writers: Dr Fredy S. Mswima (UDOM), Ms Beatrice S. Rulenguka (TIE)
& Ms Neema A. Kashindye (TIE)
Editors: Dr Julius Mngumi ( DUCE), Mr Anton Nzali (UDOM), Dr Festo
J. Ndumbaro (UDSM), Dr Barnabas M. Msongaleli (UDOM),
Dr Julius E. Frank (OUT - Language ), Mr Frank Mahuve
(UDOM), Mr Daniel A. Mwalutolo (UDSM), Mr Michael N.
Sichundwe (Tusiime Secondary School), Mr Iddi A. Moh’d
(Kiembe Samaki Islamic Secondary School)
Designer: Mr Anton Asukile
Photographer: Mr Chrisant A. Ignas (TIE)
Illustrators: Mr Fikiri A. Msimbe, Ms Rehema Maganga and Mr Godlove
Kyando (TIE)
Coordinator: Ms Neema A. Kashindye
TIE is also appreciative for the participation of secondary school teachers and
students in the trial phase of the manuscript. Likewise, the Institute would like
to thank the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology for facilitating the
writing and printing of this textbook.

Dr Aneth A. Komba
Director General
Tanzania Institute of Education

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools v
 Preface
This textbook, Practical Geography for Secondary Schools, is written specifically
for Form Five and Six students in the United Republic of Tanzania. It is written
in accordance with the 2010 Geography Syllabus for Advanced Level Secondary
Education, Form V-VI issued by then, Ministry of Education and Vocational
Training.
The book consists of five chapters, namely Application of statistics in geography,
Field research techniques, Simple survey and mapping, Maps and map interpretation,
and Photograph interpretation. Each chapter contains illustrations, activities and
exercises.You are encouraged to do all the activities and exercises as well as other
assignments that your teacher will provide. Doing so, will enable you to develop
the intended competencies.

Tanzania Institute of Education

vi Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Chapter
One Application of statistics in
geography

Introduction
Statistics is a useful field in our daily life. Statistical information is used by different
people in understanding the nature of the world and its dynamics. In this chapter,
you will learn about concepts and types of statistics, role of statistics, statistical
data and variables. You will also learn about methods of data collection, analysis
and organization. Additionally, you will learn about sources of data, presentation
methods and interpretation. The competencies acquired from this chapter will
enable you to find solutions to the day-to-day geographically related issues and
make informed decision on statistical geographical related events and phenomena
for personal and community development.

Conceptualising statistics based on measurements taken from

a sample. A population is a group of
Statistics deals with scientific methods
individuals, objects or units from which
of collecting, organising, analysing,
we intend to know something.
presenting, interpreting numerical
information and making conclusions
A sample is a collection of representative
on the basis of the associated analyses. It
members of the population from which
is concerned with collecting, organising,
the statistical measurements are taken.
summarising and analysing multitude of
It is the subject of the population from
numerical data so as to understand the
which statistical data will be calculated.
essential features and relationship of data.
For example, if one is interested in
In other words, the term statistics denotes
examining statistical information such as
the study and practice of collecting,
the effect of class-size on advanced level
analysing and presenting data that have
students’ performance in Geography,
geographical and real world dimension
he or she will choose representatives
such as census and demography.
(sample) among the students. It is
Statistics provides a basis for decision
therefore from this sample, data will be
making when testing hypothesis that
collected, analysed and interpreted. The
are formulated through the scientific
obtained information can be generalised
methods in geography. Statistics aims at
to the entire population.
drawing some insights from population

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 1
 Application of statistics in geography

Types of statistics candidates sat for NECTA 2021 passed

Statistics is basically divided into as opposed to general conclusion that
two major types namely: descriptive most of the candidates sat for NECTA
and inferential statistics. Descriptive in 2021 passed.
statistics is concerned with describing Additionally, statistics present, interpret
and summarising the entire population and predict conditions. Statistics present
or sampled data with the aim of bringing conditions by using for example, pie
out the important facts about data. Mean, charts, histograms or bar charts of the
median, mode, range, standard deviation studied phenomenon which can be easily
and percentages are some examples of understood. Some statistical conditions
descriptive statistics. Inferential statistics for presenting data allow the predictions
is concerned with studying the sample of of the future phenomenon thus giving
the population for the sake of drawing clues to finding ways to offset them or
conclusions based on the analysis of reduce their occurrence in future. Again,
data. Inferential statistics though not it provides easy way of classifying
covered in this book includes probability numerical data. That is, the method of
distributions and statistical hypothesis classification in statistics often provides
testing. The essence of inferential clear features of a variable that is under
statistics is to make inferences about investigation. For example, statistical
a population based on the information methods provide an appropriate method
obtained from the sample. of classifying two or more data by
Role of statistics bringing out the maximum, minimum
and standard deviation of the various
Practically, statistics plays a wide role in
categories.
simplifying complex mass of data and
present them in a comprehensive way Moreover, statistics is useful in
so that they can easily be understood evaluation. For example, it is easy to
and interpreted. Large raw data can be evaluate the Tanzania development vision
summarised into percentages, modes of 2025 with statistics. It is also useful
and means hence become understood in budgeting at both family and national
easily compared to raw mass of data. level. For example, free basic education
Moreover, statistical representation of in Tanzania is provided to the known
data in form of histograms, bar charts number of students. Statistics is the basis
or pie charts enables one to understand of projection of different geographical
the information easily. Statistics present events such as climate and outputs of
data in a comprehensive and definite agriculture. It acts as an evaluative tool
form. Statistics enables drawing of sound in different fields, such as demography,
numerical conclusions that are more education and business. Statistics is
convincing as opposed to conclusions used to evaluate the effectiveness of
stated verbally. For example, it sounds the policies under implementation to
clear and appealing to say 70% of the understand to what extent the expected

2 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

results will be achieved or not. For from two or more different studied areas
example, in the free basic education or time. Volumes of data from two or
policy, statistics is normally applied more sites can be compared basing
in monitoring the proper utilization of on descriptive statistics such as mean,
funds, human resource, construction median and mode of their distributions.
and maintenance of learning facilities
among others according to the demand. Statistical data and variables
Statistics helps to project the future The word data is derived from Latin
trends and the impact of a particular word datum meaning ‘something given’.
social or geographical phenomena. With Data can be of numeric, text, graphic,
the use of probability statistics, we can art, image or symbol that researchers
accurately project the outcome of natural obtain from the subjects, respondents or
and cultural phenomena. For instance, participants of the study. It is a raw or
basing on the existing situations in the unprocessed information about certain
climatic factors, it is possible to spell out phenomenon or event. The raw data
what will happen after a considerable needs to be processed by subjecting it
span of time, and how the society and to some statistical analysis in order to
environment in particular will suffer. obtain useful information for decision
Statistics is a basis for policy formulation. making. The data that has been processed
Statistical facts and evidence are usually in a context and assigned to give their
among the international and national meaning is referred to as information
policy foundations. For instance, the (Figure 1.1). Largely, statistics deals
daily reports on the number of Covid-19 with quantitative data which exist in
infected people worldwide, pressurise numeral and to some extent integrate the
nations to formulate local policies and qualitative data. Data can be obtained
to agree with the international policies from weather and climate, demography,
such as vaccination. Furthermore, transport and communication, as well as
demographic data may indicate the rate agricultural production. When one does
at which the population of a country any sort of inquiry or research, he or she
is growing and statistically get clues will collect data of different kinds. In
in policy formulation for resources fact, data can be seen as the essential raw
distribution to cater for the needs. Lastly, material of any kind of research. Data
it provides an easy way of comparing can be managed by using information
data. Statistical analyses make it possible technology in the form of bytes stored
to compare the relevant analysed data in electronic memory (database).

Information = Data + Context + Meaning

Figure 1.1: Schematic representation of data and information

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 3
 Application of statistics in geography

An individual piece of data in a data set Mjimwema secondary school which may
is called a score or observation whereas be 200 students are types of individual
a quantity to which any of a set of values data. Grouped data are data by which no
such as (scores or observations) is exact figure is quoted but several values
assigned is called variable. For example, fall within certain classes or groups. For
the quantities height, weight or age are example, grouping people according to
variables, while the values assigned to their age ranging from 1-5, 6-10, 11-15,
them are data. Data can be collected from 16-20 to 85 and above.
the respondents or subjects by using
different methods such as survey, focus Classification of statistical data
group discussion, document review and Data are classified into three main
interview. Data may also be collected categories on the basis of sorting or
through any other method, depending distribution; unit of measurement; and
on the needs of the research. methods and sources. Basing on sorting
or distribution data is classified into
Nature of data
ungrouped and grouped data. Ungrouped
Data may be classified in four categories data (raw data) is concerned with raw
namely: Discrete, continuous, individual facts that have been collected from the
and grouped data. Discrete data is a experiment or study and usually not
numerical type of data that can only be sorted into categories. For example; 10,
given in whole, concrete numbers with 15, 20, 25 and 30 vehicles. Furthermore,
specific and fixed data values determined when expressing number of houses,
by counting. Examples of discrete data people, employee and eggs we use
include; number of people, computers, whole numbers and we normally list
animals, houses and eggs. them. Grouped data (array data) refers to
Continuous data include complex a set of raw numerical facts that has been
numbers and varying data values that sorted or distributed into categories. For
are measured over a specific interval or example; Tsh 10 001- 20 000, 20 001-30
within a range. Values in these data set 000 and 30 001 - 40 000 or heights of
often carry fraction or decimal points. people in centimetres 151-160, 161- 170,
Examples of continuous data include; 171 - 180 and 181-190.
eight, wind speed, temperature, altitude On the basis of unit of measurements,
and distance. there are two types of data namely,
For example temperature of 23.15° C in a categorical (qualitative) and numerical
range 0° C to 30° C or an altitude of 483. (quantitative). Categorical data are
23 m in a range 0 to 1000 m. Individual measures that normally describe the
data are data through which an exact characteristics of the studied subject
value is given for each individual item and can be in the form of text, graphics,
in a sample. For example, population art, image or symbol. Categorical data
of Tanzania, and number of students at are further grouped into nominal and

4 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

ordinal data. Nominal data are labeled or approaches. The data can also be
named data without quantitative measure transformed to secondary data after
and often without logical sequence. For analysis. Primary data however, are
example, marital status, occupation, likely to be influenced by expenses and
common elements of weather and Yes/ time consumed in collecting them. They
No responses. Likewise, ordinal data are generally difficult to collect due to
are labeled or named data without their complexity and high demand of
quantitative measure but with logical commitment. Unlike the primary data,
sequence. For example, satisfaction, secondary data means second-hand
opinion or feelings. Numerical data, data in published or unpublished form
are measures expressed in numbers. that was earlier collected by some one
Numerical data are further grouped into else and often passed through statistical
discrete and continuous data. Numerical analysis and usage. Secondary data
data corresponds to interval and ratio can be obtained from public or private
data. offices and searched from websites and
internet sources. Secondary data have
On the basis of methods and sources, a number of merits to researchers such
data can either be primary or secondary. as: easy manageability; time saving and
Primary data refers to the first-hand raw low cost of accessing them. In addition,
facts from an experiment or field. They some are readily available in analysed
are original and freshly gathered from form; useful in updating the existing data
the source. Primary data have several and demand less field work. However,
uses or advantages including: originality the applicability of secondary data are
and independence which increase limited in terms of lack of means to
validity and enhance reliability of the validate them; demand expertise; and
data. They are used in both quantitative less accuracy and reliability compared
and qualitative studies. These are the to primary data. Table 1.1 indicates
only data which can explore from the the differences between primary and
hidden information through appropriate secondary data.

Table 1.1: Distinction between primary and secondary data

S/N Description Primary data Secondary data

1. Source Original sources Secondary sources
2. Methods of Observation, Review of documents
collection questionnaires, such as books, journals,
interview, focus magazines, research
group discussion, and publications and websites
measurements sources
3. Statistical process Not done Done

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 5
 Application of statistics in geography

S/N Description Primary data Secondary data

4. Originality of data Original or first hand Not original or second hand
5. Use of data For specific purpose For the purpose it was
data are compiled established
6. Methods of data Given Not necessarily given
collection
7. Time consumed More Less
8. Cost and accuracy Accurate and May not be accurate but
expensive cheap

Types of variables
A variable is any characteristic, number or quantity of a person, object or phenomenon
that can be measured or counted. A variable may also be called a data item that
varies in magnitude. There are different ways in which statistical variables are
described depending on the way they are studied. Variables are grouped basing
on the scale of measurement, study designs and association. Basing on the scale
of measurement variables are described as numerical and categorical; while in the
study design they are described as active and attribute variables; and in causal
relationships they are dependent and independent variables (Figure 1.2).

Variables

Unit of Causal
Study design
measurement relationship

Numerical Categorical Active Attribute Independent Dependent

variables variables variables variables variables variables

Figure 1.2: Schematic representation of variables and respective classification criteria

Numerical variables are variables that can be described as either continuous or

discrete variables. The measurements for these variables are numbers. Continuous
variable refers to quantitative variable which take any value in measurements
normally within some ranges. They can be expressed in decimal places or fractions,
Example of continuous variables are; height, time, age and temperature. Discrete
variables are quantitative variables, which take isolated values in measurements.
In other words, they are variables which cannot be expressed in form of a fraction
or decimal places. Examples of discrete variables include the number of registered
cars, houses and children which are all measured as whole number.

6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Categorical variables categorical variable depends on the independent

variables are qualitative in nature as theyvariable. The statistical measure that
are represented by non-numeric values. indicates the extent to which two or
They normally take a form of text, image more variables are related is known as
or symbol. Based on the nature of data, correlation. Correlation is concerned
categorical variables are classified as with quantifying the degree and direction
ordinal or nominal variable. Ordinal to which two variables are related.
variables deal with the value that can
It can be positive, negative or zero
be logically ordered or ranked higher or
relationship. Though in correlation it
lower than another without establishing a
numeric difference. Examples of ordinal is observed that change in one variable
categorical variables include academic may result to a change on another still
grade such as A, B and C; and clothing such a change on the latter does not often
size such as small, medium, large and imply causation. Sometimes there may
extra-large. Nominal variable deals with be an unknown factor that affects both
values and the classification of variables variables in the same way. A relevant
in which the logical sequencing of example of correlation is good market
variables is not applicable. price of agricultural produce which may
Active and attribute variables differ with result into the increased production of
regard to manipulation. Active variables crop since farmers enjoy good prices.
are those that can be manipulated, Similarly, a relatively large Geography
changed or controlled. Active variables class may be associated with poor
are independent variables. While attribute performance of the students.
variables are variable that cannot be
manipulated, changed or controlled,
and that reflect the characteristics of Relationship between variables
the study population. For example age, Variables are related in three different
weight, height, income and level of
ways namely positive, negative and no
education.
relationship as subsequently described
Independent and dependent variables as follows.
Independent variables are not usually
(i) Positive relationship.
affected or influenced with external
factor for change. For example, This is the relationship which exists
someone’s age cannot be influenced when an increase in independent variable
to change by either eating or better results to an increase in dependent
health services. Dependent variables variable and a decrease in independent
are easily affected or influenced by variable results to a decrease in dependent
external factors for change. For example, variable. For example, enrolment of form
temperature, amount of rainfall, body five students at Mtakuja High School
weight and academic performance are increased with time for four consecutive
all likely to be affected or influenced by years (2012-2015) as shown in Table 1.2
external factors. Generally, a dependent and Figure 1.3.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 7
 Application of statistics in geography

Table 1.2: Annual rainfall and runoff generated in the hypothetical catchments
Rainfall (mm) 90 410 480 600 590 640 650 770 840 980 1020 1100
Runoff (m ) 3
60 90 60 80 110 130 140 150 220 210 295 250

300

250

200
Runoff volume (m3)

150

100

50

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Rainfall (mm)
Scale: Horizontal scale: 1 cm to 200 mm; Vertical scale: 1 cm to 50 m3
Figure 1.3: Positive relationship

(ii) Negative relationship

This is a relationship where the variables are negatively or inversely related that
is, when independent variables increase, the dependent variables decreased. For
example, crop production decreases with time for five consecutive years as shown
in Table 1.3 and Figure.1.4.

8 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Table 1.3: Temperature recorded on a hypothetical land with varying elevation

Elevation (m) 250 600 780 1050 1300 1500 1760 2000 2250 2280 2350 2800
Temperature 33 30 29 26 22 19 23 13 10 15 14 12
(°C)

40
Elevation (m)

30

20

10

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

Temperature (ºC)

Scale: Horizontal scale: 1cm to 500 m; Vertical scale: 1cm to 5 °C

Figure 1.4: Negative relationship
(iii) No relationship
This occurs, when there is no direct relationship between variables. As such,
change in one variable does not cause any change to the other. For example,
the number of students who scored division one in a certain school for five
consecutive years as shown in Table 1.4 and Figure 1.5.
Table 1.4: Coffee production on farmlands of different sizes.
Farmland size (Acres) 12 9 14 7 17 4 20 20 21 22 24 23
Coffee production (Kg) 19 41 30 59 55 16 36 65 14 25 24 45

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 9
 Application of statistics in geography

70

60

Coffee production (Kg) 50

40

30

20

10

0 5 10 15 20 25
Farmland size (Acres)

Scale: Horizontal Scale: 1cm to 5 acres; Vertical Scale: 1cm to 10 Kg

Figure 1.5: No relationship
Activity 1.1 Exercise 1.1
1. (i) In groups of five students, 1. Distinguish between the
survey your school premises following statistical terms:
including offices and library (a) Data and information
and identify five types of data (b) Data and variables
commonly recorded at the (c) Discrete and continuous data
school.
2. Explain at least four uses of data
(ii) Describe the uses of the in our daily life.
identified types of data within
3. Describe the criteria used to
the school.
classify data.
2. Using the test scores for your
4. What are the types of variables?
class from the school notice board
where monthly tests results are 5. Both primary and secondary
posted for six months, identify sources of data are of paramount
the independent and dependent importance. Elaborate on this
variables. statement.

10 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

6. State at least two differences geographer to summarise the data in

between the following types of a frequency distribution with a single
data: number and make interpretation of the
(a) Categorical and numerical obtained statistical information.
(b) Single and grouped
(c) Discrete and continuous
Population
Statistical measures mean = µ Sample
mean = x
The common important statistical
measures that are used to summarise and
Figure 1.6: Illustration of mean for a
describe data are: measures of central
population and sample
tendency, measure of dispersion and
measures of asymmetry (skewness). Measures of central tendency
Measures of central tendency and In frequency distributions, the tabulated
measures of dispersion are also called values show a distinctive tendency to
summary statistics. The measures of cluster or to group around a typical
central tendency computed from the central value. The characteristics of the
entire population are called parameters data to concentrate the values around a
whereas the measures obtained from the central part of distributions is termed
sample are called statistics. Parameter is as central tendency of the data. In other
a descriptive property of the population words, central tendency is the average.
while statistics is a descriptive property An average is a single value within a
of a sample (Figure 1.6). Regardless of range of the data that is used to represent
the similarity of procedures adopted in the entire values in a series. Both central
obtaining parameters and statistics, they tendency and average are concerned with
are often expressed by different symbols. central values. Based on these concepts
For example, the mean for population measure of central tendency (average)
is symbolised with a Greek letter µ is a single value that is used to describe
(pronounced as mew) while that of a a set of data by identifying the central
sample is symbolised by Latin letter x (x position within the given set of data. It
bar). Still the difference is also maintained is the value tends to lie centrally within
in expressing measure of dispersion. For the set of data arranged according to the
example, standard deviation which is one magnitude that is in ascending order.
of the parameters of dispersion when Measure of central tendency enables one
addressing a population is abbreviated to compare two or more distributions
by a Greek letter σ (pronounced as pertaining to the same period of time or
sigma) while when addressing with a within the same distribution over time.
sample standard deviation as one of the For example, the average consumption
sample statistic is expressed by small of tea in two different geographical areas
letter “s”. Measure of central tendency for two years, say 2003 and 2004, can
and measure of dispersion enable a be obtained by means of an average.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 11
 Application of statistics in geography

The most commonly used measures variables and explain its importance on
of central tendency are mean, mode the phenomena in question. For example,
and median. All measures of central the mean agricultural and livestock
tendency are useful, however, in produce/yield. Mean is categorised
different conditions some have become into arithmetic mean, geometric mean,
more appropriate than others. It is harmonic mean and quadratic mean. In
thus, important to understand a good this book, only arithmetic mean has been
measure of central tendency. Often covered.
a good measure possesses some
(i) The mean of ungrouped data
main characteristics such as easy to
understand; simple to compute; based This is obtained by diving the sum of
on all observations; uniquely defined; value or scores in the range of individual
has possibility of further algebraic data by the number of observations. It is
treatment; Possesses sampling stability the sum of all values in the set divided
and not unduly affected by extreme by the number of observations.
values. Simple statistical measures of Procedures
central tendency can be calculated by
The following are procedures for
various formula using both individual
calculating mean of ungrouped data.
and grouped data as indicated in the
subsequent subsections: 1. Find the sum of all data values or
observation
(a) Mean
This is sometimes referred to as arithmetic 2. Divide by the total number of
mean. It should, be noted that mean is not observation
a synonym of average. Instead measures Sample mean x
of central tendency and averages are
n
Σ xi
used interchangeably. Mean is the most x = i=1
n
popular measure of central tendency and
may be defined as the value which we Population mean µ
N
get by dividing the total of the value of Σ xi
various given items in a series by the µ= i=1

total number of items. Mean is often N

Where;
used in reporting the weather and climate
n = number of data values in the
specifically for elements like temperature
sample population
and rainfall. For instance, in Tanzania,
N = number of data values in the
we have been frequently hearing the
population
reports and information related to the
changes in mean annual temperatures Σ = means summation of
and rainfall from sources such as the xi = score or observations
Tanzania Meteorological Authority n
Using the notation Σ xi we can write:
(TMA). Thus, mean can be used to n
i=1

compute the central values of different Σ x = x1 + x2 ...+ xn

i=1 i

12 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Example:
1. Study the data given in the Table 1.5 showing passengers transported by the
TAZARA in ‘000 thousands from 2010 to 2016
Table 1.5: Passengers transported by the TAZARA in ‘000 thousands from 2010
to 2016
Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Passengers in ‘000 thousands 758 414 678 654 287 327 440
Source: Ministry of Works, Transport and Communication (2016)

Compute the sample mean

Solution:
N

∑x 1
x= i=1
n

758 + 414 + 678 + 654 + 287 + 327 + 440 3 558

xx = =
7 7
x = 508.2857 ≈ 508
Therefore, this means that on average; (ii) Sum the product (fx)
the passengers transported by TAZARA (iii) Divide by the total frequency
per year were 508 000. ( ∑f)
For data set with frequencies Example, use data in Table 1.7 for street
The mean of ungrouped data with “A” to calculate the mean of ungrouped
data
frequencies (Table 1.6) can be calculated
by using similar procedures. Table 1.7: Score for a given sample
x f fx
Table 1.6: Scores of a given sample
1 3 3
xi Frequency ( f ) 2 4 8
3 6 18
1 3
2 4 4 2 8
3 6 5 5 25
4 2 ∑f = 20 ∑fx = 62
5 5
Solution
Procedures
A formula for calculating mean for
The following are procedures for
calculating mean of ungrouped data frequency table is x = Σfx .
with frequence Σf
Where;
(i) Multiply the data (x) against f = frequency
the respective ( f ) to get (fx).
x = score

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 13
 Application of statistics in geography

∑f = 62, ∑f = 20 Table 1.8: Data for town “K”

62 Class interval Frequency (f)
x =
20 0-2 2
= 3.1 3-5 5
Therefore the central value for the score 6-8 6
of a given sample is 3.1 9-11 2
Mean of grouped data 12-14 2
15-17 4
This is useful when someone has a big
range of data which are supposed to be 18-20 6
grouped into classes to facilitate further Procedures
calculations. Mean in the grouped data (i) Arrange the data in class interval.
can be computed by using two methods For example, 0 - 2, 3 - 5, 6 - 8,
namely; assumed mean method and 9 - 11, 12 - 14, 15 - 17, 18 - 20.
direct method (shortcut method). (ii) Find the midpoint/classmark of
Example: each of the class interval (x).
Find the mean of the following population (iii) Draw a table with required
data for town “K”. columns for class interval,
frequency (f), midpoint xi and fxi.
Table 1.9: Data for town “K”
Class interval Frequency (f) Mid-point (xi) fxi
0-2 2 1 2
3-5 5 4 20
6-8 6 7 42
9-11 2 10 20
12-14 2 13 26
15-17 4 16 64
18-20 6 19 114
TOTAL ∑f = 27 ∑fxi = 288
(iii) Calculate the mean of grouped data
Mean is given by
n
Σ fxi
x= i=1
Σf
∑ fxi= 288, ∑ f = 27
288
x=
27
= 10.6666
Therefore, the central value for the score of a given sample is 10.67

14 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Calculating mean by assumed mean Procedures

method
(i) Find the midpoint/class mark of
When the values or scores under each class interval (x);
observation are extremely large and in
fractions, the use of the direct method (ii) Assume one value as mean. In the
table, the largest f is on intervals 30-
becomes inconvenient. As a result the
40, which also happens to be almost
use of the assumed mean method can
in the centre of the distribution, 35
be done. Assumed mean method is also is taken as assumed mean;
known as the assumed mean method.
The method uses the concept of the (iii) Subtract the arbitrary mean from
arbitrary mean or assumed mean. each value of mid-point and the
resultant value is shown in column
Example: d;
Find the mean of school Y students’ (iv) Multiply each d by respective
scores in Geography using the mean frequencies (f) to get (fd);
by assumed mean method. (v) Find the algebraic sum of the ∑fd
Table 1.10: School Y students’ scores and divide this sum by ∑f
in Geography (vi) Sometime ∑fd will be positive and
sometimes negative;
Scores f
0-10 4 (vii) Multiply this value by class mark.
This gives the correction factor to
10-20 8
be applied to the Assumed Mean;
20-30 11 and
30-40 15
(viii) The assumed Mean + the
40-50 12
correction factor = the Actual
50-60 6 Mean. Correction factor is
60-70 2 computed by ∑f .

Table 1.11: School Y students’ scores in Geography

Scores Mid-point f d fd
0-10 5 4 -30 -120
10-20 15 8 -20 -160
20-30 25 11 -10 -110
30-40 35 15 0 0
40-50 45 12 10 120
50-60 55 6 20 120
60-70 65 2 30 60
∑f = 58 ∑fd = -90

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 15
 Application of statistics in geography

The formula for calculation of the mean actual mean and the assumed mean (∑fd)
by the assumed mean method is given = -90 and ∑f = 58.
below:
∑ fd x = 35 +
( −90)
x = A+ 58
∑f = 35 + (-1.55)
Where:
= 33.45
A = arbitrary or assumed mean
Therefore, the central scores for the
f = frequency
school Y students in Geography is 33.45
d = deviation from the arbitrary or
assumed mean Calculating mean by direct method

∑f = number of data values in the The same data in Table 1.12 can be used
population to calculate mean by direct method.
For example; use data for school “Y”
Assumed mean (A) = 35, the correction to calculate mean for grouped data by
factor for the difference between the direct method.

Table 1.12: School Y students’ scores in Geography

Scores Mid-point (f) fx1

0-10 5 4 20
10-20 15 8 120
20-30 25 11 275
30-40 35 15 525
40-50 45 12 540
50-60 55 6 330
60-70 65 2 130
∑f = 58 ∑fxi = 1940
Σfxi
x=
Σf
1940
=
58
= 33.45
Therefore, the central score of the school Y students in Geography is 33.45

16 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Advantages and disadvantages of Median for individual data

mean
Procedures
The use of mean in analysing and
summarising data has both advantages The following are procedures to be
and disadvantages. Some of the observed in calculating the median
advantages are in cases of small data set for un-grouped data.
it is fast and easy to calculate; it includes (i) Arrange data in ascending or
all values in the distribution; it is useful descending order.
for statistical summarisation of data; (ii) If the total number of items is in
and it is used for making comparison odd, add 1 to the total number of
in statistical data. It is also widely observations (n) then divide by 2
understood compared to other averages to acquire the position of median.
and suited to further statistical analysis. (iii) The value of the median for un-
Some of the disadvantages are: the mean grouped data is given by the
is highly distorted by outliers. Outliers expressions below:
refer to the extremely high or low values
in the observation. It is also impossible th
⎛ n + 1⎞
to locate the mean by inspection as in Median = Value of the ⎜
the case of mode and median. Value ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
term in a ranked data set.
of mean will be effective only if the
frequency is normally distributed. Note: the expression is purposely
Otherwise in case of skewness the for finding the position of the mid
results become ineffective. value.
(b) Median Examples
The median is value of the middle
item. This is a middle item for a set of 1. Study the data in Table 1.13: which
data that has been arranged in order of shows production of cashew nut
magnitude or the point below and above ‘000 tonnes in Tanzania from 2012
50 % of the scores in distribution (the to 2016, and find the median.
mid-point in a distribution). There are
for grouped data and un-grouped data.
Table 1.13: Production of cashew-nut in Tanzania
Year 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Cashew nut production in tonnes 160 128 130 198 155

Solution
The values of production are arranged in ascending order = 128, 130, 155, 160, 198
n = 5, then

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 17
 Application of statistics in geography

th
⎛ n + 1⎞ 5 +1
The ⎜ ⎟ value = = 3 this means the mid value is on the 3rd position of
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
the data set
That is the median is 155 (‘000) tonnes which mean the mid value of production
throughout five years of cashew-nut production.
When the total of the range (values) is even, median is obtained by adding the two
central values and divide by 2.
Example:
Study the data in Table 1.14 showing the total monthly rainfall recorded in Tanzania
in the year 2016 and find the median.
Table 1.14: Total monthly rainfall recorded in Tanzania in the year 2016
May
Mar

Aug
Apr

Nov
Feb

Jun

Dec
Jan

Sep

Oct
Month
Jul

Monthly
total
191.8 131.2 14.0 213.6 41.1 9.2 2.2 8.3 14.1 27.8 64.6 66.6
rainfall
(mm)
Source: Tanzania Meteorological Agency (2016)

Solution the 7th is 41.1 =

Arrange the value of temperature in 27.8 + 41.1 68.9
ascending order: = = 34.45 ≈ 34.5 mm
2 2
That is 2.2, 8.3, 9.2, 14.0, 14.1, 27.8,
Therefore, the median value for rainfall
41.1, 64.6, 66.6, 131.2,191.8, 213.6
is 34.5 mm which is the mid value of the
rainfall in twelve months.
The position of the mid value is given by
th
⎛ n + 1⎞ 12 + 1 Median for grouped data
the expression ⎜ ⎟ value =
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 Use the given data in Table 1.15 which
= 6.5 this means the position of the mid show the distribution of students’ scores
value is at 6.5 position. In this case mid for school “Y” in Tanzania to calculate
median of grouped data.
value is obtained by finding the mean
The following are the procedures for
of the 6 and 7 (the two middle) values calculating the median for grouped data.
th th

in the data set. The 6th value is 27.8 and (i) Construct the cumulative
frequency distribution.

18 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

(ii) Decide the class that contain n = the total frequency

the median. Median class is cf = the cumulative frequency before
the first class with the value median class
of cumulative frequency equal f m = the frequency of the median
n
to or at least . class
2
(iii) Find the median by using the i = the class interval or class width
following formula Lm = the lower boundary of the
median class
⎛n ⎞
⎜ − cf ⎟ Note: Lower boundary of each class
Medium = Lm + ⎜ 2 ⎟i is calculated by subtracting half of the
f
⎜ m ⎟ gap value from the class lower limit.
⎝ ⎠
For example, 10 - 0.5 = 9.5. 0.5 is used
Where;
because the gap value is 1.

Table 1.15: Distribution of students’ scores for school “Y” in Tanzania

Class interval Frequency ( f ) Cumulative (cf)
0–4 2 2
5–9 6 8
10 – 14 10 18
15 – 19 8 26
20 – 24 4 30

⎛ 30 ⎞
⎜ 2 − 8⎟
Median = 9.5 + ⎜ 5
10 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

⎛ 15 − 8 ⎞
= 9.5 + ⎜
⎝ 10 ⎟⎠ 5

⎛ 7⎞
= 9.5 + ⎜ ⎟ 5
⎝ 10 ⎠

= 9.5 + 3.5
= 13
Therefore, the mid value for the score is 13.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 19
 Application of statistics in geography

Advantages and disadvantages of receive two seasonal rainfall called

median bimodal areas. Some of the areas that
receive bimodal rainfall include Dar es
The major advantages from the use of
Salaam, Musoma, Morogoro, Tanga,
median in statistical geography are:
Kagera and some parts of Mwanza
it is easy to understand because of
region. There are also areas that receive
considering half way point of the data
three seasonal rainfall per year, such a
set under observation. Therefore, it is
pattern is called trimodal.
suitable for distributions with extreme
values. The median is not distorted by
the extreme value(s) in distribution; and Mode for the ungrouped data
relevant in skewed data distribution. Uni-modal occurs when there is one
However, median has some limitations (1) mode value in a distribution. For
such as unsuitability for further example; 4, 5, 6, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 10, 10.
mathematical treatment or advanced Mode is 10. Because; it has occurred
statistical processing; not based on all three times.
values under observation; compared to
mean, median is highly affected by the Bimodal is when set of data has two
fluctuation of sampling. Furthermore, modes, for example, 1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4,
it is not reliable in testing geographical 5, 5, 6, 6, 6 11. The modes are 4 and 6.
This is because; they have both occurred
hypothesis, particularly in advanced
three times.
levels of the field of Geography.
Multi-modal exist when data set has
(c) Mode more than two modals, for example; 1,
Mode is the most frequent score in 3, 5, 8, 9, 2, 4, 8, 7, 20, 5, 6, 2, 1, 2, 3,
a distribution. The mode of a set of 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8, 9, 20, 2.
data is the observation which occurs
The modes are 2, 5 and 8. This is because;
most frequently. It is also defined as a
these numbers have more occurrences
point of maximum frequency density in
than others.
continuous data. It is presented by the
highest column (s) in the histogram. Mode for the grouped data
In some data set, the mode may not In grouped data, mode can be calculated
exist, and if it does, there may be two by the following formula:
or more modes. The occurring mode ⎛ t ⎞
can be either uni-modal, bimodal or Mode = Lm + ⎜ 1 ⎟ i
multi-modal. Mode is one of the useful ⎝ t1 + t2 ⎠
averages in the field of climatology as Where;
it can be used in the classification of Lm = the lower limit of the modal class
weather patterns in various geographical
areas. In case of Tanzania, many areas t1 = the frequency of the modal class
receive rainfall per season called uni- minus frequency before the
modal areas while the rest of areas modal class. That is the difference

20 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

between the frequency of modal Therefore, the maximum frequent

class and frequency of premodal denoted for the scores is 53.25
class.
Estimating a mode from a histogram
t2 = frequency of the modal class minus Mode from the grouped data can
frequency after the modal class. be derived from the histogram. For
That is the difference between example, using score distribution from
frequency of modal class and Table 1.14, a mode can be determined
frequency of post modal class. from histogram.
i = class width or the size of the class Procedures
interval. The following are procedures for
estimating mode from histogram
Example: (i) Draw a Histogram;
Study the Table 1.16 and then find the (ii) Identify the modal class
mode. represented by the tallest bar.
(iii) Draw the cross lines as shown in
Table 1.16: Distribution of scores the diagram;
Class interval Frequency (iv) Draw a perpendicular doted
40 – 44 7 line from the intersection of
45 – 49 8 the two lines until it touches
50 – 54 11 the horizontal axis as shown in
Figure 1.7; and
55 – 59 10
(v) Read the mode at the intersection
60 – 64 7
of the perpendicular line with the
Solution horizontal axis.
Given
Lm = 49.5,
t1 = (11 – 8) C
= 3
t2 = (11 - 10)
=1
i= 5
Using the formula for the mode:
⎛ 3 ⎞
Mode = 49.5 + ⎜ 5
⎝ 3+ 1⎟⎠
3
= 49.5 + ×5
4
= 49.5 + 3.75 Mode ≈ 53
= 53.25 Figure 1.7: Estimating a mode from a histogram

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 21
 Application of statistics in geography

Advantages and disadvantages of a mean, median and mode of a population

mode generates symmetrical and skewed
Mode is of paramount importance in curves. When the population mean,
geography. Some of its advantages are population median and mode are all
that: it is not affected by the occurrence located at the centre, they result to a
of a few extreme values under the symmetrical bell-shaped curve called
distributions; and it, determines various normal distribution curve in which the
phenomena such as the magnitude of curve can be divided into two equal
agricultural production or the trend halves (one half is a mirror image of
of commodities. In addition, it is the the other) as shown in Figure1.8 (a).
only average to be opted for categorical In this case mean = median = mode. In
data; easy to read and interpret in the case the distribution is skewed to the
given data; and easy to understand, right, it is positive skewness in which
calculate and interpret. However, mode the longer tail is on the right side, then
is disapproved of the various limitations. mean > median > mode. Generally,
It is not strictly defined in such a way income distribution is skewed to the right
that it is unstable with large samples; where a large number of families have
it is not based on all data values under relatively low income and only a small
observation; and it is not suitable for number of families have extremely high
further mathematical treatment. Its income. In this case the mean is pulled
existence when data are the same in some up by the extreme high incomes and the
of the distributions discourages its use relation among these three measures is
in analysis of data and its usefulness as shown in Figure1.8 (b): that is mean
is less common in advanced statistical > median > mode.
geography. Compared to mean, mode
is severely affected by the fluctuation
of sampling.

Relationship between different

measures of central tendency
The various measures of central value
give us one single figure that represents
the entire data. But the average alone (a) Normal distribution curve
cannot adequately describe a set of
observations, unless all observations are
the same. Measures of central tendency
often portray some relationships between
them. The relationship is determined by
the nature and pattern of distribution
of scores in the sample or population. (b) Positive skewed distribution curve
Normally, the relationship between

22 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

could not adequately describe a set of

observations, unless all the observations
are the same. Mean, median and mode
fall short of indicating the extent of
dispersion or variability in distribution.
Dispersion and variability are important
because they enable us to understand the
(c) Negative skewed distribution curve pattern of the data, which is limitedly
Figure 1. 8: Types of distribution curves explained by the measures of central
tendency. In some cases, two or more
When a distribution is skewed to the left
distributions can have same central value
negative skewness in which the tail is on
yet there can be a wide discrepancy in
the left, then mode> median> mean. In
the formation of distribution. In this
this case, the mean is pulled down below
ground, measures of dispersion become
the median by extremely low values as
helpful for us in understanding more
shown in Figure1.8 (c).
characteristics of a distribution.
The general limitations of measures
Activity1.2
of central tendency
On summarising data, various measures Collect your class midterm and terminal
of central value give us one single figure examination scores in Geography; for
that represents the entire data from each group find the mean, median, and
sample or population being studied. It the mode.
should be noted that the average alone

Exercise 1.2
Answer all questions
1. Why average is called a measure of central tendency?
2. Average has its own peculiar characteristics. It is difficult to say which
average is the best. Explain with examples.
3. What do you understand by “central tendency”?
4. Under which conditions is the median more suitable than other measures
of central tendency?
5. Find the mean, median and mode of the following and data graphically,
then comment on the obtained values of the calculated central tendency.
Class interval 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
Frequency 4 18 30 42 24 10 3

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 23
 Application of statistics in geography

Measures of dispersion way to the need for applying other

The degree to which numerical data statistical measures that are capable of
tend to spread about an average value describing the spread or variability that
is called dispersion or variation of data. exists within the distribution of a given
The measure of dispersion is also known data set. The commonly used measures
as measure of variation or spread. Two of spread are range, mean deviation,
distributions can have identical means variance and standard deviation.
and medians, yet their difference can (a) Range
be identified by using measures of
Range is the difference between the
dispersion. For example, the distribution
smallest and the largest value in the
of these data A: 18, 20, 25, 35, 39 and
distribution. The overall range represents
B: 2, 3, 25, 30, 75.
the distance between the highest and
The mean in both of these distributions lowest scores in the distribution.
is 27 and the median in both is 25.
Range for an individual data
However, the distribution differs greatly.
Just by observing the distribution in A, Range can be calculated by subtracting
the scores are closer together and tend the smallest value (S) from the largest
to cluster around the mean distribution value (L) in the distribution . Range is
while in B the scores are much more the difference between the maximum
spread out. The difference of two or value and the minimum value of the data
more distributions is termed by the set. Range takes into consideration the
statisticians as variability. Measures extreme values in a data set.
of dispersion show how spread out or Example:
dispersed the data are, something that Study the following distribution of data
cannot be achieved by the measures of and calculate the range: 2, 3, 5, 7, 14,
central tendency. As a result, the central 15, 24, and 25.
tendency becomes less appropriate for
some analysis. Solution:
From the given data maximum value
Moreover, consider a statement that
is 25 and the minimum value is 2.
by 2014 the mean annual salary for
public servants in Tanzania was The range = Maximum value (L) –
200 billion. This claim falls short of minimum value (S) = 25 – 2 = 23
hiding information on the fact that Therefore, the range = 23
some workers earned far less than the
mentioned amount and others earned (vi) The range for the grouped data
more than 200 billion. Therefore, This is obtained by using the difference
knowing the mean is insufficient to between mid-point of largest and
understand the entire distribution of smallest class interval. Consider the
workers’ salaries. This limitation pave data in Table 1.17 and find the range.

24 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Table 1. 17: The distribution of scores

Class interval Frequency
15 – 19 2
10 – 14 1
5–9 1
0–4 2
Solution:
(a) Range = Highest upper class limit – Lowest upper class limit
19 − 4 = 15
Range = Highest lower class limit – Lowest lower class limit
15 − 0 = 15
(b) Range = Highest upper real limit – Lowest upper real limit
19.5 − 4.5 = 15
Range = Highest lower real limit – Lowest lower real limit
14.5 − (−0.5) = 15
= 15
Therefore a = b , the largest class interval is 15-19 and the smallest class interval
is 0 - 4. Hence range is obtained first by computing the midpoint of the largest
class interval and that of the smallest class interval as follows:
Midpoint of the largest class interval (L)
15 + 19 = 34
= = 17
2 2 0+4 4
The midpoint of the smallest class interval (S) = = =2
2 2
Thus, L – S = 17 – 2 = 15
Therefore, the Range = 15
Coefficient of range
Coefficient of range is the ratio of difference between the highest and lowest
value of frequency to the sum of the highest and lowest value of frequency. It is
a relative measure of the distribution based on the range of any given data set.
⎛ ⎞
The coefficient of range is calculated by the formula: L − S . This is the relative
⎜⎝ L + S ⎟⎠
measure.
Whereby;
L is the highest value in the frequency distribution
S is the lowest value in the frequency distribution.
In other words;
Highest value in frequency – Lowest value in frequency
The coefficient of range =
Highest value in frequency + Lowest value in frequency

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 25
 Application of statistics in geography

The coefficient of range is more appropriate for the purposes of comparison.

Example
Study Table 1.18 with two sets of data and calculate the coefficient of range
separately.
Table 1.18: Distribution of scores for two sets in class “H”
Set 1 8 10 20 9 15 10 13 28
Set 2 30 35 42 50 32 49 39 33

Solution: For example, it is often used in quality

As shown in calculation, range of the control where a continuous check
two sets of data are the same: on the variability of raw materials
Set 1 28 – 8 = 20 or finished products is required. The
Set 2 50 – 30 = 20 range is also an appropriate measure
Coefficient of range in Set 1 is: in weather forecast. For example, in
daily reports on weather forecast from
28 − 8
= 0.55 Tanzania Meteorological Authority
28 + 8
(TMA) we normally hear of maximum
Coefficient of range in Set 2 is: and minimum temperatures, rainfall,
50 − 30 wind, and humidity and sunshine. Such
= 0.25
50 + 30 statistical information may seem useless
The coefficient of range tells the degree to some people but it is very important
of dispersion in a set of data. The larger for others whose plans and activities
the value, the higher the dispersion. need updates on weather so as to make
Advantages and disadvantages of appropriate decisions.
the range
Range has some drawbacks. It is
Range is opted because it is easy to
highly affected by the extreme values
calculate and understand. It also
in a distribution, hence it cannot depict
gives a quick estimate of variability
the nature of dispersion of items in a
in distribution. Regardless of the
distribution. Range can mislead the
simplicity of obtaining range just by
interpretation of data if there were
considering only two values of a set
some errors during collection of raw
of data, it is important to many fields
data. It is also based on only two items,
and individuals including statisticians,
hence does not cover all the items in a
and geographers in many ways. It
distribution. The other weakness is its
is used in circumstances which one
susceptibility to wide fluctuations from
intends to get a quick understanding
sample based on the same population. It
of variability or a set of data. In case
fails to give any idea about the pattern
of small sample range is considered as
of distribution; and in the case of open-
a sufficient measure of the variability.

26 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

ended distributions, it is impossible to (iii) Sum the absolute deviation; and

compute range. (iv) Divide by the total number of
(b) Mean deviation (MD) observations or values.
The mean deviation is also known as Example:
the average deviation. Mean deviation Compute the mean deviation of the
denotes the amount by which individual given data of a sample; 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
value deviates from the mean in Solution:
irrespective of sign (+ or ̶ ). The negative 2 + 3+ 4 + 5 + 6 20
x= = = 54
and positive signs are ignored during 5 5
computation since the deviations are
Table 1.19: Distribution of scores for
always equal irrespective of their signs.
class “D”
It is the average difference between
various measurements and the mean. xi x xi − x

Mean deviation for un grouped data 2 4 2

3 4 1
The formula for computing the mean 4 4 0
5 4 1
deviation is given below. 6 4 2
Σ xi − x n= 5 6
Mean deviation = Thus, mean deviation (MD)
n
Where: Σ xi − x 6
xi − x = deviation of an item from = = = 1.2
n 5
the mean irrespective of positive
and negative signs. It is the absolute Therefore, the mean deviation is 1.2
difference between each value and the
mean. Mean deviation for grouped data
n = the total number of observations This is obtained by using the following
∑ = summation formular
x = observation or values Σf xi − x
Procedures MD =
Σf
The following are procedures for
calculating mean deviation Example
(i) Compute the mean of the given data Study the given scores for form five
set; students in Benbella Girls Secondary
(ii) Find the individual deviation by School as shown in Table 1.20 and find
subtracting the mean from each of the mean deviation (MD).
the given data set as shown in the
table below;

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 27
 Application of statistics in geography

Table 1.20: Scores for form five students in Benbella Girls Secondary School

Scores Frequency f
20-29 2
30-39 3
40-49 10
50-59 13
60-69 3
70-79 2
80-89 1

Solution
Σf xi − x
MD =
Σf

Table 1.21: Scores for form five students in Benbella Girls Secondary School
Class
Scores f fx x x−x f x−x
mark (x)
20-29 2 24.5 49 50.9 26.4 52.8
30-39 3 34.5 103.5 50.9 16.4 49.2
40-49 10 44.5 445 50.9 6.4 64
50-59 13 54.5 708.5 50.9 3.6 46.8
60-69 3 64.5 193.5 50.9 13.6 40.8
70-79 2 74.5 149 50.9 23.6 47.2
80-89 1 84.5 84.5 50.9 33.6 33.6
Total ∑f = 34 ∑f x=1733
Σf x − x = 334.4

From Table 1.21, Advantages and disadvantages of

mean deviation
x=
∑ fx i
=
1733
= 50.9 The use of mean deviation in statistics
∑f 34 has a number of advantages. It is simple
to understand and easily calculated;
x = 50.9 it also takes into consideration all the
dataset under observation and it is
Σf xi − x 334.4 less affected by the extreme values.
MD = = = 9.84
9.83
Σf 34 Since the deviations are taken from the
Therefore, the Mean deviation of score central value, it is possible to make a
is 9.84 meaningful comparison of the setup of
different distributions.

28 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

However, mean deviation has the (iv) Sum all the square deviations and
following weaknesses: it falls short of apply the formula.
allowing further algebraic treatment; and Example:
it sometimes fails to give accurate results. The following distributions of scores;
Mean deviation gives best results when 2,7,3,12,9 can be used to calculate
deviations are taken from the median variance.
rather than the mean. In a series, with
Solution
wide variations in items, mean deviation
is not a satisfactory measure; and from 2 + 7 + 3+ 12 + 9
x=
mathematical perspectives, the method 5
is wrong for it disregards the algebraic = 6.6
signs when deviations are taken from the Table 1.22 Distributions of scores in a
mean. Because of these limitations mean class of Practical Geography
deviation is seldom used in geography
studies. Such limitations pave the way x x (x − x ) (x − x )2
to a better standard deviation which is
2 6.6 – 4.62 21.16
often used in geography.
7 6.6 0.4 0.16
(c) Variance 3 6.6 –3.6 12.96
Population variance often denoted by
12 6.6 5.4 29.16
s2 is the mean of the squares of the
9 6.6 2.4 5.76
differences between each data value and
∑( x − x)
the mean. For the case of the sample, n 2
= 69.2
variance often denoted by S2. Variance i=1

is also a measure of the spread between

given scores or data set. Measures the The formular for computing variance is
distance of each number from the mean given below;
and from one number and the other.
Therefore, the large variance indicates S2 =
∑ (x − x ) 2

that scores are far from each other as N

well. It can be culculated for ungrouped Where:
and grouped data. S2 = Variance from sample
x = mean of sample
Procedures
n = number in sample
The following are procedures for From Table 1.20,
calculating variance N=5
( )
2
(i) Calculate the mean x Σ x−x
= 69.20
(ii) Find the deviation from the mean
( x−x .) Therefore;
69.20
(iii) Square the deviations from the mean S2 =
5
(x − x )2 . 2
S = 13.84

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 29
 Application of statistics in geography

Advantage and disadvantages of Standard deviation for individual data

variance (ungrouped data).
Despite the simplicity and accuracy Example:
in computation of the variance, its
Determine the standard deviation on
tendency to give more weight to extreme
scores for class “D”
values by squaring them up remains a
limiting factor. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 6, 7, 8, 8

(d) Standard deviation Solution

It is the value which shows how far Table 1.23: Standard deviation for
the scores are spread from the normal individual data
or how the numbers are spread in a
Score (x − x )2
distribution. It is the most common
( xi ) x xi − x
index of variability. Standard deviation 8 5 3 9
(SD) can be calculated for individual or 6 5 1 1
grouped data. 3 5 –2 4
Procedures 7 5 2 4
2 5 –3 9
Procedures involved in calculation of
8 5 3 9
the standard deviation are: 1 5 –4 16
(i) Calculate the mean of distribution; 4 5 –1 1
(ii) Subtract the mean from each score; 6 5 1 1
5 5 0 0
(iii) Square each of these scores;
( ) = 54
n 2
(iv) Add all the squares of these scores; Σ xi = 50 Σ xi − x
i=n
(v) Divide the total by the number of
n
observation;
∑x
() 50 i
(vi) The result obtained in (v) above is Mean x = =5
i=1
=
called the variance; and n 10
(vii) Take the square root of the Then standard deviation is computed by
variance; this will give the standard using the formula
deviation(s).
( )
n 2
The formula for computing standard Σ xi − x
deviation is given as: S= i=n

54 n
=
( )
n 2
Σ xi − x 10
54
=
S= i=n
10
n
S = standard deviation from sample. = 5.4
x = individual score = 5.4
= 2.32
x = mean of sample = 2.32 the stanadard deviation on
Therefore,
n = total number of observations in a
score=for
2.32
class ‘D’ is 2.32.
sample

30 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Standard deviation for grouped data formula:

( )
2
Σf xi − x
S = or
Σf
2
Σfx 2 ⎛ Σfx ⎞
S= −⎜ or
Σf ⎝ Σf ⎟⎠

Example:
Study the Table1.24(a) which shows scores for Form Five students in school Y
and find the standard deviation.
Table 1.24(a): Scores for Form Five students in school Y
Class interval f
1 – 10 2
11 – 20 6
21 – 30 4
31 – 40 8
41 – 50 6
51 – 60 4
61 – 70 4
71 – 80 2
81 – 90 3
91 – 100 1

Solution
Table 1.24(b): Scores for form five students in school Y
Class Class-
f fx x (x − x )
Interval mark (x) (x − x )2 f (x − x )2
1 – 10 5.5 2 11 43.75 –38.25 1463.06 2926.12
11 – 20 15.5 6 93 43.75 –28.25 798.06 4788.36
21 – 30 25.5 4 102 43.75 –18.25 333.06 1332.24
31 – 40 35.5 8 284 43.75 –8.25 68.06 544.48
41 – 50 45.5 6 273 43.75 1.75 3.06 18.36
51 – 60 55.5 4 222 43.75 11.75 138.06 552.24
61 – 70 65.5 4 262 43.75 21.75 473.06 1892.24
71 – 80 75.5 2 151 43.75 31.75 1008.06 2016.12
81 – 90 85.5 3 256.5 43.75 41.75 1743.06 5229.18
91 – 100 95.5 1 95.5 43.75 51.75 2678.06 2678.06
Total ∑f=40 1750
∑ f (x − x ) 2

= 21977.4

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 31
 Application of statistics in geography
21977.4
=
40
∑f = 40
= 549.44
∑fx = 1750 == 23.44
23.44

x=
∑ fx = 1750 = 43.75 Therefore, the standard deviation of
∑ f 40 score for form five students in school
Y is 23.44
∑ f (x − x ) 2
= 21977.4 Alternatively, data in Table 1.24(a)
From the given formula: can be used to calculate the standard
deviation for grouped data using the
formula;
=
∑ f (x − x ) 2
2
∑ f x2 ⎛ ∑ f x ⎞
∑ fx S= −⎜
∑f ⎝ ∑ f ⎟⎠
21977.4
= The answer for S will be the same for
40 same data.
= 549.44
Solution
= 23.44
Table 1.25: Summation of scores for form five students in school Y
Class Interval f x x2 fx2 fx
1 – 10 2 5.5 30.25 60.5 11
11 – 20 6 15.5 240.25 1441.5 93
21 – 30 4 25.5 650.25 2601 102
31 – 40 8 35.5 1260. 25 10082 284
41 – 50 6 45.5 2070.25 12421.5 273
51 – 60 4 55.5 3080.25 12321 222
61 – 70 4 65.5 4290.25 17161 262
71 – 80 2 75.5 5700.25 11400.5 151
81 – 90 3 85.5 7310.25 21930.75 256.5
91 – 100 1 95.5 9120.25 9120.25 95.5
Total 40 98540 1750
∑f = 40
∑fx2 = 98540
∑fx = 1750
2
∑ fx ⎛ ∑ fx ⎞
2 2
98540 ⎛ 1750 ⎞
S= −⎜ ⎟ = −⎜
∑f ⎝∑f ⎠ 40 ⎝ 40 ⎟⎠

= 2463.5 − ( 43.75)
2

= 2463.5 − 1914.0625

32 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

= 549.44 hence it is stable and it creates a basis for

measuring the coefficients of correlations
= 23.44
and sampling.
Therefore, standard deviation of score Despite its strength, standard deviation
for form five students in School Y is has some weaknesses such as: it is
23.44 complex to understand and calculate;
Interpretation when using standard its tendency to give more weight to
deviation for individual data extreme values by squaring them up
The result of the calculated standard during computation is a drawback; and
deviation is 23.44. SD can easily it is an absolute measure of variability,
be interpreted when calculated and hence it cannot be used for comparison
compared from two or more separate purposes.
groups on the same subject studied.
Activity 1.2
For example, SD for students’ scores
in Geography terminal examination. 1. In a group of 10-20 students
The greater the SD in one of the group take measurements of height for
say stream A compared to stream B will each member in the group and
mean that the spread of the scores in record in a tabular form. Basing
stream A is greater compared to that of on tabulated data calculate the
stream B . While dealing with standard following:
deviation it should be noted that if the (i) Range
calculated standard deviation is a large (ii) Mean deviation
value, it means the scores are more (iii) Variance
spread. Thus, the greater the standard (iv) Standard deviation
deviation the greater the spread of the
scores. The closer the scores are to the Then, present your results to the
mean, the less spread they are, hence the class for extensive discussion.
smaller the standard deviation. 2. Combine your data with other
Strength and weakness of standard three groups in the class and
deviation calculate the following:
Standard deviation is proved to have (i) Range
strengths as follows. It is strictly defined (ii) Mean deviation
and its value is always definite and based (iii) Variance
on all observations. It uses the actual (iv) Standard deviation
signs of observations; it is based on
arithmetic mean; hence it has all merits of 3. Using Activity 2(iv) comment on
arithmetic mean. It is the most important the standard deviation obtained in
and widely used measure of dispersion; different groups including yours
and gives possibility for further algebraic in Activity 1(iv).
expression. Furthermore, it is minimally
affected by the fluctuations of sampling,

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 33
 Application of statistics in geography

Exercise 1. 3 context, it is the role of a geographer

and a researcher to choose appropriate
1. Calculate the mean deviation from
methods of data presentation that will
the given data in the following
not only help the readers understand
table.
the content but also guide them through
x 7 13 15 19 21 23 making a meaningful interpretation of
Frequency 4 4 3 2 4 6 the data presented.
Once the geographical data has been
2. Study the table below indicating collected, it is classified and organized
the scores for Geography subject for easy readability and interpretation
in a mid test at school ‘H’ and then that is converted to information. Various
answer the questions that follows. methods can be used in presenting the
1-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100 data.There are three (3) major methods
used in presenting data, namely
11 29 18 4 8
statistical graphs, statistical charts and
Find; diagrams, and statistical maps (Figure
(i) Mean deviation 1.9).
(ii) Variance Flow maps

(iii) Standard deviation Isoline maps shading

(Choropleth) maps
Statistical maps
3. (i) Compare and contrast between Isoline maps

mean and standard deviation.

Dot maps
(ii) Explain how variance can be
obtained from: Wind roses

(a) Mean deviation Graduated range of

symbols

(b) Standard deviation Data Statistical Proportional diagrams

presentation charts and
methods diagrams
Repeated symbols
Methods of presenting statistical Divides rectangles
data
Divide circles
There are different methods of
presenting data in statistics and Dispersion graphs or
circular graphs
Geography. Generally, tables and graphs
are among the effective communication Statistical graphs
Age & sex pyramids

technique that interpret and convey Bar graphs

statistical data and information. They
enable readers to understand the content Line graphs

of Geographical statistics, sustain

Figure 1.9: The schematic presentation of
their interest, and effectively present
statistical methods for data presentation
huge quantities of information. In this

34 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Statistical graphs axes, one at each end of the

This group is basically concerned with horizontal axis;
the relationship between quantities and (iv) Do not indicate large numbers
does not stress the idea of location. with long strings of roughs, for
Usually, the horizontal and vertical example 100 000 or 200 000 but
axis must appear as a basic and integral write either at the top corner or
part of the drawing. These graphs are along the side, the value of the
subdivided into line graphs, bar graphs, units expressed in figures. For
age and sex pyramids and dispersion example tonnes; and
graph or circular graphs. (v) There must be a title, a scale and
a key.
Line graphs
Note: The procedures above are stated
Line graphs may be represented in four in general way however, they
(4) ways: Simple line graph, group may slightly vary depending
line graph, compound line graph, and on the type of line graph dealt
divergence line graph. with.
Procedures for drawing line graphs
(a) Simple line graph
(i) The horizontal axis is normally
used to represent the independent The simple line graphs are normally
variable, for example time drawn to represent the time series data
whether in hours, day, month’s related to the temperature, rainfall,
years or any other period of time; population growth, birth rates and
(ii) The vertical axis is normally death rates. They are called simple
used to represent the dependent because they have a single line. They
variable for example quantities or are commonly used in hospitals as well
values, sometimes as percentages; as meteorological and dermatological
(iii) Select the suitable scale by stations. The data in Table 1.26 show the
considering the highest value in mean annual temperature that has been
the graph space; used to construct a simple line graph
shown in Figure 1.10.
If drawn on plain paper, it is
preferable to draw two vertical

Table 1.26: Average temperature for Chololo village, in Dodoma from 2010 to 2018

Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Temperature
28.7 28.2 29 28.2 29.3 31.9 32.2 32.4 32.2
in OC
Source: Tanzania Meteorological Agency (2018)

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 35
 Application of statistics in geography

Procedures for drawing a simple line them. The continuous nature of the line
graph or curve makes the technique suitable
for displaying continuous data like
(i) Identify the types of variables
temperature and rainfall variations
from your given data to
horizontal scale (independent) over time. The simple line graph is also
and another in vertical scale useful in displaying the relationship of
(dependent); two variables as shown in Figure1.11
where the variation of temperature over
(ii) Select the suitable scale by
years is shown. The line graph enables
considering the highest value
and the graph space; visualisation of variation of statistical
data with rise or drop pattern. It is also,
(iii) Draw the horizontal and easy to read the exact values against
vertical lines according to the plotted point in straight line graph.
the scale;
Nonetheless, the simple line graph
(iv) Plot the points and join them encounters some shortfalls such as the
by straight line; and constrain of record limit which just
(v) Write the title and the scale. represents only one item on the graph.
Another limitation of simple line graph
is that it gives false impression of
continuity of data even when there are
periods the data is missing. The method
is also criticised for giving unclear visual
impression of actual quantities.
(b) Group line graphs
27
Group line graphs also known as
comparative or multiple grouped line
graphs are graphs which present more
Scale: V.S: 1 cm to 1 C and H.S: 1 cm than one item or series of data. Group
O

to 1 year line graphs display the relationship

Figure 1.10: Simple line graph showing trend between sets of similar statistics for
of annual mean temperature in Oc for Chololo two or more items. Note that the drawn
village, in Dodoma (2010-2018) line should not be uniform and on the
Advantages and disadvantages of other hand presentation of five lines
simple line graphs per graph is recommended. Table1.27
presents mean annual temperature from
Use of simple line graphs in geographical five stations in Tanzania. These data
data has numerous advantages including: have been used to draw the graph in
Simplicity in drawing and interpreting Figure 1.11.

36 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Procedures
The following are procedures for constructing multiple line graphs
(i) Identify the variables from the given data;
(ii) Identify the item with highest value and use it to choose the scale;
(iii) Draw the horizontal and vertical lines;
(iv) Plot the points and join them with lines of different texture or colour; and
(v) Write the title, scale and show the key.
Procedures
Table 1. 27: Annual mean temperatures from five stations in Tanzania from 2012 to 2016
Years
Station 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Kilimanjaro (KIA) 30.8 30.3 29.7 30.4 30.1
Dar es Salaam (JNIA) 32.2 32.1 32.0 32.0 31.3
Mtwara 30.6 31.0 30.7 31.1 30.9
Songea 26.7 27.3 26.7 27.7 28.0
Mbeya 25.1 24.6 23.7 26.2 24.0
Source: Tanzania Meteorological Agency (2018)

Scale: V.S: 1 cm to 5 OC and H.S: 2 cm to 1 year

Figure 1.11: Multiple line graph for the trends of annual mean temperature in OC from five
stations in Tanzania from 2012 to 2016

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 37
 Application of statistics in geography

Advantages and disadvantages of graphs are drawn with several different

multiple line graph components. On a compound line graph,
The use of group line graphs have a the differences between the points on
number of advantages, especially in adjacent lines give the actual values. It is
making comparative analysis of data. a good alternative to grouped line graph
They are detailed since they represent because the procedures for constructing
many items at once; and save time are the same. The only difference is that
and space. They also have good visual instead of drawing lines in different
impression especially if drawn correctly. colour or shade, they are all shown in
The fluctuations of data can easily be bold form but the space between one
noted. However, the line graphs face line and the other is shaded differently.
some limitations. They can be time It is commonly suggested that values
consuming in both construction and should be arranged in a certain order,
interpretation. With crossing lines they with the highest values at the top and
may lead to confusion in interpretation. lower value at the bottom. Lines should
Sometimes they can be overcrowded in not cross each other and data should
incidences of massive set of data and be arranged in a cumulative manner.
sometimes they can easily be confused The data in Table 1.28(a) in a line graph
with compound line graphs. showing electricity generation in Giga
(c ) Compound line graphs Watt per hour (GWh) have been used
Compound line graphs also known as to construct a compound line graph as
composite cumulative or divided line shown in Figure1.12.
Example
Table 1.28(a): Electricity generation in Giga Watt per hour in Tanzania from
2011 to 2017
Year 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Fuel
source
Hydro 1 992.6 1 769.9 1 721.3 2 613.5 2 124.4 2 382.1 2 369.1
Gas 2 265 2 664 2 872.2 2 624 2 873.8 4 196.4 4 322
Diesel 781.1 1 083.5 1 133.2 784.9 1 188.2 389.1 294.4
Source: Tanzania Electric Supply Company (2017)

Procedures
The following are procedures for constructing compound line graph
(i) Prepare a cumulative table by adding individual items to previous items;
(ii) Draw the x and y axes and choose a suitable horizontal and vertical scale;
(iii) Plot the dots for cumulative values of independent variables corresponding
with the dependent variables from each item by rearranging from largest to

38 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

smallest or vice versa. This rearrangement should be for the first year then
in other years items should follow the order of the first year;
(iv) Join the dots with portions of straight lines;
(v) The area occupied by each component presented on the graph, has to be
coloured or shaded differently so as to give a clear distinction between the
components;
(vi) Always start with the item with highest value and end with item with lowest
value or vice versa;
(vii) Lines should not cross each other and data should be arranged in a cumulative
manner; and
(viii) Write the title, scale and key.
Solution
Table 1.28(b): Cumulative table for EGW per hour in Tanzania 2011 – 2017

Year 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Fuel
source
Gas 2 265 2 664 2 872.2 2 624 2 873.8 4 196.4 4 322
Hydro 4 257.6 44 33.9 4 593.5 5 237.5 4 998.2 6 578.5 6 691.1
Diesel 5 038.7 5517.4 5 726.7 6 022.4 6 186.4 6 967.6 6 985.5

Scale :V.S : 1cm to 1000 GWh and H.S: 2cm to 1 year

Figure 1.12: Compound line graph for electricity generation in giga watt per hour in Tanzania
from 2011 to 2017

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 39
 Application of statistics in geography

Advantages and disadvantages of also known as ‘profits or losses’, ‘gains

compound line graph or losses’ and ‘increases or decreases’.
The compound line graphs are of Such fluctuations are common in
beneficial in many ways specifically imports and exports, population trends,
their ability to display multiple values production of goods and commodities.
for overall conclusion and suggestion; The graph, can also address the increase
bringing visual impression that and decrease pattern of temperature and
encourages understanding to interpreters; rainfall trends. As such it can be used
and combining several graphs at once. by climatologists, meteorologists and
However, the method is associated with geographers in drawing insights on
some drawbacks including calculations the extent of extreme weather events,
that may be difficult and time consuming. climate change and variability as well as
The interpretation of data is likely to be their effects to environment and welfare.
complicated. Cumulative data also hide Data in Table 1.29(a) which shows the
the reality of original data. average temperature for Chololo village
(d) Divergent line graph in Dodoma from 2010 to 2018 has been
It is used to show fluctuations in value used to draw Figure 1.13.
in terms of “positives” or “negatives”
Example
Table 1.29(a): Average temperature for Chololo village, in Dodoma from 2010
to 2018
Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Temp. in oC 28.7 28.2 29 28.2 29.3 31.9 32.2 32.4 32.2
Source: Tanzania Meteorological Agency (2018)

Procedures

The following are the procedures for construction of divergent line graph

(i) Find the sum of the number of observations in the set of data;
(ii) Calculate the mean;
(iii) Subtract the mean from each data/value given;
(iv) Plot the divergences (positive and negatives) on a graph with positive
on the upper part of mean (zero) line and negatives below it by putting
dots; (zero) line must be bolded; and
(v) Finally join the dots sequentially. The zero line represent the mean on
one side of (zero) line should indicate the mean.

40 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Solution
Table 1.29(b): Average temperature for Chololo village, in Dodoma from 2010
to 2018
Year Temperature (xi) x xi − x
2010 28.7 30.2 – 1.5
2011 28.2 30.2 –2
2012 29 30.2 – 1.2
2013 28.2 30.2 –2
2014 29.3 30.2 – 0.9
2015 31.9 30.2 1.7
2016 32.2 30.2 2
2017 32.4 30.2 2.2
2018 32.2 30.2 2
n

∑x i
= 272.1
i=1

N
272.1
Recall mean is given by: x = ∑ xi = = 30.2
i=1 9
The calculated mean is used in computing the deviation as shown in Table 1.29(b).

Scale: V.S 1 cm to 0.5 Temperature °C and H. S 1 cm to 1 year

Figure 1.13: The divergent line graph for the average temperature for Chololo village, in
Dodoma from 2010 to 2018

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 41
 Application of statistics in geography

Advantages and disadvantages of a) Simple bar graphs

divergent line graph Simple bar graphs consist of parallel,
Some of the major advantages of the usually vertical bars or rectangles with
divergent line graphs are: fluctuation length proportional to the frequency
from the mean can be noted easily, with which specified quantities occur
simple to read and interpret; and in a set of data. It can be defined as
simple in presenting values. They easily quantitative comparison by rectangles
compare the items hence facilitate sound with lengths proportional to the measure
conclusion. Other benefits include their of the data or things being compared.
merits in showing the positives (profits) It can be drawn to show rainfall and
and negatives (losses) and reasonably total exports or imports. Data in Table
easy to construct, read and interpret. 1.30 which show hydroelectric power
Despite such advantages still the generation in Giga Watt per hour (GWh)
divergent line graphs have the following in Tanzania from 2011 to 2017 has been
limitations: inability to show the sums used to draw Figure 1.14:
under the study instead they display only Procedures
the positive and negative divergences. The following are procedures for
They can be difficult to interpret constructing simple bar graph
particularly to some individuals who (i) From the given data, identify the
have limited statistical skills. Normally, types of variables;
they are only restricted to one item per (ii) Select the suitable scale;
graph. Positive and negative values may (iii) Draw horizontal and vertical
mislead the interpretation if not skilled. line and construct bars vertically
Bar graphs above the horizontal lines;
(iv) Shade the bars equally;
Bar graph also known as a column
(v) Write the title and the key;
graph refers to an x-y graph showing
(vi) On a graph, draw two lines
the tendencies of rainfall, population perpendicular to each other,
and other quantities like goods. Each intersecting at zero;
tendency is shown by a column or bar (vii) The horizontal line is x-axis and
whose length or height represents its vertical line is y-axis;
value along y-axis. The purpose of (viii) Along the horizontal axis, choose
the graph is to show numerical facts the uniform width of bars and
in visual form so that they can be uniform gap between the bars
understood quickly, easily and clearly. and write the names of the data
Bar graphs are appropriate when there is items whose values are to be
a need to present trends or comparison. marked;
In showing comparison it may consist (ix) Along the vertical axis, choose
of two or more parallel verticals (or a suitable scale in order to
determine the heights of the bars
horizontal) bars or rectangles.
for the given values. (Frequency

42 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

is taken along y-axis); and partially) between two vertical

(x) Calculate the heights of each bar lines;
according to the scale chosen and (iii) All bars must start at zero. Bar
draw the bars. graphs drawn for purposes of
Other things to bear in mind when comparison must be drawn on
constructing simple bar graphs the same scale; and
include: (iv) The width of the bar is a matter
(i) The horizontal scale usually of choice, avoid bars that are too
represents the independent thick or too thin. The value of
variable whereby vertical scale each bar can be assessed easily
represents dependent variable; if a space or gap is left between
each bar.
(ii) A vertical bar may occupy the
space (either completely or
Example
Table 1. 30: Hydroelectric power generation Giga Watt per hour (GWh) in Tanzania
from 2011 to 2017

Year 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

GWh 1992.6 1 769.9 1 721.3 2 613.5 2 124.4 2 382.1 2 369.1
Source: TANESCO (2017)

Scale: V. S 1cm to 500 GWh and H.S: 1cm to 1 year

Figure 1.14: Simple bar graph for hydroelectric power generation in GWh in Tanzania from
2011 to 2017

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 43
 Application of statistics in geography

Advantages and disadvantages of generation in Giga Watt per hour in

simple bar graph Tanzania from 2011 to 2017 have been
The simple bar graphs are beneficial used in drawing Figure 1.15.
because: they are easy to draw and Procedures
interpret; they can be used in conjunction The following are procedures for
with line graphs; their rise and fall construction of group bar graph
patterns at a given time can be easily
(i) Draw and label the vertical and
visualised; they also present tangible
horizontal sides (axes);
quantities better than line graphs and
(ii) Choose a scale that suits the data;
simple bar graphs. However, have some
limitations. The major ones include (iii) Place dots on the graph to represent
inability to present many items and in the data;
cases of scale exaggeration the graph (iv) Connect the dots in order;
may be distorted. Furthermore, they (v) Write a title above the graph;
consume more space in cases of huge (vi) To give an impression of totality,
data. bars are usually drawn touching
b) Grouped bar graph each other that is without a gap
Grouped bar graph also known as between them, but attention may
be drawn to individual components
comparative or multiple bar graph
by leaving a small space between
is where two or more simple bars are
the bars. Also, groups of bars must
grouped side by side on the same vertical be separated from each other with
scale for the sake of comparison. It is similar space or gap;
a graph that uses rectangular bars to (vii) It is a custom to draw the bars
represent different values for showing of each group in ascending or
comparisons among categories such descending order for comparison
as the amount of rainfall in different purposes;
months of a year, or the average salary (viii) All bars must be of the same width
in different states. Grouped bar graphs and drawn at right angles to the
are commonly drawn vertically, though axis; and
they can also be depicted horizontally. (ix) Write the title,scale and show the
Data in Table1.31 which show electricity key.
Example
Table 1.31: Electricity generation in Giga Watt per hour in Tanzania from 2011 to 2017
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Hydro-electric
power 1992.6 1769.9 1721.3 2613.5 2124.4 2382.1 2369.1
Gas 2265 2664 2872.2 2624 2873.8 4196.4 4322
Diesel/heavy
Fuel Oil/Gas oil 781.1 1083.5 1133.2 784.9 1188.2 389.1 294.4
Source: Tanzania Electric Supply Company (2017)

44 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

4500

4000

3500
Electricity generation in GWh
3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Year
Gas Diesel/Heavy fuel oil/Gas oil
Hydro

Scale: V. S: 1 cm to 500 GWh and H.S: 1.5 cm to 1 year

Figure 1.15: Grouped bar graph for electricity generation in Giga Watt per hour in Tanzania
from 2011 to 2017
Advantages and disadvantages of also challenging. Lastly they are time
grouped bar graph consuming in constructing and difficult
The grouped bar graph is useful to compare the sum in each year when
in the field of geography in many there are many groups of bars.
ways. It enables a reader to get a good (c) Compound bar graph
visual impression about the totality Compound bar graph refers to a graph
and individuality of the studied which combines two or more types
item(s). It enables easy comparison of information in one graph. It can
of the investigated components. also compare different quantities. A
Interpretation is relatively simple compound bar graph is a type of bar
and easy. The bars may be drawn chart where columns can be split into
within one another particularly for sections to show breakdown of data. It
the overlapping bars. Lastly, many is drawn by subdividing one bar into
items can be presented together in component parts. The total length of the
the same graph hence, save space. bar represents the total value of the entire
Despite the given merits, grouped component in which parts are shown in
bar graph has limitations such as such division. Data in Table 1.29 which
comparison of (sum) of items is shows electricity generation in Giga
relatively difficult, for example rainfall Watt per hour in Tanzania from 2011
patterns with varying years cannot be to 2017 have been used to draw Figure
expressed. Composing the scale is 1.16.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 45
 Application of statistics in geography

Procedures the total in the table to select

The following are procedures for a suitable vertical scale.
constructing compound (divide) bar For the case of horizontal
graph. scale, the number of items of
(i) Identify the types of variables; independent variable should
(ii) Find the item with the highest be considered;
total; (v) Draw the vertical and
(iii) Prepare the cumulative horizontal lines;
table and enter the values (vi) Draw bars vertically above
cumulatively starting with the horizontal line,the height
the highest or the smallest of each depends on its total in
to largest item. This the cumulative table;
rearrangement should be for (vii) Divide and shade bars,
the first year and the following accordingly; and
years should follow the (viii) Write the title, scale and the
established order; key.
(iv) Use the highest total among
Electricity production in GWh

Scale: V.S: 1cm to 1000 GWh and H.S: 1cm to 1 Year

Figure 1.16: Compound bar graph for an electricity generation in Giga watt per hour in
Tanzania from 2011 to 2017

46 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Advantages and disadvantages of used to draw Figure 1.17: Note that

compound bar graph the Tanzania and Zambia Railway
Compound bar graph is easy to construct Authority (TAZARA) is excluded.
and make comparison; the associated Procedures
colouring and shading of the graphs
The following are procedures for
improves visual impression and simplify
constructing divergent bar graph.
interpretation. It allows expressing more
than one quantities within the chart. (i) Find the sum of the number of
However, the compound bar graph has observations in the set of data;
some drawbacks including difficulties (ii) Calculate the mean;
in assessing the value of one component (iii) Subtract the mean from each
or tracing its fluctuation over a period of data or value given to get
time. It involves cumulative data which deviation;
demand some calculation, so it is time (iv) Select a suitable vertical and
consuming. Furthermore, compound horizontal scales;
bar graph has a limitation in presenting (v) Plot the divergences (positive
many components due to limited space and negatives) on a graph with
of accommodating long graphs. It is positive on the upper part of
difficult to compose scale if the range mean (zero) line and negatives
values is very large. below it by putting dots; zero
(d) Divergent bar graphs line must be bold;
In this type of graphs, data spread is (vi) Draw bars up and down the
both positive and negative and it is line of average and shade them
equally; and
displayed divergently. These could be
constructed on either the x or y axis. (vii) Write the title, and scale.
Divergent bar graphs are used when one Note: The zero line must be clearly
set of data is provided for part of the indicated usually by thickening. As the
period under consideration and then this bar, the horizontal scale is in fact best
dataset is split into separate components written at the bottom and top of the
for another part of the period. Data in graph. The vertical axis must be scaled
Table1.32 which shows passengers both above and below the zero line, the
transport in thousand (‘000) by Tanzania upper part for positive and the lower for
Railways from 2010 to 2015 has been negative values.

Table 1. 32(a): Passengers transport in thousand (‘000) by the Tanzania Railways

from 2010 to 2015
Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Passengers in thousand 284 227 339 373 170 196.4
Source: Ministry of Works, Transport and Communication (2015)

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 47
 Application of statistics in geography

Solution
Table 1. 32(b): Passengers transport in thousand (‘000) by the Tanzania Railways
from 2010 to 2015
Total number of passengers in ‘000 thousand x xi − x
Year
( xi )
2010 284 264.9 19.1
2011 227 264.9 – 37.9
2012 339 264.9 74.1
2013 373 264.9 108.1
2014 170 264.9 – 94.9
2015 196.4 264.9 – 68.5
n

∑x i
= 1589.4
i=1

The mean is obtained by:

n
1589.4
x = ∑ xi = = 264.9
i=1 6
120
Passengers

Scale: V.S: 1 cm to 20 passengers H.S: 1 cm to 1 year

Figure 1.17: The divergent bar graph for passengers transport in thousand (‘000) by the
Tanzania Railways from 2010 to 2015

48 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Advantages and disadvantages of temperature and rainfall. This type of

divergent bar graph graph is termed as a climograph.
The divergent bar graphs have The hypothetical annual temperature
advantages including the fluctuation in (Table 1.33) for weather station X in
values which are helpful in detecting Ikombe Village is used to present data
problem in general terms as shown by combining lines and graphs (Figure
in Figure 1.17. It is also important in 1.18).
comparing the negatives and positives
of the phenomenon under observation. Procedure:
It further enables easy deduction of the
profit (loss/rise) or loss (failure or rise) of The following are procedures for
the phenomenon observed. It is simple to constructing a combined line and bar
construct, read and interpret. However, graph.
the graphs have some limitations like
Similar procedure for the construction
time consuming as its construction
of simple line and bar graphs need to be
involves many steps. It demands skills
used to construct a combined line and
in mathematics and it is confined to
bar graph.
analysis of only one variable. Also it
does not present actual data but presents
Note: You may choose a different scale
data showing variations from the mean. for rainfall and temperature. In this case
A combined line and bar graph as well, rainfall will be in bars as shown
Sometimes a simple line and a bar graph but temperature is plotted in line which
may be combined in the same graph to is above the bars.
show more often climate data such as

Example:
Table 1.33: Data for temperature and rain fall recorded at station X in Ikombe
Village.

Months J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temp. °C 26 27 29 28 28 27 25 25 28 27 28 26
Rainfall 240 230 220 190 175 180 215 210 195 180 200 210

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 49
 Application of statistics in geography

Scale: HS: 1 cm to 1 month, VS for Temp: 1 cm to 2 °C, V.S for Rainfall: 1 cm to 20 mm

Figure 1.18: A combined line and bar graph (Climography) for station X
Age - sex graph in successive age groups (Figure 1.19).
A population pyramid also known as age Pyramids are useful in presenting the
and sex pyramid, population structure population which depends on the birth,
or age and sex structure refers to the death rates and migration. These graphs
geographical representation of age are relevant in summarising the age and
structure or distributions of population sex data collected from census survey.
according to age groups. The graph is Through these types of graphs, the
commonly used by demographers. The country can deduce various insights and
graphs can be constructed to represent information useful for decision-making
composition of a population in a region, such as distribution of social services
country or worldwide. It is not only and intervention measures as well as
restricted to showing composition of identifying the working group and
age group but also extend to sex of the the dependant, with regard to varying
population composition. Normally, social groups. Often the population for
age groups appears along the vertical comparison purposes is constructed on
(y-axis) while sex is placed on horizontal the same scale and should depict the same
(x-axis). Basically, female is located on age groups. Bars should be of the same
the right side and male on the left side height. Demographers identify three
shown in absolute number or percentage types of pyramids namely: expansive

50 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

or rapid growth, stationary or slow gets larger than the size of the same in
growth and constrictive or contractive or previous time. Expansive age pyramids
negative growth pyramids. The structure are common for developing countries
of the pyramids is dynamic depending mainly in Africa and Asia. Figure 1.19
on the changes of population structure. which shows the population distribution
The demographics are changing from in Tanzania basing on the census survey
pyramid and finally to barrel which end of 2012 is a typical representation of an
the point of population pyramids. expansive pyramid. As such, distribution
Types of population pyramids varies with time and space; the slight
The population pyramids are of varying or complete change in structure of
shapes. Though different countries can population in the country for the
have unique pyramids, still the pyramid subsequent census survey will not
in the same countries can take different be a surprise. In drawing population
shapes over different periods of time. pyramids, you should consider the
Normally, this is influenced by spatial following.
and temporal variations over time. (i) The age groups, are usually based
Changes in number of the population on quinquennial (5years) periods
whether by age or sex are among the (0 - 4, 5 - 9, 10 - 14) while the
youngest age group forming the
quantitative variables of interest in
base of the graph;
statistics in describing the population.
(ii) In calculating percentage, two
The graphical representation of the
methods are possible either
population pyramids ultimately relies
the individual male or female
on age and sex structure of a given population or each group may be
population. Such shapes may take the calculated as percentages of the
form of a triangular pyramid, have a total population; and
columnar or rectangular (with vertical (iii) It should be noted that the
sides rather than sloped sides), or have procedures for constructing the
an irregular profile. Below are the major population pyramids are common
categories of population pyramids: across all types of pyramids. The
shapes of resultant pyramids are
Expansive pyramid: This is also known also the result of a population
as rapid growth pyramid. It has a broad composition at a particular time
base with successive decline in the share and space.
of population of higher age groups. The
Procedures
pyramid represents a relatively high
fertility and mortality rates; low life The following are the procedures for
expectancy; higher population growth constructing age and sex pyramids graph
rates; and low share of old age persons. (i) Identify types of variables and
The pyramids portray the expansion of suggest suitable scales. For
population as the size of each cohort vertical scale, consider the

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 51
 Application of statistics in geography

number of age groups, and for (iv) The bars are drawn horizontally
the horizontal scale, consider the and their length correspond to the
highest value or percent; size of the age groups. It is in fact
a comparative bar graph drawn
(ii) Draw two vertically standing horizontally; and
lines of not more than 2cm apart (v) Shade the bars, write the title and
however, 2 cm wide is suitable; indicate the scale.
at the centre of the graph paper;
Example
(iii) From the bottom of the lines, are Study the data provided in Table 1.34
two horizontal lines away from (a) which show the distribution of
each other to represent the sex. population by age and sex then construct
Male is predominately on the left age and sex graph by using absolute
while female on the right side; value.
Table 1.34(a) : Population distribution by age and sex based on 2012 census survey
Age group Male Female
0–4 3 535 673 3 534 222
5–9 3 242 111 3 233 253
10 – 14 2 809 113 2 816 735
15 – 19 2 171 355 2 295 319
20 – 24 1 737 849 2 093 249
25 – 29 1 503 841 1 789 025
30 – 34 1 342 110 1 485 372
35 – 39 1 149 418 1 219 682
40 – 44 916 020 924 316
45 – 49 694 318 759 147
50 – 54 5 87 555 585 004
55 – 59 3 9 627 371 783
60 – 64 368 814 380 318
65 – 69 232 811 248 460
70 – 74 220 651 245 426
75 – 79 149 974 145 122
80+ 2 060 73 259 608
Source: Tanzania population census Survey 2012

52 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

(a) By the use of absolute value

80+
75 ̵ 79
70 ̵ 74
65 ̵ 69
60 ̵ 64
55 ̵ 59
Male 50 ̵ 54
Female
45 ̵ 49
40 ̵ 44
35 ̵ 39
30 ̵ 34
25 ̵ 29
20 ̵ 24
15 ̵ 19
11 ̵ 14
5̵9
0̵4
Age group
5000000 4000000 3000000 2000000 1000000 0 0 1000000 2000000 3000000 4000000 5000000

Scale: H.S: 1 cm to 100 000 and V.S: 0.5 cm to 1 bar

Figure 1.19: Population pyramid of Tanzania mainland in 2012 census survey

Table 1.34(b): By the use of percentage value

Age group Male Female Total %Male %Female
0–4 3 535 673 3 534 222 7 069 895 8.103 8.100
5–9 3 24 2 111 3 233 253 6 475 364 7.430 7.410
10 – 14 2 809 113 2 816 735 5 625 848 6.438 6.455
15 – 19 2 171 355 2 295 319 4 466 674 4.976 5.260
20 – 24 1 737 849 2 093 249 3 831 098 3.983 4.797
25 – 29 1 503 841 1 789 025 3 292 866 3.447 4.100
30 – 34 1 342 110 1 485 372 2 827 482 3.076 3.404
35 – 39 1 149 418 1 219 682 2 369 100 2.634 2.795
40 – 44 916 020 924 316 1 840 336 2.099 2.118
45 – 49 694 318 759 147 1 453 465 1.591 1.740
50 – 54 587 555 585 004 1 172559 1.347 1.341
55 – 59 379 627 371 783 7 51 410 0.870 0.852
60 – 64 368 814 380 318 749 132 0.845 0.872
65 – 69 232 811 248 460 481 271 0.534 0.569
70 – 74 220 651 245 426 466 077 0.506 0.562
75 – 79 149 974 145 122 295 096 0.344 0.333
80+ 2060 73 259 608 465 681 0.472 0.595
Total 21 247 313 22 386 041 43 633 354 50 50

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 53
 Application of statistics in geography

(b ) By the use of percentage value

80+
75 ̵ 79
70 ̵ 74
65 ̵ 69
60 ̵ 64
55 ̵ 59
50 ̵ 54
Male 45 ̵ 49 Female
40 ̵ 44
35 ̵ 39
30 ̵ 34
25 ̵ 29
20 ̵ 24
15 ̵ 19
11 ̵ 14
5̵9
0̵4
Age group
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Scale: H.S: 1 cm to 1% and V.S: 0.5 cm to 1 bar

Figure 1.20: Age and sex pyramid of Tanzania mainland in 2012 census Survey

Stationary pyramid: This is also, known

80+
as slow growth curve. Stationary 75 ̵ 79
Male Female
pyramids are the pyramids describing a 70 ̵ 74
constant share of population in different 65 ̵ 69
age groups over the period of time. They 60 ̵ 64

displays a situation with low fertility and 55 ̵ 59

50 ̵ 54
mortality rates and high life expectancy.
45 ̵ 49
They depict a slow population growth or
40 ̵ 44
stable population. The stationary or near 35 ̵ 39
stationary population pyramid displays 30 ̵ 34
some what equal share of juvenile and 25 ̵ 29
adult age groups (Figure 1.21). 20 ̵ 24
15 ̵ 19
11 ̵ 14
5̵9
0̵4
Age
6 4 2 0 group 0 2 4 6

Figure 1.21: Stationary pyramid

54 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Constrictive pyramid: This is also known expectancy. On the other hand, they
contractive or negative growth pyramid. show the trend of population change in
It is a pyramid with a narrow base. It terms of birth and death. The limitations
displays a low fertility and mortality rate, of the population pyramids are time
life expectancy and ageing of population consuming caused by tedious steps of
are high. The pyramids are typically calculations involved in tabulating the
common in developed countries where pyramid and determining the scale.
they have a high level of literacy, access
A compounded population pyramid
to birth control measures and quality
This is also refered to as superimposed
health care associated with improved
population pyramid. It is a population
medical facilities (see Figure 1.22).
pyramid which comprises different
population categories superimposed
80+
75 ̵ 79
in one bar.
70 ̵ 74
Male Female Procedures
65 ̵ 69
60 ̵ 64 The following are procedures for
55 ̵ 59 constructing a compounded pyramids
50 ̵ 54 graph
45 ̵ 49
(i) Identify the types of variables for
40 ̵ 44
this case age,sex and employment
35 ̵ 39
variable and suggest suitable
30 ̵ 34
25 ̵ 29
scales;
20 ̵ 24 (ii) Draw two vertically standing
15 ̵ 19 lines of not more than two (2cm)
11 ̵ 14
apart;
5̵9
0̵4
Age
(iii) The bars of sex and employment
6 4 2 0 group 0 2 4 6 are drawn horizontally and their
Figure 1.22: Constrictive pyramid lengths correspond the size of the
age groups; and
Advantages and disadvantages of age
and sex graph or population pyramid (iv) Other procedures are as in
constructing the normal
The age and sex graphs are beneficial population pyramids in section
in many ways. They clearly show the (c) above.
comparison between males and females.
Example:
They give a clear picture of summary of
population composition that is visually Study the data provided in Table 1.35,
attractive. On one hand, they define then draw a comparative population
economic status of a given country, structure to represent the following data
its fertility and mortality rates and life for country x.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 55
 Application of statistics in geography

Table 1.35: Data for population structure and employment for country x
Age group Total population Population in employment
Male Female Male Female
20 - 24 85 000 100 000 60 000 50 000
25 - 29 70 000 80 000 50 000 30 000
30 - 34 60 000 74 000 52 000 52 000
35 - 39 52 000 62 000 48 000 30 000
40 - 44 44 000 48 000 30 000 20 000
45 - 49 30 000 32 000 25 000 25 000
50 - 54 23 000 28 000 15 000 16 000
55 - 59 15 000 16 000 8 000 5 000
60 - 64 10 000 12 000 5 000 8 000
65 - 69 5 000 8 000 2 000 2 000

65 ̶ 69
Key
60 ̶ 64
Male Female Male total population
55 ̶ 59 Male population in employment
50 ̶ 54 Female total population
45 ̶ 49 Female population in employment
40 ̶ 44
35 ̶ 39
30 ̶ 34
25 ̶ 29
20 ̶ 24
Age
100000 90000 80000 70000 60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 group 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000 90000 100000

Figure 1.23: Compounded population structure of country x

Advantages and disadvantages of pole. The analogy between the twelve

compound population pyramids months of the year and the twelve hours
This type of pyramid is useful to show of the clock face adds attraction to the
comparison between males and females use of this type of graph. It is mostly
in different categories: For example in used to show farmers the seasonal
employment and education. It also shows calendar in a year for farmers.
characteristics of population that is either Procedures
from developed or developing nations. It The following are pocedures for
gives a clear visual impression although constructing a circular graph
the pyramids are tedious to construct. (i) Identify the types of variables
Circular graph and select a suitable scale;
A circular graph is also known as (ii) Draw seven concentric circles,
dispersion, clock or polar graph due to the smallest at the center
its resemblance to the face of a clock should be not more than 2cm in
or lines of longitude radiating from the diameter; However, it depends

56 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

on the size of the paper. Distance (vii) As clock graph is frequently

from one circle to another used to represent climatic
should be 1cm; statistics, radii are scaled in oC.
(iii) Draw 12 radii of 30o apart, The scale is indicated on either
starting from 12 o’clock radius the 12 o’clock or 6 o’clock
clockwise. The 12 radii stand radius. Points plotted are then
for months of the year, named joined as a continuous circle;
clockwise from the 12 o’clock (viii) Bar can also be drawn along
radius; the radii to indicate monthly
(iv) Along the radii, draw bar for mean rainfall. In order to
rainfall; avoid congestion at the centre
(v) For temperature, plot the points of the circle, zero is normally
and join them with a curved line; represented as a circle; and
(vi) Write the title, key and (ix) Write the title, scale and key.
scale. Remember vertical
Example
scale represents rainfall and
temperature, while horizontal Study the data provided in Table 1.36
scale represents months; and draw a polar chart.

Table 1. 36: Monthly mean rainfall (mm) and temperature (°C) in Tanzania in 2016
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Temp C 28.4 28.9 29.8 27.9 27.9
o
27.3 26.8 28.1 28.5 29.9 29.6 28.5
Rainfall 191.8 131.2 140 213.6 41.1 9.2 2.2 8.3 14.1 27.8 64.6 66.6
(mm)
Source:Tanzania Meteorological Agency (2016)
Jan

Dec Feb

Key
Nov Rainfall (mm)
Mar
Temperature (°C)

Scale
Oct Apr V.S for Rainfall 1 cm to 40 mm
V.S for Temperature 1 cm to 5 °C

40 5

80 10

Sep 120 15 May

160 20
200 25
240 30
Aug Jun
280 35
Jul

Figure 1.24: Polar chart for monthly mean rainfall and temperature in Tanzania in 2016

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 57
 Application of statistics in geography

Advantages and disadvantages of Statistical charts and diagrams

polar chart Statistical charts and diagrams methods
The polar charts is beneficial in many differ from statistical graphs as they do
ways. The common use is to guide not depend on squared paper or a map
the farmers through identifying their in data presentation. Rather they display
seasonal calender in a year. It can also data in circular graphs, rectangles,
be used in calculating monthly mean repeated symbols, proportional
rainfall and temperature data.It is detailed diagrams, graduated symbols and wind
by drawing two concentric circles. Some roses.They may be used in conjunction
of its limitations include inability to with a map for the purpose of defining
display much of information, as they or describing a location but they can
are squeezed in a circle. It also time also be drawn independently. They are
consuming as both organising the scale not necessarily drawn on a graph paper
and drawing are complicated. Finally it but even plain or ruled papers. There
is confined to weather conditions only. are six (6) major statistical charts and
diagrams, which include: divided circles
Activity 1.3 (pie charts), divided rectangles, repeated
1. (i) In group of five students, use symbols, proportional diagrams,
the data from form five students’ graduated range of symbols and wind
attendance sheet records over roses.
last six months to construct the
following graphs: Divided circle
(a) Simple line graph Divided circle also known as pie chart
(b) Simple bar graph refers to a diagram consisting of a
(c) Divergent line graph circle divided into the slices which
(d) Divergent bar graph are proportional in size to the value
(ii) Present your work to the class represented. The slice of the circle may
for a wide discussion. be shaded or coloured and labeled. The
largest slice is plotted first clockwise
2. (i) In groups of five students, visit
from 12 o’clock in ascending order for
a nearby institution which engage
easy comparison. The divided circle
in documenting crops production
can be sub-divided into three parts
and collect data for production of
namely simple divided circle (pie
three to five crops grown in your
chart), proportional divided circles and
locality for the past three to five
proportional divided semi-circles.
years. Use the data to construct
the following graphs: (a) Simple divided circle
(a) The compound line graph It is a simple pie chart which is used to
(b) The compound bar graph represent simple data such as exports,
(ii) Present your work to the class imports or production. Simple divided
for extensive discussion. circle is also known as simple pie chart.

58 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Data in Table 1.37(a) which show (iv) Divide the circle into parts
mineral imports in (‘000) metric tonnes corresponding to the value of each
in Tanzania in 2015 have been used to radius of respective components.
draw Figure 1.25. Drawing should be done clockwise
from the 12`starting with the
Procedures highest degree value;
The following are procedures for (v) Shade each portion differently;
constructing simple divided circle and
(i) Find the total amount of all values; (vi) Write the title and the key.
(ii) Change each of the values into Note: The circle may be of any
percentage, and then into degrees; convenient size, too small circle must
(iii) Draw the circle of suitable radius; be avoided.
Example
Table 1.37(a) : Mineral importsn (‘000) metric tonnes in Tanzania in 2015

Mineral type Weight in ‘000 tonnes

Coal 269
Gypsum 38
Petroleum 52
Clinker 50
Source: Ministry of Minerals (2015)

Solution
Table 1. 37(b): Percentage of mineral importation in (‘000) metric tonnes in
Tanzania in 2015
Mineral type Weight in‘000 Xi
( n
×100%) %
(Xi) × 360°
∑X i 100%
i=1

Coal 269 66% 237.6o

Gypsum 38 9% 32.4o
Petroleum 52 13% 46.8o
Clinker 50 12% 43.2o
Total 409 100% 360O

The angles drawn will represent the respective percentages of the data items in the
distributions. For example 237.6° for 66% in the pie chart shown in Figure 1.25.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 59
 Application of statistics in geography

(b) Proportional divided circle

It is a graph drawn in a circle whose
radius is proportional to the total figures
represented by all sectors of circle.
They are used for showing a quantity
(for example, population of a country)
that can be divided into parts such
as different ethnic groups. A circle is
drawn to represent the total quantity.
Figure 1. 25: Mineral imports in (‘000) metric Two or more circles are drawn in such
tonnes in Tanzania in 2015 a way that each one is proportional to
Advantages and disadvantages of the value it represents. It is then divided
divided circles into segments which are proportional
The main advantages of divide circles in size to the components. The actual
are that they are simple to construct, size of the circle can also be used to
useful for comparison purposes represent data.
as items can be clearly seen. They Procedures
are easier to obtain accurate data
The following ar procedures for
presentation. The circles however, have
constructing proportional divided circle
the following limitations: in case of
(i) Find the total of each item
zero degree, usually the data cannot
under observation;
be shown. Other weaknesses include
accommodating limited data and they (ii) Compute the radius for each
by applying the square roots
are time consuming due to calculations
on each of the total items
and drawing. Another weakness is on
under observation;
their rigid method of data presentation
(iii) Determine the scale to be
which requires using pie charts only
used;
when total observation of the parts
(iv) Divide the calculated radii to
makes a meaningful whole. Pie charts
the scale determined;
are not recommended to use if the
observations of different parts are not (v) Draw the circle based on the
calculated radii; and
mutually exclusive.
(vi) Write the title and key.
Example
Table 1. 38(a): Trend of some of the wild animals hunted from 2009 to 2012
Species
Year Elephant Lion Leopard Hippopotamus Buffalo
2012 41 37 40 40 53
2011 45 27 44 38 47
2010 96 98 205 158 1108
2009 98 120 249 153 1061
Source: Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (2012)

60 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Solution
Table 1. 38(b): Trend and total of some of the wild animals hunted from 2009
to 2012

Species
Year Elephant Lion Leopard Hippopotamus Buffalo Total
2012 41 37 40 40 53 211
2011 45 27 44 38 47 201
2010 96 98 205 158 1108 1665
2009 98 120 249 153 1061 1681

The radii of two circles are determined by:

Radius ( R) = T
Where
T = the total value of the given item

R1 = 211 = 14.52
R2 = 201 = 14.17
R3 = 1665 = 40.80
R4 = 1681 = 41

Scale: Let 1cm represent 10 units (cm)

14.52÷ 10 = 1.4 cm
14.17 ÷ 10 = 1.4 cm
40.80 ÷ 10 = 4 cm
41 ÷ 10 = 4.1 cm
To calculate the degrees
Table 1. 38(c): Trend of some of the wild animals hunted From 2009 to 2012 in
degrees
Species
Year Elephant Lion Leopard Hippopotamus Buffalo
2012 41 37
× 360° = 63° 40 40 53
× 360° = 70° 211 × 360° = 68° × 360° = 68° × 360° = 90°
211 211 211 211

2011 45 27
× 360° = 48° 44 38 47
× 360° = 81° 201 × 360° = 79° × 360° = 68° × 360° = 84°
201 201 201 201

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 61
 Application of statistics in geography

2010 96 98
× 360° = 21° 205
× 360° = 44° 158 1108
× 360° = 21° 1665 × 360° = 34° × 360° = 24°
1665 1665 1665
1665
2009 98 120
× 360° = 26° 249
× 360° = 53° 153 1061
× 360° = 227°
× 360° = 21° 1681 1681 × 360° = 33°
1681 1681
1681

Figure 1.26: Proportional divided circle showing trend of some of the wild animals hunted from 2009 to
2012 in degrees.
Advantages and disadvantages of divided semicircles and Proportional
proportional divided circles divided semicircles
The proportional divided circle is Simple divided semicircles
beneficial in a number of ways including
These are semi circular in nature
displaying relative proportions of
but segmented accordingly. The
multiple classes of data; size of the circle
segmentation are guided by 180 degree
can be constructed proportionally to the
instead of 360 degrees as used in pie
quantity of data it represents; it is also
chart.
useful in summarising a large data set in
visual form and it is simple compared Procedures
to other forms of graphs. It allows a The following are procedures for
visual checking of the accuracy of the constructing simple semi-circles
calculations. However, it is associated
Note: The procedures are similar to
with limitations such as failure to easily
that of drawing simple piechart except
reveal the exact values. It can be easily
the degrees are obtained by using 180
manipulated to give false impressions.
degree instead of 360 degrees.
Divided semicircles Example:
These are half circle which are
Refer Table 1:38(a), draw a simple
partitioned. There are two kinds of
divided semi-circle to represent number
divided semicircles. These are, simple
of lion hunted from 2009 to 2012.

62 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Solution Proportional divided semicircle

Find the total of items Procedures
Total = 37 + 27 + 98 + 120
The following are procedures for
Total = 282 construction of proportional divided
To find radius 282 semi-circles
= 16.79
(i) Calculate the total of two
Scale: Let 1 cm represent 3 units(cm)
semicircles given, let radii be
Then, represented by R1 and R2;
16.79
= 5.5 cm (ii) Find the radius of both totals by
3
applying the square roots to the
Hence, radius = 5.5 cm
obtained total;
To find degree (180°) for each year
(iii) Determine the scale of each
37 semicircle first, then divide the
2012 = × 180° = 23.61°
282 totals by scales to obtain two
27 radii;
2011 = × 180° = 17.23°
282 (iv) Use the two radii to determine
98 the size of semi circles;
2010 = × 180° = 62.55°
282 (v) Express each semi-circle by
120 percentage or degree (fraction
2010 = × 180° = 76.59°
282 of 360º) as in simple pie chart
or proportional pie chart. It is
Note: Draw a divided semicircle to
recommended to follow either
segment them accordingly. The segment
ascending or descending order;
should be portioned in a clockwise
direction as in simple pie charts. (vi) Draw the divided semicircle; and
(vii) Write the title and key.
Example
Table 1. 39(a): Gypsum production and
export in ‘000 tonnes in Tanzania from
2013 to2016
Export
Production (‘000
Year (‘000 tonnes) tonnes)
2016 214 214
2015 255 225
Figure 1.27: A simple divided semicircle 2014 200 200
representing number of lions hunted from 2013 281 172
2009 to 2012
Total 950 811

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 63
 Application of statistics in geography

Solution
The radii of two circles are determined by:
Radius (R) = T
Where;
T = the total value of the given item
Find the total of every item. The totality for the first item is 950 and the total
for the second item is 811.
Find the radius for both totals
R1 = 950 = 30.82
R2 = 811 = 28.48

Determine the scale for every item

Scale: Let 1 cm represent 10 units (cm)
30.82 ÷ 10 = 3.1 cm
28.48 ÷ 10 = 2.8 cm
Calculate the degrees
Table 1. 39(b): Gypsum production and export in‘000 tonnes in Tanzania from
2013 to 2016 in degrees
Degrees
Year Production (‘000 tonnes) Export (‘000 tonnes)
214 214
2016 × 180°= 41° × 180°= 48°
950 811
255 225
2015 × 180° = 48° × 180° = 50°
950 811
200 200
2014 × 180° = 38° × 180° = 44°
950 811

281 172
2013 × 180° = 53° × 180°= 38°
950 811

(v) Draw a proportional divided semi-circle

64 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

namely, simple divided rectangle and

Key
2013 compound divided rectangle.
53° 2015
50° 2016 Simple divided rectangle
48°
2014
This is a single bar graph which is large
48°
in size. The bar is sub- divided into
divisions or parts depending on the data
44° 41°
given. The data in Table 1.40 have been
38°
used to construct Figure 1.29 which
38°
presents simple divided rectangle.

Export Production Table 1.40(a). Production of perennial

crops (000 tonnes) in Tanzania in 2012
Figure 1. 28: Gypsum production and export
in Tanzania from 2013 to2016 Crop Production
Coffee 995
Advantages and disadvantages of
proportional semicircle Sisal 58
The proportional semicircle, is used Cane sugar 57
in making comparison that is why Cashew nuts 152
two semi circles are used; the value Tea and 18
of each component can be analysed and pyrethrum
provide accurate statistical information Source: Ministry of agriculture (2012)

through percentage or degrees

Procedures
calculated. However, the method
has some limitations including time The following are procedures for
consuming during calculations. On constructing simple divided rectangle
the other hand, the actual values may (i) Find the total values of all items
not be known easily as calculations in the table and; arrange the item
involve percentages or degrees. values according to their size
Additionally, presentation of very small starting with the largest;
values cannot be accommodated by (ii) Change each item value into
the method since their clarity can be percentage; select the suitable
distorted. length of the rectangle, width does
not matter, but it should be smaller
Divided rectangle
than the length. For example, let 1
It is a rectangle whose total value cm represent 7%. Hence, length of
or quantity is sub-divided into its rectangle will be 14.3 cm;
constituents or parts. The divided
(iii) Use the percentage composition
rectangle is similar to compound bar of each value to calculate unit
graphs and even the procedures for lengths from the total horizontal
drawing are the same. Divided rectangles length;
can be categorised into two major groups,

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 65
 Application of statistics in geography

(iv) Each unit length should be carrying percentage composition of each value;
(v) Draw the rectangle subdivide into parts and shade each part differently
starting with the smallest; and
(vi) Write the title and key.
Solution

Table 1. 40(b): Production of perennial crops (‘000 tonnes) in Tanzania in 2012

Crop Production Percentage (%) 1cm = 7% Cumulative

(‘000 tonnes) length
X cm = ?
Coffee 995 77.73 11.1 11.1
Sisal 152 11.88 1.7 12.8
Cane sugar 58 4.53 0.65 13.45
Cashew nut 57 4.45 0.64 14.09
Tea and 18 1.41 0.20 14.29
pyrethrum
Total 1280 100
Coffee
Cashew nut
Sisal
Production
Cane Sugar
(‘000 tonnes) 995 152 58 57 18
Others (i.e., tea &
pyrethrum)

0 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Percentage

Figure 1.29: Production of perennial crops (‘000 tonnes) in Tanzania in 2012 tonnes
Advantages and disadvantages of attractive. Nonetheless, simple divided
simple divided rectangle rectangle falls short of presenting few
The simple divided rectangle is data as compared to the compound
convenient in presenting data on a divided rectangle. Furthermore, the
diagram due to its simple scale. Only vertical scale is not considered when
the scale for dependent variable is drawing the independent variable.
considered. It is not associated with b) Compound divided rectangle
application of complicated calculations This is a type of divided rectangle
hence easily drawn; the information which involves more information due
displayed allows easy comparison of data to presenting several data as shown
given in the diagram. It also, presents in Figure 1.30. It can be employed
numerous items with better visualisation in describing land uses in different
due to colouring of the diagram which is countries, states, regions or districts.

66 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Often the information can be visualised number of small industries

simultaneously for comparison purposes (Table 41(c));
in terms of extent and variations across (iii) Find the horizontal scale using
the studied elements. The data in Table the grand total from sub-totals
1.39(a) which show the distribution of on procedure (i) above,;
small-scale industrial development for
(iv) Calculate the portion or
2015 in Songwe region have been used segment for each number
to draw Figure 1.30. of items given basing on
Procedures horizontal scale. That is the
The following are procedures for total length of horizontal
constructing divided rectangle. baseline;
(i) Find the total of each number (v) The vertical scale: depends on
of items (small scale industries) percentages calculated for each
(Table 1.41(a)) in each given council then present the data
council. Totals will be used to from each council, depending
determine the horizontal scale; on the vertical scale which is
(ii) Calculate the % of each usually1cm:10%;
number of items for this case
Example
Table 1.41(a): Number of small scale industries established in Songwe region
by 2015

Sunflower Total number

Council Welding Carpentry Maize milling
processing of industries

Songwe DC 6 5 124 7 142

Ileje DC 15 75 216 11 317
Mbozi DC 79 374 646 55 1 154
Momba DC 4 1 214 3 222
Tunduma TC 54 104 128 10 296
Source: Songwe Region (2019)

Solution
From Table 1.41(a), then,
Total area (grand total)
= 142 + 317 + 1154 + 222 + 296 = 2131 units
2 131
From this grand total estimate the horizontal scale. Let say = 213.1units
10
The diagram may extend to 10 cm horizontally it will be; 1cm: 213.1 units.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 67
 Application of statistics in geography

Table 1. 41(b) : Number of small scale-industrial establishment in Songwe region

by 2015
Council Unit length Cumulative length
1154 5.4 units
Mbozi DC = 5.4 units
213.1
317 6.9 units
Ileje DC =1.5 units
213.1
296 8.3 units
Tunduma TC = 1.4 units
213.1
222 9.3 units
Momba DC = 1.0 units
213.1
142 10 units
Songwe DC = 0.7 units
213.1

Table 1. 41(c): Cumulative frequency for the number of small scale-industrial

establishment in Songwe Region by 2015

Number Percentages
of Maize Sunflower
Welding Carpentry Total
Council industries milling processing

Mbozi DC 1154 7 32 56 5 100

Ileje DC 317 5 24 68 3 100

Tunduma TC 296 18 35 43 4 100

Momba DC 222 2 1 96 1 100

Songwe DC 142 4 4 87 5 100

68 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Scale: V.S:1cm to 20%; H.S:1cm to 213 Km2

Figure 1. 30: Number of small scale industries established in Songwe Region by 2015

Advantages and disadvantages of Repeated symbols

compound divided rectangles Symbols are simple signs that are used to
The compound divided rectangle is useful represent different features. Since maps
in the following ways: it can convey require large amounts of information
much more statistical information than a to be conveyed in a limited space, the
compound bar graph and a divided circle. use of symbols to represent particular
The comparison of data can be easily features is necessary. Symbols are small
visualised and interpreted. Furthermore, but many are immediately recognisable.
it is capable of displaying for example This means that they have an advantage
area in square kilometers in relation over drawing or writing all of this
to economic activities. However, its information onto a map. It is a method
limitations include the methods being in which statistical information can be
too tedious in calculating and identifying represented on a map by the repetition of
a scale which should be compromised one symbol of uniform size or character
between vertical and horizontal scale. or by a variety of symbols placed on
It is also, time consuming due to their location on a map. Therefore,
complex procedures to access data for two types of repeated symbols can be
constructing the graph. distinguished. These are the qualitative
and the quantitative symbols. Repeated

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 69
 Application of statistics in geography

symbols are the simplest methods of initial letters such as CN for cotton; FR
conveying non statistical and statistical for fruits; SS for sisal and R for rubber
information on a map and they are (Figure 1.31). Others are illustrations of
commonly observed on maps dealing plants for crops, drawings of cattle for
with agricultural products, minerals, ranching, pictures of tree for forests or
economic development and maps and a range of symbols for minerals and so
guides generated for specific purposes; on. The symbols can either be pictorial
for example, tourism for promotion or descriptive. The qualitative repeated
purposes. symbols are essentially descriptive
devices which give a visual impression
The qualitative symbols of the represented data item. They do
It is basically pictorial or descriptive not represent the actual characteristics
in nature, for example, crops by their of the observed variable.

Figure 1.31: Cash crops production in Tanzania

70 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

The quantitative symbols

These are symbols of the same size and shape placed at a place to show the
quantity of what the symbol represents. For example, each symbol represents a
given quantity. Fish = 10000 tonnes (one fish represent 10000 tonnes of fish).
Therefore, the number of fish on a map are counted and then multiplied by 10000
to get the total amount of tonnes (Figure 1.32).

= 10 000 tonnes

Figure: 1. 32: Number of fish in Tanzania’s water bodies

Advantages and disadvantages of in the cases of qualitative symbols.
repeated symbols On the other hand, the symbols have
Repeated symbols have both advantages some drawbacks such as; limitations of
and disadvantages; some of the benefits drawing symbols of the same size by
of the symbols include their usefulness in free hand. The needs for drawing sketch
presenting statistical information which map may be difficult. The limited use of
is easy to read and interpret; simplifying scale especially in qualitative approach
comparison of the presented data items may cause problems in understanding
such as economic production related the actual product in terms of amount.
data. Simple construction of the scale Another drawback with repeated map
and the use of calculation is minimised symbols is congestion and or overlap,

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 71
 Application of statistics in geography

especially if there are large variations of a village is 3000 people,

in the size of symbols if numerous data the square root will be 54.7.
locations are close. Therefore, it should be noted
that a radius of 54.7mm could
Proportional diagrams be too large to draw;
A proportional diagram is a diagram that (iii) Thus, it should be halved, it
compares two or more values by using may be suitable at 27.3mm;
the area of shapes, usually squares, (iv) For this case all other radii must
rectangles, or circles. They are popular also be halved;
because they instantly communicate the (v) The proportional of circle will
differences in the values to a viewer. be drawn in the ascending
These diagrams are commonly used order by starting with that of
in newspapers and magazines. The the smallest circle to the largest
proportional diagrams can be regarded depending on the number of
as an extension of the proportional data items;
divided circles (pie chart). Proportional (vi) Label each of the circle with
diagrams can be presented in four (4) respective quantity represented
ways, which are proportional circles, by the proportional circle; and
proportional squares, propositional
(vii) Indicate the unit of the items
cubes and proportional sphere.
represented and a scale.
Proportional circles Example of procedures for constructing
Proportional circles can be used to proportional circle
represent various items, for example
population, crop yield, quantities of (a) Items Population 625
imported and exported goods. The (b) Square root 25
625
scale is drawn to show the value of =
2 2
a given circle. Usually, each circle is
proportional to the quantity it represents. (c) Therefore, a circle is drawn with
a radius 12.5 mm
Procedures
The following are procedures for
constructing proportional circles.
(i) Find the square roots of each
item of data that will denote a
radius of the circle;
(ii) Estimate the length of the Showing a proportional circle of
radius for the largest circle a population.
first, example if the population

72 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Example 1
Draw proportional circle showing trend of leopard hunted from 2009 to 2012
Table 1.42 : Leopard hunted from 2009 to 2012
Year Leopard
2012 40
2011 44
2010 205
2009 249
Table 1.43 : Leopard hunted from 2009 to 2012
Year Leopard Square root Radius
6.3
2012 40 6.3 = 0.9 cm
7
6.6
2011 44 7.6 = 0.9 cm
7
14.3
2010 205 14.3 = 2.0 cm
7
15.8
2009 249 15.8 = 2.3 cm
7
Since square root has low amount of value; let estimated radius be 1cm represent
7 items number of square root.

2009 2010 2011 2012

Figure 1.33: Proportional circle for leopard hunted from 2010 to 2012

Advantages and disadvantages of also be used where other methods such

proportional circle as dots may result in overcrowding.
The cycle has some limitation such
The proportional circle is essential for
as: the comparison posing difficulties
making comparison of the data items
in making when the size of circles
under the study. It can be combined with
becomes almost the same due to small
other method in the same map. It can

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 73
 Application of statistics in geography

differences of represented values. Other Proportional cubes

limitations involve time consuming due Proportional cubes can be drawn
to long processes of scale calculation independent of a base map. They are
and the method falls short of presenting usually located on a base map as
absolute values. presentative of quantity distribution
Proportional squares or production. Cubes have additional
Proportional squares may be used in component on dimensions that is, length
the same way as proportional circles. × width × height which differentiate them
The area of the square proportionally from rectangles. Cubes have a strength of
reflects the quantity it represents. On presenting statistics which have greater
the other hand, the length of the side values as compared to linear methods.
of the square related to the square root The side of the proportional cube bears
reflects directly the square root of the a direct relationship to the square root
number to be represented. This method is of the quantity being represented. For
useful in cases where there are relatively instance, if the length of the side of the
numbers to be dealt with, such that by proportional is square 5 mm it means it
applying the square roots, numbers represents 25 units of production while
are reduced and become manageable. a cube of the same measurements will
Proportional squares may be employed represent 125 units.
without reference to the map. Procedures
Procedures The following are precedures for
The following are precedures for the constructing proportional cubes
construction of proportional squares (i) Calculate the cube root of the
quantity to be represented
(i) Calculate the square root of the
such as 3 R , where R is the
total values to be represented.
quantity to be represented;
Having drawn the scale, value
will be the length of the side of (ii) Draw the cubes independently
the square; and of the base-map, for purposes
of comparison;
(ii) Show the key clearly.
(iii) Cubes can be drawn in several
Advantages and disadvantages of ways either isometrically, in
proportional squares which all sides are of equal
lengths or prospectively the
Even though the proportional squares are sides are one-halved to three
more difficult to draw, their relative areas quarters the length of the
are probably easier to assess than circles; front. In single map all drawn
and are more suitable for comparison of cubes should be with same
items under observation. pattern; and
(iv) Provide a key.

74 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Advantages and disadvantages of the study same as proportional cube.

cubes They serve as alternative options in
The advantage of proportional cubes incidents great quantity of elements
is the easy with drawing than spheres which become impractical on others
and the assessment of volume of two methods. However, the sphere has
cubes of different sizes is perhaps less some disadvantages including difficult
difficult that the relative volumes of in drawing, calculations challenges and
two different spheres. Proportional limitations of some readers to assess
cubes however, disapproved of less relative volumes of different spheres
visualisation, unless the presented items
Activity 1.4
by themselves have a cube shaped like
bales of cotton. Another disadvantage is In group of five students visit the nearby
that the components of the cube cannot government/private institution engaged
be splited . Moreover, the use of cubes in documenting data on agricultural
is limiting in making comparison of production in your locality and collect
the quantities being represented, unless data on the production of three to five
statistical information is provided on crops grown in the area for the past three
the cube. to five years. Use them to construct a
simple divided circle (simple pie chart)
Proportional sphere
and present the results to the class for
Usually, concept of proportional sphere the detailed discussion.
is somewhat similar concept to the
proportional cube. Likewise, the three- Wind roses
dimension characteristics possessed Wind roses are used to show the average
by the spheres widens that horizon of frequency and directions of the wind in
serving nearly the same purpose as the different speed at a given area. They
cube. Three dimensions enables it to can also be used to show the delivery of
accommodate a wide range of values quantities such as milk, newspapers or
to be represented, the volumes of the other goods through star diagram. Wind
sphere are usually proportional to the roses are of two types namely; simple
quantity represented. wind rose and compound wind rose.
Advantages and disadvantages of Simple wind rose
proportional spheres Simple wind rose is a simple linear
The proportional spheres enable method used to show the direction and
easier visualisation of items under frequency of the wind only.

Example: Study the data given in Table 1.44 and draw a simple monthly wind rose.
Table 1. 44: Simple monthly wind rose data
Direction of wind N NE E SE S SW W NW Calm
Number of days 3 2 1 1 3 7 7 5 2

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 75
 Application of statistics in geography

Procedures
The following are procedures for constructing a simple wind rose
(i) The centre of the wind rose is usually a circle of any convenient size;
(ii) Average wind direction and speed values recorded monthly or annually are
presented separately. Eight cardinal points of the compass are usually sufficient;
(iii) The length of the columns or aims can be drawn proportional to the actual
number of days; and
(iv) Draw the simple wind rose, put the title and indicate the scale.

Scale: 1cm to 1 unit

Figure 1.34: Simple wind roses showing monthly wind direction

Compound wind rose

Compound wind roses may be used to display wind direction, frequency and speed.
Procedures
The following are procedures for constructing compound wind rose
(i) The basic method of construction is similar to that of simple wind rose, only
that compound wind rose uses either actual or percentage values;
(ii) The speed of the wind is then indicated by adjusting the width of the column.
An increase in width signifies an increase in wind speed;

76 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

(iii) The divisions chosen are usually (vii) Plot diagram and put a good title;
less than 4 mph; and
(iv) When it is calm the force is zero Note: Much attention is needed in
(0) and the speed is less than drawing and in scale selection.
1mph;
Example:
(v) Compose a convenient scale for
Table 1.45: Shows the mean annual wind
depicting the number of hours per
speed and direction for hypothetical
direction;
station X
(vi) Determine the pattern of speed
as a key;
Table 1.45: Mean annual wind speed and direction for station X

Wind speed N NE E SE S SW W NW
Less than 4 mph 1.2 4.2 1.1 2.1 6.2 3.3 1.2 3.3
4 - 12 mph 2.8 3.0 1.6 4.2 5.0 2.4 2.4 3.9
13 - 24 mph 1.8 1.4 3.0 3.3 1.1 4.1 3.3 1.2
More than 24 mph 1.0 2.0 2.1 6.1 2.3 3.1 3.9 2.4
Total 6.8 10.6 7.8 15.7 12.6 12.9 10.8 10.8

Key
Less than 4 mph
4 - 12 mph
13 - 24 mph
More than 24 mph

Scale: 1cm to 1unit

Figure 1.35: Mean annual wind speed and direction for an imaginary station X

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 77
 Application of statistics in geography

Advantages and disadvantages of Statistical Maps

wind rose Statistical map is another method of
The pattern of shading gives the diagram data presentation in geography whereby
a good visual impression. Comparison is statistical data can be presented through
easy in terms of the direction in which with a sketch map. Statistical maps are
the wind blows. It shows the speed of the classified into four (4) groups namely;
wind in different directions. However, dot maps (distribution of maps), isoline
wind rose has some demerits such as time maps (isopleth maps), chloropleth maps
consuming since it involves measuring (shading or destiny maps) and flow line
and scale construction. maps (flow maps).
Dot map
Activity 1.5
Dot map is the simplest and most widely
Draw a compound wind rose to used type of distributions map that uses
represent the following data a point to visualize the geographical
distribution of a phenomena. The dot
Wind speed Direct
map results from a combination of
Less than repeated symbols of uniform size and a
6 mm N
4 mph dispersion map. A distribution map is
4 -12 mph 8 mm E essentially the representation of absolute
13 -24 mph 10 mm W or actual quantities on a map in such a
way that a single quantitative dot has
More than a specific and fixed value of a quantity
12 mm S
25 mph represented. Therefore, it is imperative
(though not always practical) to count the
Exercise 1.4 number of dots on a map and multiply
with the quantity they are assigned to
1. Compare the proportional circles for accurately estimation of total value.
and proportional spheres.
Construction of dot maps
2. With a map of Tanzania use a non- The construction of dot maps
qualitative symbol to show the (distribution dot maps) is established
location of two mineral resources by the components, namely: dot
of your choice. value, size, location and followed by
3. With specific examples explain drawing. Deciding on dot-value can
five procedures of constructing a possibly affect the representation of
proportional circle. quantity on a map so it should neither
be undermined nor exaggerated. That

78 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

is, if not carefully considered, it would the possible true distribution of the
result into unnecessary placing of too dots. It is however, useful in presenting
many dots while the dot-value is too low the visual impression of comparative
(overcrowded maps) especially in areas densities.
with greater concentration. Similarly,
For the case of the latter method,
placing too few dots where the dot-
consideration is on the prior first-hand
value is too high could give an equally
information of the area. However, in
wrong impression. Decision on dot map
the absence of first-hand information
should be guided by the range of figures
relies on other reasonably accurate
to be represented that has implication
maps of the same area. For instance,
to the value and number of dots to be
maps showing relief, drainage, geology,
drawn. It is recommended to prepare
soils, vegetation, rainfall, land use,
a trial map which despite consuming
communication, water supply and
time will guide you through obtaining
settlements. Basing on analysis and
reliable results.
collating of such information give
Dot size in terms of its diameter is hints though not perfectly accurate on
importance. Dot size cannot be thought possible areas to be distributed with
in isolation with the dot-location. either sparce or concentrated kind of
Extreme sizes of dots should be dots. In case concentrated areas, it is
avoided, the number and size of dots advised to address those areas first by
must be in a way that they bring a clear calculating the number of the required
visual impression of the differences in dots and thereafter complete the rest of
distribution, contrasting with regard to the dots in other areas.
the varying concentration across areas
Importantly, drawing the dots can be
such as, areas with greater concentrated
unclear particularly to non-professionals.
versus sparsely or scattered areas.
However, preparation should thoroughly
Dot location however, is concerned with be done by marking on the map the
placing the dots based on two methods position of all dots, very slightly, with a
namely, distributing evenly over the special pencil. Some of the recommended
area concerned or based on quantities material for drawing are dotting pens,
represented by the precise location of the since the subsequent drawing of dots
dots on a map. The former is of limited with correct size, circular and uniform
value although it can be resorted to in character, cannot successfully be done
case of absence of precise distribution of with an ordinary pen or pencil. Probably
the dots on a map.In this method dots are the non-professionals are advised to use
evenly distributed after calculation of the fibre -or nylon-tipped pens which are
number of dots. This method falls short commonly available and affordable. A
of conveying limited information except good drawing result can be achieved by
the total quantity (the number and value a firm and vertically held pen on the non-
of dots) and it is impractical in indicating absorbent paper. Data in Table 1.43(a)

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 79
 Application of statistics in geography

which shows the hypothetical number of the selected gazetted national parks in
antelope in the selected gazetted national Tanzania.
parks in Tanzania have been used to draw
Table 1. 46(a): Hypothetical number of
Figure 1.36.
antelope in the selected gazetted national
Procedures parks in Tanzania by 2019.
The following are procedures for
S/N The National Number of
constructing dot maps antelope
Park
(i) Calculate the scale by identifying
1 Katavi 4 471
the dot value;
2 Kilimanjaro 1 668
(ii) Determine the size of a dot
whereby too large or small dot is 3 Mahale 1 613
not appropriate; 4 Mikumi 3 230
(iii) Draw the sketch map where dots 7 Mkomazi 3 254
will be allocated; and 6 Ruaha 20 300
(iv) Prepare an appropriate scale. For 7 Saadani 1 062
example, let 1 dot represent 300 8 Serengeti 14 763
people.
9 Tarangire 2 830
Example:
10 Udzungwa 1 990
Study the data in Table1.46(b) and
draw a distribution dot map showing
Solution
hypothetical number of antelope in
Scale: Let 1 dot represent 500 antelope

Table 1.46(b): Hypothetical number of antelope in the selected gazetted national

parks in Tanzania by 2019
S/N The National Number of Calculations Average Number of
Park antelope dots
1 Katavi 4 471 4 471÷ 500 8.94 9
2 Kilimanjaro 1 668 1 668÷ 500 3.34 3
3 Mahale 1 613 1 313÷ 500 3.23 3
4 Mikumi 3 230 3 230÷ 500 6.46 6
5 Mkomazi 3 254 3 254÷ 500 6.51 7
6 Ruaha 20 300 20 300÷ 500 40.60 41
7 Saadani 1 062 1 062÷ 500 2.12 2
8 Serengeti 14 763 14 763÷ 500 29.53 30
9 Tarangire 2 830 2 830÷ 500 5.66 6
10 Udzungwa 1 990 1 990÷ 500 3.98 4

80 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Represents 500 antelope

Figure 1.36: Distribution of antelope in the selected gazetted national parks in Tanzania by 2019

The advantages and disadvantages Similarly, calculation and drawing

of dot maps may be fairly easy and the result is
graphically pleasing. It is also simple
The dot maps are simple to use since the
to delete the dots used on the map.
lower the dot value, the more accurate
the picture of distribution and value. The However, the dot maps have some
map can be interpreted quantitatively, limitations, such as the possibility of
that is the number of units within each faults in construction, if dots merging
boundary can be counted. The value and may not become apparent until the map
location of several items can be shown is nearly completed, this may lead to
on the same map by using different re-calculation and redrawing of the
colours and symbols. For example, map. If no topographical information is
goats and donkey, different ethnic available, evenly spaced dots will give
groups and range of crops or minerals. a false impression, like the chrolopleth.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 81
 Application of statistics in geography

Moreover, with large dot value, spatial Procedures

distribution cannot be accurately shown, The following are precedures for
only the general distribution. Dots must constructing isoline map .
be placed in the gravitational centre of
(i) Choose a suitable isoline interval
the actual distribution. Furthermore, the
for example scale 5 °C;
approximation of decimals for example,
6.51 ≈ 7 distorts numbers of the total (ii) Interpolate or insert intermediate
population. Finally the method is time value or lines on the map that is
consuming due to scale calculation and interpolate or insert intermediate
sketch map drawing. value or lines on the map, for
example areas with less than 20 °C,
Isoline map
21°C, 25 °C and above 26 °C.
Isoline map is also known as isopleth
map. It is one of the popularly used The example Figure 1.37 shows
methods of statistical data representation. temperature in °C at different parts.
Isoline stands for line joining places or
points with equal value. The term isoline
is interchangeably used with isarithm
and isometric lines. The word isoline is
derived from Greek Word isos meaning
equal. The following are phenomena
on a map which can be represented by
Figure 1.37 (a): The map showing
isolines:
temperature in °C at different parts.
Table 1. 47: Phenomena on a map which
can be represented by isolines
S/N Types of Variable
line represented
i Contours Height
ii Isotherm Temperature
iii Isobars Pressure Figure 1.37 (b): The map showing
temperature in °C at different parts
iv Isohyet Rainfall
v Isoneph Cloudiness (iii)Then shade the spaces between the
isoline. The shades should become
vi Isobath Ocean depths. more concentrated or dense and
vii Isohalines Salinity indicate scale.
viii Isohel Sun shine
ix Isohume Humidity

82 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Another disadvantages, is lines drawn

for one feature may automatically
interfere with other linear features on a
map. In short, it is difficult to represent
more than one feature in a single map.
Choropleth map
A Choropleth map is derived from Greek
Figure 1.37 (c): The map showing word choros means area or region and
temperature in °C at different parts. plethos means multitude. It is a type of
a thematic map which is proportionally
Advantages and disadvantages of
shaded, coloured, patterned or striped
isoline maps
to indicate the pre-defined areas to a
Isoline maps have both merits and statistical variable represented on a
limitations. The main benefits with map as an aggregate summary of a
isoline map, value can be obtained at geographical characteristic within an
any point on the map. Where points area. Furthermore, Choropleth map is
are not on isolines is that the , their a map in which population densities of
values can be obtained by interpolation. different areas are shaded in different
The interval between each isoline coulours or patterns. Choropleth map
suggests gradual and abrupt change, is also known as the real density map.
hence shading must be well graded
to maintain this aspect. Furthermore, Procedures
isolines can be combined with other The following are procedures for the
data for example, population and crop construction of choropleth map
distribution and related to isohyet
(rainfall map). Some of its limitations (i) Calculate average densities
include the interpolation of value (population density) for each
points which is subjective and relies statistical unit as required;
on the judgment of the individual (ii) Choose and draw according
cartographer. Some data distributions to scale of densities; and
can be interpreted in different ways and (iii) Shading should be heavier
can result into duplication of isoline or dense as values increases.
maps. Furthermore, in a situation with
a large number of data points much Example: Construct a choropleth map
time can be required to accomplish for population density in selected regions
the process of drawing isoline maps. in Tanzania as shown in Table 1.48.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 83
 Application of statistics in geography

Table 1. 48: Population density in selected regions in Tanzania

Region Population Area in sq km Density
Mbeya 1 250 605 87 567 14.28
Njombe 1 030 805 38 906 26.49
Arusha 1 355 685 84 567 16
Dodoma 1 020 815 47 311 21.57
Kigoma 855 807 45 066 18.99
Rukwa 1 000 825 35 705 28
Source: Tanzania census survey (2012)

Geometric progression classes

11 - 15.9 Mbeya
16 - 20.9 Arusha, Kigoma
21 - 25.9 Dodoma
26 - 30.9 Njombe, Rukwa

Figure 1.38: Population density in selected regions of Tanzania.

84 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Advantages and disadvantages of people, or stock, the paths of cyclone or

choropleth map ocean currents, the direction, quantity or
Basically, choropleth maps are useful character of exports or imports and many
in a number of ways in the statistical other statistics involving movement.
information representations. The major
Procedures
ones include providing a good visual
impression of the elements studied; easy The following are procedures for
to compare the population densities of constructing flowline map
each unit, easy to interpret with the aid (i) Choose a scale which is appropriate
of key and simple to draw when a map to the data given;
and a table have been provided. More
(ii) Consider the width of the flow line,
over, choropleth map can accommodate
which must be proportional to the
any scale. Conversely, some limitations
quantity or value of the element to
of the choropleth maps included
be represented;
giving a wrong impression that density
changes suddenly at boundaries in a (iii) Draw the sketch map and indicate
given map. Furthermore, variations of the important towns and cities
the density within each boundary are involved such as along the pass
not shown hence, giving impression and the destination of movement
that there is uniform density within in question;
each administrative unit. Shading may (iv) In drawing the flow line on the base
obscure/hide other features.Lastly, map, it is not necessary to follow
drawing of the Choropleth maps is all the twisting and windings of
tiresome and time consuming particularly road or railway; and
shading of large data.
(v) The meeting place of various
Flowline map
flow line (for example, a market
Flowline map also known as flow chart
town, bus station, port of import
is a diagrammatically presentation of
or export, collecting centre and
the movement of goods or number of
so on), can be shown by various
vehicles, people, cattle etc. from one
methods and the easiest method
place to another. It may show the
being to bring shaped nucleus. It
movement of goods from production
should be noted that the nucleus
area to the market or point of export. The
may develop but the interest is
volume of flow is shown by line, whereby
in the movement of commodities
the width of the flow is an important
and not representation of meeting
factor which varies proportionally with
places.
the varying number of goods or people
traveling along the given routes. Also, The data in Table 1.49(a) which shows
width may be determined by the types the movement of rice from Morogoro to
and frequency of traffic ( by road, rail, air other regions in Tanzania has been used
or water ) of the migratory movement of to draw flow line map (Figure 1.39).

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 85
 Application of statistics in geography

Example
Table 1.49: Movement of rice in tonnes from Morogoro to other regions in Tanzania
Region Tones exported
Iringa 12 000
Dodoma 18 000
Tanga 8 000
Dar es Salaam 20 000
Solution
Table 1.50: Movement of rice in tonnes from Morogoro to other regions in Tanzania.
Region Tones exported Scale Divide by two
Iringa 12 000 ÷ 4 000 3 mm 3 mm ÷ 2 = 1.5 mm
Dodoma 18 000 ÷ 4 000 4.5 mm 4.5 mm ÷ 2 = 2.3 mm
Tanga 8 000 ÷ 4 000 2 mm 2 mm ÷ 2 = 1 mm
Dar es Salaam 20 000 ÷ 4 000 5 mm 5 mm ÷ 2 = 2.5 mm
Note: Absolute scale 4000

Morogoro

Scale: 1 tonne represents 4 000 units

Figure 1. 39: Flow line map to portray the movement of rice in tonnes from Morogoro to other
regions in Tanzania

86 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Advantages and disadvantages of Limitations of statistics

flowline maps Despite the practicality of statistics in
The flowline maps are widely useful many fields, The following are some
as flow data in statistical form are of its limitations: Firstly, statistics
replaced by simple methods of deals with a group or set of data and
presentation and interpretation. The attach less importance to individual
flowline chart maps can clearly and items. Statistics is inadequate where
insightfully give clue on the problems knowledge of individual items
that are likely to hinder movement for becomes necessary. It is most suited
example, traffic congestion. Flowline to those problems where aggregate
maps are very versatile and can show characteristics are required. Secondly,
two traffic and various methods of statistics deals with quantitative or
transport. Additionally, the method numerical data. Basically, not all subjects
of construction is fairly easy once the can be expressed numerically. There
scale has been decided. However, the are situations where qualitative data
flowline maps have some limitations are required. For example, poverty,
such as very low volumes represented behaviour, intelligence and health are all
by a non-scaled line. Moreover, log or qualitative data which cannot be directly
square root flowlines lose their direction quantified. So, these types of data are
proportions and the reader has to use the not suitable for statistical analysis.
key frequently. Furthermore, the wide Thirdly, errors during sampling can lead
variation between the highest and the to establishment of wrong conclusions
lowest volume of data makes the scale if not handled by experts. Incorrect
difficult to assess. application of methods could lead to
Activity 1.6 the drawing of wrong conclusions in
1. Visit your school library or statistics. Fourthly, statistical data in
any other nearby library, most cases is usually approximated and
study geographical maps from not very exact. Emphasis is often put
geography books and resources. on sampling method of data collection,
Then; that means if a limited number of items
(a) Identify the geographical are selected, the result of the sample
maps found in the surveyed may not be a true representation of the
books and resources population.
(b) Identify the geographical data Statistics and computer
presented through the maps.
(c) Choose and draw three types After surveying various methods for
of statistical maps in your data analysis and presentation, it is
exercise book. important to shade light on the existing
sophisticated means of data management
Present your work to the class for an
and storage for statistical geography.
extensive discussion.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 87
 Application of statistics in geography

The growing wave of science and data entry for analyses and the choice
technology has attracted the statisticians of the appropriate output command.
in integrating the field of computer and
Application of statistics
information technology in statistics.
Though not covered extensively in this Today the methods used in statistics are
book it is important to understand how universal. Basing on this fact, will suffice
the era of computer science has usefully to show how statistics is important.
simplified management of numerical data However, there are many people who
in statistics. It is undeniable truth that in one way or another practise statistics
to date computer can usefully be used unknowingly not familiar with statistics.
in recording and storing of a massive Statistical methods are common ways of
numerical data collected from the field thinking something practised by many
and in turn be summarised to make people. A number of examples can be
meaningful information for interpretation made to link human behaviour statistical
and reporting. The modern electronic methods. It should be clear that statistical
computer can be used in performing methods are so closely connected with
a number of statistical calculations human actions and behaviour, thus
within a short time. Geographers can practically all human activities can be
make use of computer in number of described through statistical methods.
ways including recording, analysing, From this broad view of the importance
summarising data and commanding the of statistics and its universality, below
computer software to generate figures are some significant uses of statistics in
and tables based on recorded data thus daily life.
simplify interpretation. The increasing Statistics in planning
knowledge and skills on computer has
Statistics is crucial in planning different
enabled drawing of computer-based maps
forms of systems, it may be in business,
indicating distributions of data such as
environmental and natural resources;
temperature, rainfall and population in
management economy and in other
a given location or area.
sectors in the government. Statistics
Currently, geographers are developing is used by different organisations and
interests in understanding computer social institutions in informing and
software and programme that are vital helping to formulate policy decision.
in managing statistical data. Some useful Because of the position of statistics in
computer software and programme that our daily life; to date, we commonly
can be employed in data analysis include hear people talking about statistical
Microsoft Excel and Statistical Product data either relating to production,
and Service Solution (SPSS) which consumption, birth, death, investment,
were known for the past several decades. income, environmental quality, rate of
The desired statistical output of data environmental degradation or status
from the computer relies on the good of environmental rehabilitation. All

88 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

these are helpful in making informed extensive application of statistics in

decisions in our practices in life. Economics. The main important branches
Generally, environmental policy making of Economics such as consumption,
and implementation, monitoring and exchange, distribution and public
evaluation are of planning and decision- finance are making use of statistics for
making activities that are supported by the sake of comparison, presentation and
the use of statistics. interpretation. Furthermore, problems
resulting from spending of income
Statistics is beneficial in many ways to
on and by different sections of the
the government. Most of the decision
people, production of national wealth,
making made by the government are
adjustment of demand and supply and
largely informed by the findings from
effects of economic policies on the
various statistical studies. Statistics
economy etc, simply justify the use of
is useful tool for policy framing,
statistics in the field of economics and
implementation and evaluation. It
in its different branches. Essentially,
is also utilised in the planning and
statistics of public finances helps us
distributions of various resources in
to impose tax, to provide subsidies to
different government sectors such
spend on various sectors and determine,
as education health, transportation,
amount of money to be borrowed or lent.
infrastructures and many others.
Hence statistics can never be thought of
Statistics in mathematics without economics or economics can
Statistics depends on mathematics in never be thought without statistics.
achieving its role and objectives. The
modern theory of statistics has its Statistics in social sciences
grounds in mathematics for example, In daily life every social phenomenon
statistical probability and statistical is in one way or another affected to a
reasoning. Ever increasing role of marked extent by several factors which
mathematics into statistics has led to bring out the variations in observations
the development of a new branch of from time to time, place to place and
statistics called Mathematical Statistics.object to object. That is why statistical
Essentially, statistics is one among the methods strive in establishing and
branches of mathematics. Thus, Statistics describing the relationships and
may be considered to be an important independence between factors by
component of the mathematics discipline studying and isolating the effect of each
and it is a branch of applied mathematics of these factors on the given observation.
which is confined on data. The most important application of
statistics in human geography is in
Statistics in economics the field of demography for studying
Statistics and Economics are inseparable. mortality (death rates), fertility (birth
The advancement made in the modern rates), marriages, population growth and
statistical methods have led to an so on.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 89
 Application of statistics in geography

Statistics in trade be known by the researcher only after

Statistics is embodied with methods for making use of the statistical methods.
making wise decisions in the face of Statistics is basic to research activities.
uncertainties. It is clear that business is Researchers maintain and enliven their
often full of uncertainties and risks. In research interests and research activities,
this case we always need to forecast at by employing knowledge and skills from
every step and time. The future trend statistics.
of the market can only be projected Statistics in weather forecasting
if we make use of statistics. Failure
in anticipation will mean failure of Understanding weather information and
business. For example, changes in climate behaviour are crucial to human
demand, supply, habits and fashion well being. Weather information is needed
can largely be anticipated through the on a daily basis in the course of planning
statistical methods. Statistics is vital in from the national to the individual
determining prices of various products, level. For examples, farmers need it for
determining the phases of boom and planning their farming activities for good
depression. Hence, the use of statistics harvest. Also, weather can be used in
smoothens the process of running a prediction and forecasts of extremely
business, reduce uncertainties and weather events that may require some
thus contributing to the success of the measures to reduce its effects. Similarly,
business. climate is a determinant of life on
Earth, particularly the distribution of
Statistics in research work resources and determination of activities.
The task of a researcher is to disseminate Following this, statistical information
the findings of the research to the will is significant in facilitating the
community. The explanations on making of informed decision hence
the effects of a certain variable on contributing to the development in
a particular problem, under varying different spheres of life.
circumstances and situations, can better

90 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

Revision exercise 1
1. Study the following table which indicates fish production (mega tonnes) in
Tanzania from 2005 to 2016. Then, answer the subsequent questions.
Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Fish
production
625 715 806 865 936 952 959 972 2990 3000 3118 3840
(Mega
tonnes)

(i) Draw a divergent line and bar graphs for these data.
(i) Interpret the resultant graphs.
(ii) Identify alternative methods which may be used to present statistical
information from the given table.
2. Study the following table which shows livestock products for five years from
2012 / 2013 to 2017 / 2018 and answer the questions that follow;
Livestock Livestock production per annum in tonnes
Product 2012/2013 2013/2014 2014/2015 2015/2016 2016/2017 2017/2018
Beef 20 587 40 167 9 226 22 899 32 524 7 403
Chevron 12 062 10 153 4 631 5 918 8 838 2 326
Mutton 1 643 1 831 1 309 1 168 1 718 374
Chicken 272 280 298 325 319 462
Source: Dodoma region investment guide (2019)
(i) Draw the compound line and bar graphs.
(ii) Interpret the results.
3. Study the annual rainfall (mm) from the selected stations in Tanzania for the
year 2016 and answer the questions that follows;
S/N Station Rainfall in mm
1 Bukoba 1452.9
2 Dar es Salaam 782.9
3 Mwanza 1039.3
4 Musoma 627.2
5 Kilimanjaro 492.5
6 Morogoro 587.6
Source: Tanzania Meteorological Agency (2016)

(i) Draw the multiple line graphs and interpret the results.
(ii) Find total rainfall in the regions and construct a simple pie chart,
(iii) Describe the results.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 91
 Application of statistics in geography

4. Study the data in the following table which shows forest (ha) planted in new
forest plantations established by the Tanzania Forest Services (TFS) between
2014 and 2017 and answer the questions that follows;
S/N Plantation name Total area planted by 2017 (ha)
1 Morogoro (Morogoro) 37
2 North Ruvu (Pwani) 523
3 Chato Biharamulo (Geita) 440
4 Mpepo (Ruvuma) 395
5 Iyondo Mswima (Songwe) 200
6 Korogwe (Tanga) 220
7 Buhigwe (Kigoma) 60
Source: Tanzania Forest Services (2017
(a) Construct the following;
(i) Simple divided rectangle.
(ii) Simple divided circle (simple pie chart).
(iii) Simple divided semicircle.
(iv) Proportional cirles
(b) Interpret each of result in (a) (i) -.(iii)

5. The following data shows revenue collection from NDITA investment in

million shilling as per 2021. Use the data to answer the questions that follows;

Items Revenue in million shilling Tsh

Mainland shop Zanzibar shop
Electronics 37 30
Used machines 48 61
Utensils 20 31
Sugar 55 19
Clothes 40 26
(a) Present the data using proportional divided semi-circles.
(b) Comment on the methods.
(c) Identify the alternative method (s) to depict the same data.
6. The following table shows temperature in degree centigrade and rainfall in
millimeter for Kwero meteorological station in 2007.
Months J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temp(ºC ) 22 23 29 24 25 26 28 27 25 25 24 20
Rainfall(mm) 250 250 300 350 360 380 370 150 200 250 300 350

92 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

(a) Present the data by using:

(i) Polar chart
(ii) Climography
(b) With reasons suggest the climatic region of the station.
(c) In which hemisphere is the station located?
(d) Find the median temperature.

7. The following data shows hypothetical population in the respective regions.

Region Population
Songambele 830 000
Cheju 310 000
Makikisa 570 000
Guben 180 000
Choro 270 000
Total 2 160 000
(a) Present the data using a dot map.
(b) Comment on the distribution of the population.

8. (a) Using the data given, draw a flowline map to show the movement of
vehicles between Mwanza and Dar es salaam.
From To Vehicles From To Vehicle
Mwanza Tabora 1 500 Dar es salaam Morogoro 2 500
Tabora Dodoma 2 000 Morogoro Dodoma 2 000
Dodoma Morogoro 2 400 Dodoma Tabora 1 200
Morogoro Dar es salaam 3 000
(i) What are the disadvantages of the method used in (a)?
(ii) Comment on the statistical map you have drawn in (a)
(b) Describe the stages employed in constructing dot maps.
(c) What are the limitations of dot maps?

9. Study carefully the following data and answer the questions that follow
Class interval Frequency
0-4 2
5-9 11
10 - 14 37
15 - 19 54

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 93
 Application of statistics in geography

20 - 24 28
25 - 29 09
30 - 34 01
35 - 39 03
(a) Find the range
(b) Calculate the standard deviation.
(c) What are the advantages and disadvantages of range in a given geographical
data?
10. Carefully study the following table which shows the average number of people
per tractor and the % population in agriculture by country. Then; answer the
questions that follow.
Country % of population in agriculture Number of people per tractor
Kenya 76 3 006
Korea 45 1 900
China 56 1 247
Egypt 49 1 117
Sudan 34 142
Burma 12 120
Ghana 04 38
(a) Draw a pie chart to show the number of people per tractor per country.
(b) Comment on the level of agricultural mechanisation of each country.
11. (a) Describe the isopleth map and show the procedures of constructing it.
(b) Identify the merits and demerits of isopleth maps.
12. Read carefully the hypothetical data showing cash crops production in Tanzania
in ‘000’ tonnes and then answer the questions that follow.

Cash crops production in Tanzania in ‘000’ tonnes.

Year Types of cash crops
Rice Maize Wheat
2021 2 000 1 000 3 000
2020 1 500 1 300 2 000
2019 1 200 1 000 1 000

(a) Represent data above using a compound bar graph.

94 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Application of statistics in geography

(b) Comment on the trend of production from the graph.

(c) Explain how the compound bar graph value to you?

13. With examples, explain how measures of central tendency and measures of
dispersion can be used in our daily activities.
14. Find the standard deviation of the following data:
85, 80, 55, 70, 50, 60, 45, 40, 30, 25

15. Alex has grades of 84, 65, and 76 on three Math tests. What grade must he
obtain in the next test to have an average of exactly 80 for the four tests?
16. The following table shows the values of 11 houses at Magogoni Street.
Value per house in ‘000 Tsh. Number of houses
100 1
175 5
200 4
700 1
(a) Find the mean value of these houses in Tanzania shillings.
(b) Find the median value of these houses in Tanzania shillings.
(c) State which measure of central tendency, between the mean and the median,
best represents the values of these 11 houses? Justify your answer.

17. Study the following table which shows the natural gas production for the two
sites in Tanzania from 2012 to 2017 and answer the questions that follow.

Gas field in million cubic feet (MCFT)

Year Songosongo Mnazi Bay
2012 36 233.01 672.14
2013 35 217.41 712.02
2014 33 062. 00 784.69
2015 31 384.00 5 799.41
2016 29 747.48 15 792.28
2017 29 497.32 17 960.30
Source: Tanzania Petroleum Development Cooperation (TPDC).

(a) Calculate the standard deviation of the gas product at each site.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 95
 Application of statistics in geography

(b) Compare the standard deviations between the two sites and explain the
variation of standard deviations (if any).
Based on the comparison observed in question 17 (b); what recommendations
could you provide to TPDC?
18. Range is always regarded as the least useless measure of central tendency.
Substantiate on the basis of statistical geography.
19. As a geographer, explain the relevancy of mode and mean in daily life.
20. Why measures of dispersion are regard as superior as compared to the measures
of central tendency?

96 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Chapter
Two Field research techniques

Introduction
Geography as a subject which is often studied theoretically in the classroom, can
be validated through the real-life field experiences using sense organs. In this
chapter, you will learn about sources of scientific knowledge acquisition, types,
and importance of research, research problem formulation, literature review,
hypotheses or questions formulation and process of selecting relevant research
designs. Furthermore, you will learn about sample and sampling designs, methods
and tools for data collection, data analysis, and interpretation of the results and
reporting. The competencies developed from this chapter will enable you to identify
the existing gaps in geographical knowledge and practices, conduct geographical
research and use the evolved solutions in promoting proper human practices on
the interaction with the environment.

Conceptualising research methods and preparing tools for data

Research refers to a search for knowledge collection. Also to some extent having
in order to discover the truth. It is done clues on the attitude of the respondents
systematically on a particular topic and carrying out a pilot study. Field
or issue for explaining, describing, research allows the researcher to interact
or predicting it. Field is an area or with the natural environment through
environment where the research is observations and conversations to elicit
being carried out. Thus, field research is information concerning the data sought to
normally carried out in a natural setting answer the research questions. A number
rather than structured environment of methods and techniques are used in
like laboratories and classrooms. It is field studies. Some of the commonly
the science of observing, evaluating, methods and techniques used include;
selecting and reporting on geographical observation of events in the natural
phenomena from a specific area. It settings, studying of information from
involves physical data collection from the the existing records (archival research),
real-life environment. Before conducting field experiments (experiments carried
a research, there are important things to out in natural settings) to understand
consider. These include identification relations among variables. Furthermore,
of research problem selection of an field research can use surveys for
appropriate research site, identifying collecting data from people’s actions,

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 97
 Field research techniques

thoughts, and behaviours through asking conditions from which data are gathered
questions related to their natural settings. in achieving valid research results. In
The process of conducting field research other words, conclusions are being
needs good preparation from budgeting, drawn based on true evidences collected
time schedule and well set research tools through life experiences and repeated
for data collection. observations.
Criteria of a good research Replicable: this means that research
A common characteristics to all types methods and findings of a given study
of research is application of scientific should be stated in such a way that they
method. Research being a process of allow to be verified or tested by other
collecting, organizing, analyzing and researchers. In this regard, a research is
interpreting information to answer thought to be replicable if independent
per-determined questions adhere the researcher (s) elsewhere will apply the
established criteria. A good research same methods used by the previous
has to be; researcher and arrive to the same
conclusion made in the previous study.
Systematic: meaning that, any research
should be carried out in a well-structured Cumulative: knowledge is accumulated
framework with a clear step by step as a result of time to time studies, in the
process in attaining the solutions or sense that new studies should be built
conclusions. In this case, research over what has already been done on the
starts by defining the research problem subject matter of interest. Therefore, new
followed by review of literature then knowledge adds up to the existing one.
stating research questions or formulating Theory driven: theories are very
hypothesis, selecting a research design, important in research since they connect
selecting the study area, collecting data,researchers with the existing knowledge
organizing data, analyzing data to answer as they offer a conceptual model from
questions or to test hypotheses, and which data are collected. Generally, there
finally writing a report. is no research without a theory. It may
start with theory or end-up generating
Logical: this means that, any research
a new theory.
should be guided by the rules of
appropriate organisation and flow of Objectivity; means that any research
ideas throughout the research process. should be strongly related to the research
This is mainly focusing on inductive and problem and it relies on observations
deductive reasoning approaches which from actual studies which can be either
are compulsory in decision making cross-sectional or longitudinal. Similarly,
process. conclusions should be drawn from the
available set of evidence with the aim
Empirical: meaning that a research
of avoiding biasness.
should basically be related to one or
more aspects of a real-life situations or

98 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Field research techniques

Generalisability: research as a scientific on problem solving or understanding

process allows conclusions to be of a phenomena. These are the most
generalised and universal. In the case, commonly sources of gaining experience
generalisation is made from a sample to which we are familiar with and are
the population. fundamental sources of knowledge. In
Clarity: scientific research should be sharpening comprehension and accept
precise and with good explanation. learning through these sources, several
Rigorous; research should ensure that the approaches are used. Among them are:
methods used in answering the research (a) Empiricism: this is based on our
questions are relevant and justifiable. senses. For example, through
Sources of knowledge acquisition hearing and seeing we can associate
and approaches some phenomena like sounds and
their sources. Through senses we
Throughout our lifetime we have can compare objects, phenomena
accumulated a body of knowledge. or events. Hence, our senses
The curiosity to know the environment help us to study and understand
and the need to improve our life is relationships between various
natural to human beings. Humans have concepts. For example, we can
used numerous methods and sources associate changes/variations in
to acquire knowledge. Knowledge temperature with climate change
acquisition has been mainly from; by observing temperature trends
authority from which human being for over 30 years.
learns. Some of these authorities are
teachers, parents, leaders at work or (b) Rationalism: this relies on mental
any expert who may provide the needed reflections on ideas rather than
knowledge. Such authorities may be materials. The logical links between
a source of knowledge, experience or two or more ideas, can lead us into
both. The authorities also can be books, accepting those ideas. For example,
newspapers, dictionary, encyclopedia, we may reason that, appropriate
journal, articles or websites. Knowledge farm management is expected to
is also obtained from our traditions improve crop yield per piece of
in which human being accepts many land.
traditions of their forefathers or
(c) Fideism: through beliefs, emotions
culture. For example, aspects such as
and reactions. We acquire
food, dress, religion, home remedies,
knowledge from religion by
discipline, ways of behaving and others
believing through the teachings
can be learned from traditions.
provided by our religious leaders
Furthermore, knowledge can be rather than the use of our own
acquired through experiences. That is senses or need for logical proof.
through education, own experiences

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 99
 Field research techniques

Activity 2.1 phenomenon or acquire new insight.

Secondly, to depict accurately the
In groups of five students:
characteristics or nature of a particular
(a) Classify the common sources of individual, situation or a group under
knowledge acquisition. the study; thirdly, to determine the
(b) Discuss on how the knowledge frequency or recurrence of some subjects
acquired is verified and accepted and fourthly, to test hypothesis or causal
to be true. relationship between variables in order
to develop theories and criticisms.
(c) To what extent can such means
of verification (in ‘b’ above) be
trusted? Types of research projects
Search for new knowledge has resulted
Exercise 2.1 into multiplication of researches. The
emerged variety of researches can be
Answer all questions
classified into four main categories;
1. To what extent is research a basing on the nature of information
science? sought, utility of content, the research
approach employed and objective
2. Assume you are planning for a
perspectives.
normal visit to a nearby site at your
school to appreciate geographical On the basis of nature of information
features found there. Describe sought: research can be grouped into two
how you will visit the same site categories namely, qualitative research
for a field research? and quantitative research. Qualitative
3. ‘Knowledge acquisition is research is a study which deals with
normally intrinsic in nature.’ non-numerical data. This is a form of
Explain. field research which is carried out in a
naturalistic setting that mainly generates
4. How will you prepare yourself for
qualitative data through observations
a conducting field research?
and interviews. Qualitative research
aims at describing the characteristics
The purpose of doing research of samples. Quantitative research is
the study which uses numerical data
Normally, research strives to answer
to address behaviour and attitude. It is
questions through the use of scientific
used when quantitative data are sought
procedures. The aim of a researcher is
of. It is mainly concerned with making
to uncover the hidden or undiscovered
inferences from randomly selected
knowledge. Though there are varieties
samples to a larger population. However,
of research yet the following research
with time there has been a growing need
purposes may suffice. Firstly, to
for integrating both qualitative and
gain familiarity on the researched
quantitative data in order to cross-check

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 Field research techniques

the results obtained from the combined a predetermined sites and individuals.
methods and this has given rise to mixed An example, of crossectional research is
methods research. Recently, most of studying child development behaviours
the researchers have found it logical using different groups of children with
to opt for mixed methods research in different ages but examining them at
answering research questions. one point in time.
Basing on the utility of content or nature Concerning objectives perspectives as
of subject matter, the research streams criteria we have a descriptive research.
into two categories: first category is Descriptive research is confined on
basic research which is also known explaining the conditions of variables
as fundamental research, pure or based on the situation at which data
theoretical research. The aim of these were taken. This type of research is
researches are to find out the basic truth further streamed into observational,
or principles. Normally, the generated survey and case study researches. While
findings in this case are universal observational research is concerned
likewise the utility is universal. These with seeing and tapping data in a natural
researches are generally guided by condition of the research participants
theories for example, Newton’s law of or objects, a case study deals with an
universal gravitation, Newton’s laws in-depth study confined to a single
of motion, Albert Einstein’s general participant or group. Whereas, survey
theory of relativity and many more. research deals with the study of the
The second category is experimental present phenomena and it is quantitative
or applied research or action research. in nature.
This is concerned with finding new
Other types based on objective
applications of scientific knowledge
perspectives are correlation, explanatory
to solve scientific problems such as
and exploratory research. Correlational
development of new system. Normally,
research is devoted on explaining or
the findings from this research has a
discovering the extents at which two
confined utility to the individuals who
or more variables have associations or
benefit from them.
interdependence. Whereas explanatory
With regards to the approach of research research focuses on giving reasons and
applied there are two main categories mechanisms on the existing relationships
namely, longitudinal research and between two aspects or phenomena
cross-sectional research. Longitudinal that are studied. The last category is
research deals with studying the same exploratory research which deals with
site at varying intervals of time in order investigating a situation where little is
to establish change. This is exemplified understood in the body of knowledge.
in historical and case study research. It is used to examine the possibilities
Cross-sectional is concerned with of undertaking a study in defined areas.
collecting data at one point in time from Because of its flexibility the findings

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 101
 Field research techniques

from this research provide answers to 2. Comment on the statement that,

what, who and why questions. “Knowing a research type is one
of the ways towards solving a
Activity 2.2
research problem.’’
1. In groups, brainstorm and take
note of data that may be collected
daily at school from early in the Importance of research
morning to when classes end. Using Most of the researches conducted
the brainstormed data, categorise aim at solving practical or theoretical
and indicate the type of research in problems existing in the society. Based
which they belong, each data should on such view, research provides the
fall into one research category. The basis for decision-making and planning
answers should be well organised for government policies formulation,
and submitted to the teacher for implementation, monitoring and
marking. evaluation. On the other hand, research
may be geared towards addressing
2. Visit your school library or use
the problems that directly affect the
internet sources to search and read
community.
on the types of research. Then;
The importance of research cuts across
(a) Discuss research scenario which
each of these types would be most the scientific and non-scientific fields.
appropriate and write down the Furthermore, it extends to our emerging
information you have obtained. life problems, events, phenomena and
processes that we often come across.
(i) Explanatory research
Hence, the generated solutions and
(ii) Descriptive research suggestions are required to solve the
(iii) Exploratory research frequently occurring problems. The role
of the researcher is to find their causes,
(iv) Experimental research
explanations, solutions and applications.
(v) Applied research In short, research familiarises us with
(b) Share and discuss with your the man-made and natural phenomena
fellow students, the information or issues surrounding us. Specifically,
about the research types and their research is important in the following
appropriate features. areas.
Firstly, in addressing a research
Exercise 2.2
problem which may be an existing
1. Explain the role of a research issue or phenomenon that requires
purpose in determining the solutions based on scientific studies.
dimensions of body of knowledge. Such issues may emerge anywhere in
the society and fields. Provided the
problems require scientific analysis,

102 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Field research techniques

our interests are to get an understanding such as climate change, its effects and
of the problems and propose possible suggested measures to be taken for
solutions. Secondly, research is one of either mitigation or adaptation. Seventh,
the most potential sources of knowledge research findings act as one of the
that provides us with guidelines on sources for deliberating further actions
how to verify knowledge which we in areas with noticeable progress, such
acquire. Thirdly, researches directed as the case of malaria. Despite measures
to the existing theories and concepts are taken to eradicate malaria, the cases
helpful in understanding such theories have kept on increasing. Thus, research
and finding out ways to utilize them. directed to this problem will be helpful
Fourthly, research plays part as a basis in changing practices and measures to
for governments’ planning and decision- readdress the problem. Eigth, research
making. This demand enhances the results enable us to address the existing
emphasis that researchers should always social problems and phenomena and
strive for valid and reliable researches seek solutions. Ninth, research can
for backing up the decisions. Research provide us with some new life style
provides a basis for many government and ways of living. For example, the
policies in a variety of dimensions. For increased understanding of COVID
example, research on the effectiveness -19 through research on the way it
of strategies to empower community spreads and preventive measures, we
adaptation to climate change and have experienced a drastic change in
dynamics of the crop farming practices the custom of shaking hands when we
can improve decision making in the meet as one of the ways of preventing
formulation of environmental and the spread of the pandemic.
natural resources management policies.
Exercise 2.3
Fifthly, research can benefit a number
of sectors in improving practices for
1. Describe roles of research in
example, in production, markets of
our daily life.
goods and services and shade light on
the environmental management options 2. Why is research important to
like clean production for sustainable our lives?
development. Sixth, research can lead 3. Discuss, how the government
to identification and characterisation of Tanzania can use research as
of brand-new goods and services. basis for planning and decicison
Through research we can also widen our making.
understanding of various phenomena

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 103
 Field research techniques

Research proposal and report has already been done in the topic of
writing your interest? How do you plan to do
it? Will the results be evaluated? How
Field research should be preceded by will the results be communicated? The
a research proposal and finalised by questions will be answered in different
report writing. Writing of a report must ways depending on the nature of the
be carefully done in three major sections proposed plan. Most proposals are
which are the preliminary pages, the between ten and twenty pages in length.
main text and appendices. The proposal should not be longer than
2500 words without list of references.
Research proposal
Importance of a research proposal
A research proposal is a document written
by a researcher that gives detailed Research proposal helps the researcher
explanations on how a researcher to focus on important issues about the
plans to do the research. It is a plan study. It enables the researcher to focus
suggesting what the researcher intends on which research questions need to be
to do, means of doing it, and proposes answered, how the data will be collected,
resources to accomplish the plan. It is who will provide the data and where
a descriptive plan of action, which is to will the data be obtained. It gives the
be followed in carrying out a particular researcher a chance to evaluate the study
research. It is like an outline of the whole by predicting the difficulties which are
research process that gives a reader the likely to appear and planning to solve
summary of the information discussed them before. The proposal acts as a guide
in the plan. Preparation of research to general strategies from the beginning
proposal is needed since it facilitates of research to its completion. It shades
the planning of different research light on the expected costs of the research
operations, hence making the research to enable budgeting for its completion.
as efficient as possible, yielding adequate It also provides time schedule for the
information with minimal expenditure. research. It guides the researcher to
In fact, the research proposal is the prepare material and resources in a
conceptual structure within which logical manner. The proposal enables the
research is conducted; it comprises of researcher to define the boundaries of the
the plan for the collection, organisation study and the concepts to be included.
and analysis of data. A good research It should be noted that, the better you
proposal quickly and easily answers the organise your ideas at this stage, the
following questions; what do you want more effective time and resources will be
to do? How much will it cost? How long spent. Normally, a research proposal is
will it take? What difference will it make written in future tense, since it is a plan
to your school, society or nation? What to be implemented in future.

104 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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The format of a research proposal attention and its magnitude. The origin
of the research problem may come as a
The research proposal has a format which
result of reviewing literatures, own life
is the general pattern of the organisation
experiences, discussions with colleagues
and arrangement of the study. This
or experts in the same field and others.
involves the following parts; preliminary
pages which include the title of the study, Research objectives: In this section a
the name of the researcher, year of the researcher should have the general and
study, abstract, table of contents and list specific objective. The general objective
of tables; the main body of the research articulate what the researcher intends to
proposal and the appendices. Basically, achieve while specific objectives show
the main body of a research proposal is how the main objective will be attained.
made up of the following:
Research questions or hypotheses: In
Title of the proposal: It should be short this section the researcher prefers to use
and precise ranging between 10-15 either research questions or hypotheses,
words written in such a way that it gives depending on the nature of the problem
a very quick picture on what the proposal and the field of study. For example,
is about. When writing the title there questions are very common in social
should be a consideration that, it draws sciences while hypotheses are widely
attention, creates interest and desire used in natural sciences.
to the reader to go through the entire
Significance of the study: In this section,
document.
a researcher explain why a particular
Abstract: This section offers an overview research work is needed. Basically,
of the entire research proposal ranging it offers justification of conducting
from the title to the methodology. The the proposed research and the impact
abstract has to be short but, capturing it will develop. Moreover, it clarifies
all important issues. possible contributions to knowledge
and highlights on how other researchers
Background to the research problem:
will benefit from it.
In this part, a researcher provides
background information on the topic Scope of the study: This section narrows
of interest and arguments starting from down specific issues which will be
global, regional to local levels. It is under addressed in a particular research
this part a researcher highlights on what work. Given the challenges in time and
is already known in the field, what is not finances, it is practically not possible to
known, and what the researcher wishes study everything but focusing on one
to be known in the proposed study. issue at a time.
Statement of the research problem: Limitations of study: In this section
This refers to the statement on what it is important to highlight on the
is the issue that need a researcher’s challenges that the researcher is likely

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 Field research techniques

to encounter. They are basically potential presentation. Additionally, the researcher

weaknesses to the study that are out of indicates how the study will adhere to
the researcher’s control associated with research ethics.
choice of research design, statistical
References: It refers to all documents
models, funding and other factors.
which have been used in preparing
Generally, limitations affect the study
a research proposal and are cited in
design, results and conclusions. Thus,
the text. It includes published and
the researcher should explain how each
unpublished sources such as reports,
limitation will be managed without
journal articles, books, book chapters,
affecting the quality of the study.
Newspapers, conference proceedings
Delimitation of the study: It addresses and others.
how the study will be narrowed down
Appendices: It consists of important
in scope. The purpose of this section is
supportive attachments such as;
not to respond to the question that, ‘why
I did this?’ but focusing on the question (i) Data collection tools that will be
‘why I did not do it like this?’ in other used in the field.
words, it provides reasons for rejecting a (ii) Time frame: This is the time that
certain course of actions in the research will be taken from writing of the
process. As such delimitation are in the proposal to data analysis and
researcher’s control. reporting.
Review of the literature: This involves (iii) Funding and sources of funds: This
reviewing sources which are related to is the proposed budget and the
the subject matter stated in the title. It is a breakdown which specifies how
continuation of the information provided funds will be used to complete
the work.
in background section but not repitition
also it has several subheading. It includes Activity 2.3
both theoretical and empirical reviews.
Through reviewing literature, research In groups of five students:
gap is identified; hence the researcher (a) Discuss and choose a research
avoids repeating what has already been topic from any topic of your
done by other researchers. Therefore, interest in geography.
the researcher becomes familiar with
(b) Write a research proposal of
the area of study choosen. not more than ten pages on the
Research methodology: In this section, a research topic that you have
researcher precisely gives reasons for the choosen. The research proposal
should be geographically related
choice of the study area, define methods,
and organised in accordance
tools, and techniques that will be used
with the format presented in this
in selecting sample, data collection, data chapter.
organisation, data analysis, and results

106 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Field research techniques

(c) Present your assignment (research Research report

proposal) to the class for extensive Report writing is the last step in
discussion. the research process. In this step the
(d) N o t e down suggested researcher has to write a complete
improvements and write the final report of scientific research undertaken.
draft for submitting to the subject Research report is the process of
teacher for grading. communicating the results and the care
that has been exercised throughout the
Exercise 2.4 study. In general, research report is a
detailed account of the study conducted
1. Explain the role of abstract in the or systematic report of the findings of
research proposal? a research which describes the process
2. What is the importance of and the data used in the study.
background to the research problem
Components of a research report
in a research proposal and how is
it linked to the literature review? Normally, the research report should
3. Why is research methodology have the following format as shown in
important in a research proposal? Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Research report format

Preliminaries title page, abstract, table of contents, list of figures and tables,
certification, declaration, dedication, acknowledgement and
acronyms/abbreviations used.
Chapter 1 Introduction – background to the research problem, statement of
the research problem, research hypotheses or questions, objectives
of the study, significance of the study and scope of the study.
Chapter 2 Literature review – discusses related works, it discusses what is
already known about the research topic as a whole and outlines
the key ideas and theories for familiarising the current research.
Chapter 3 Methodology – describes procedures used in research, data
collected and how it was obtained, organised, analysed and
presented.
Chapter 4 Results and discussion– show the meaning of the presented
research results, compares results from different sources included
in the study (for example from question and observation) and
relates the results to other researchers’ works in the same topic.
This is followed by conclusion in each of the subsection.

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 Field research techniques

Chapter 5 Summary, conclusion and recommendations – the conclusion

normally summarises and interprets the major findings to describe
what they mean. This part gives reasons as to why the findings
are in that manner. That is, answers the question, “So what?”.
The recommendations explain what should be done and who
should act to make the findings of the study meaningful to the
society. Recommendations should be done in relation to research
findings and not otherwise. In addition, this section also provide
/identifies area for furthery study according to stud findings.
References A collection of resources such as books, documents and reports
that were used by researcher in writing the report and appear in
the text are listed down in alphabetical order.
Appendices Attachments which may contain some of the information
related to the study such as research tools, figures, tables and
photographs.

Activity 2.4 4. Why is it important for research

In groups of five students, visit the report to be organised in separate
school library or internet sources and chapters?
read about research stages and format. 5. Distinguish between the role of
Summarise the read resources and results and discussions of findings
organise your work well. Present the in a research report
work to the class for a wider discussion.
Note down contributions from others Research process
and write your final draft which will be
In order to study and solve a problem, a
submitted to the teacher for evaluation.
research has to undergo several stages in
a well regulated and systematic manner.
Exercise 2.5 Failure in any stage is likely to affect
Answer all questions the whole research process. In order to
work systematically, a research process
1. Why the conclusion and or stages goes through a series of actions
recommendations are based on which are:
the results of the research?
Formulating the research problem
2. Compare the features of
introduction and Literature review Formulating of a research problem is an
as chapters in a research report. important step that will uncover what
3. Compare and contrast research problem is worthy studying by explaining
proposal and research report. clearly what has been documented, what
has not been documented and what needs

108 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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to be documented. The main function conception. However, one of the

of a research problem is to determine studies found out that forty percent
what needs to be researched. Basically, of women who were administered
the main sources of a research problem with contraceptive pills, conceived.
include conversation with people Some of the possible explanation on
you can gain insight and find out the this could be timing of the use of the
existing imbalances, research gaps pills, health conditions of the users, the
and issues to be researched. Moreover, effectiveness of the pills themselves in
a research problem can be identified terms of chemical composition, genetic
by exploring the interventions and variations among the users, the body
programmes that have been in place. resistance to the pills and the integrity
For example, exploring from the projects of information given by the clients.
and activities aiming at empowering Despite having detailed studies on
the community adaptation to the impact contraceptives which address types and
of climate change. Similarly, exploring their advantages to women health, there
from projects on promoting students’ have been limited studies on the factors
performance in secondary schools, affecting the use and functioning of
poverty eradication programmes, contraceptives among women. Lack of
restoration of soil fertility programmes studies in this area increases confusions
and intervention on increasing the and suffering among women and their
dissemination of weather and climate families. Therefore, this study is going to
change information. Therefore, through determine factors affecting effectiveness
critical studying in such areas one may of contraceptive pills among post-user
decide to evaluate the effectiveness of women.
one of those interventions. Another way
of establishing a research problem is Sample B: Various measures have been
based on experiences evaluating some taken by the government of Tanzania
existing phenomena and establishing in collaboration with various internal
some areas worth to be researched. and external stakeholders in eradicating
For example, one may decide to focus malaria in the country. Such measures
on the problem of water scarcity in include improvement of health facilities;
arid and semi-arid areas and decide to diagnostic measures and medications;
study the existing mechanism for water awareness raising on environmental
scarcity. As a starting point in thinkingcleanliness; removal of stagnant water
how to develop a research problem the in our neighborhoods; and provision
following samples of a research problem of protective gears such as mosquito
can be useful guides to you: nets. Despite all these measures, malaria
incidences have kept on increasing in
Sample A: It is generally accepted that
various areas including the village in
the use of contraceptive pills is one of
which this study will be conducted.
the effective methods of controlling
Although various studies have been

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 109
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conducted on the challenges of malaria consider the magnitude of the selected

and the effectiveness of malaria control topic. This will enable the researcher
measures, information is lacking on the to balance time and resources for
sociocultural factors influencing control completing the study on time. Therefore,
of malaria in the country. Therefore, this a researcher is required to narrow down
study is geared towards that end. Lack the topic hence make it manageable,
of studies of this nature is likely to limit specific and clear. Thirdly, the researcher
the government efforts towards creating should make sure that the indicators
a malaria free society, thus government’s and concepts studied are measurable
burden on treating the victims will keep and verifiable. Fourthly, the researcher
on increasing. should have adequate and appropriate
research knowledge and skills to address
Sample C: It is an acceptable fact that the the problem to be studied. Fifthly, the
impact of climate change is affecting all researcher should focus on a relevant
people equally but different in different research problem that is likely to fill
parts of the world with slightly variations the existing knowledge gap, add new
across gender differences. Most of the knowledge and improve practices in the
studies have documented on how women researched area. This will be an additional
have been affected by the impact of aspect to sustain the interest of the study.
climate change and associated adaptation Sixthly, consideration of ethical issues in
measures. However, there are limited relation to the area the researcher plans
studies on the extent of impact of climate to study is of great importance. This item
change to the elderly population and the requires the researcher’s professionalism
adaptation measures to this social age and flexibility especially when the
group. Failure to document this area previous plans affected the research
means that the vulnerability to the impact ethics. For example, dealing with
of climate change and social disturbance sensitive researches in areas like rape,
will keep on increasing and many of early marriages, HIV/AIDS and other
the elderly in society will be negatively diseases, flexibility and professionalism
affected. Therefore, this study is an are highly required in order to approach
attempt to that end. the problem wisely and successfully.
Considerations in selecting a research Criteria for a good research problem
problem There are a number of criteria that need
For manageable and sustainable to be considered in writing a research
motivation, a researcher should consider problem. A good research problem
the following when selecting a research is likely to adhere to the following
area or a research problem. Firstly, qualities: Firstly, it should be novel
interest in the area make the researcher that, the problem should come up with
to be motivated throughout the research a new process, product or principle
process. Secondly, it is important to that can help in improving practices.

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Secondly, it should be interesting in the answer the research questions or cover

sense that it draws attention and interest the gap developed in the statement of
to other people. Thirdly, it should be the problem. Research objectives should
innovative meaning that it improves the be closely related to the statement of
current or existing state of affairs and the problem and summarise what is
possibly technology. Fourthly, it should intended to be achieved by the study.
be cost effective in such a way that it Good research objectives are useful
produces good value for money, time in defining the focus of your study;
and resources. It should be addressing clearly identifying the variables to be
the problem of the community. measured; describe action to be taken in
establishing the limit of the study; they
Challenges of writing a research guide the researcher through avoiding
problem collecting unwanted data for answering
the research questions. Normally,
There are many challenges facing
research objectives are stated in such
researchers in their attempt to write
a way that they start with action verbs
quality research problems. Some of
that can easily be measured for example,
these challenges include; difficulties in
‘to compare’…, ‘to calculate’, ‘to
deciding on the topic for research, lack
assess…’, ‘to determine…’, ‘to verify…’
of good knowledge of the methodology
‘to identify…’, ‘to ascertain…’, ‘to
to be used, inability of finding current,
measure…’, ‘to explore…’. Strictly,
specialized and related references such
avoid the use of vague non-active verbs in
as books, lack of interest in research,
stating objectives such as: to appreciate,
lack of understanding the subject
to understand, to believe, to study, and
matter, structure of time limit and lack
to think because it is difficult to evaluate
of good research guidance. Others are
whether they have been achieved. Also
misconception of the research problem
address an abstract situation, such that
for example, one may think if some
even in the field it will be difficult to get
people in the community do not have
data from respondents in case of research
money, therefore, a research problem
dealing with people.
will be inadequate fund. This will make
a study something different from the
problem, because lack of money is an Activity 2.5
outcome of something else such as 1. In groups of five students select
unemployment. an interesting topic in geography,
visit the library or internet
Research objectives
sources to search for the current
Research objectives are normally
documentation. While reading,
developed after stating research problem.
write a summary of the current
They emerge from the problem as they
knowledge then;
intend to make the research focused and

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(i) Brainstorm on what is still not with reading of various previously

documented on the topic and related publications in order to enable
what will happen if it remains a researcher to be aware of how other
like that. researchers have addressed the same
(ii) Present your work to the class or related research problem. Literature
for an extensive discussion. review helps to avoid unnecessary
(iii) Write a summary of what is not repetition of studies which have already
known and highlight on what been conducted. It helps the researcher
will happen if the unknown to redefine his or her research problem,
will not be uncovered with to select appropriate sample, appropriate
reference to the discussion of tools and the research design. Generally,
your presentation. literature review is important in clarifying
(iv) Formulate statement of the and focusing the research problem; and
research problem on the topic in sharpening the research methods that
you have chosen. you will use in your study by looking at
(v) Formulate research objectives how others have used them. Literature
on the topic you have chosen. review will also enable the researcher
to broaden knowledge in the selected
Exercise 2.6 area to situate the study against other
1. Why is statement of the research related research to avoid duplication.
problem referred to as the heart of Furthermore, it helps to identify the
any research study? research gap and challenges likely to
2. Assume you have been appointed face the research process.
to assess the quality of the Form A good literature review can be
Four student’s research proposals, distinguished by several criteria. First
explain the attributes that you will of all, a literature review should be
consider in the assessment. capable of outlining the important study
3. Clearly describe the link between trends showing the current situation,
the statement of the research information and documentation done
problem and research objectives. in the area being studied. The second
4. Why are research objectives stated criterion is that, literature review needs
in action verbs? to assess the strengths and weaknesses
of the existing researches in different
Review of the literature orientations including whether
Once the problem is formulated, a methodological approaches used in the
brief critical review and summary of it existing studies they were relevance or
should be written down. At this point, the not. Furthermore, literature review should
researcher should undertake extensive assess the strengths and weaknesses of
literature survey connected with the arguments, conclusions and assumptions
problem. Literature review is concerned made by the existing studies. The third

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criterion is that, literature review should Exercise 2.7

be capable of identifying knowledge
gaps from the existing studies. In other 1. Why do we do literature review?
words, literature review should not be 2. How does the literature review
written plainly that is, agreeing with link stages of research?
most of the past literature in their entire
dimension. In this case there would be no 3. ‘Literature review has its own
need of conducting another one because features.’ Elaborate
it will be a duplication of the research
unnecessarily and wastage of resources Hypothesis formulation and research
and time. The fourth criterion is that, a questions
good literature review should be based After extensive literature survey, a
on most recent existing literature of researcher should state in clear terms
which one can establish research gap and the working hypothesis. Hypothesis is
position their work among other related a tentative assumption made in order to
studies. To sum up literature review acts draw out and test its logical or empirical
as a lock and key that well specifies the consequences. It is a tentative statement
research gap. In this part you will be in a about the relationship between two or
better position to know what is needed in more variables. It provides the focal
the research you are conducting, where point for research, guide the researcher
to conduct it, and how your findings fill by delimiting the areas of research
in the gap you have established. and keep him/her on the right track.
Hypothesis also indicates type of data
Activity 2.6 required, methods of data analysis and
draws conclusion.
1. In groups of five students revisit
the topic you have chosen in Basically, there are two types of
statement of the problem and the hypotheses; null hypothesis and
research objectives (items iv and alternative hypothesis. Null hypothesis
v in Activity 2.5). Then conduct a is stated in a negative way or by using
thorough literature review on the negative statement for example, there
chosen topics, thereafter do the is no relationship between population
following questions. growth and development; rate of survival
(i) Briefly state how others will not increase after surgery; a high
(from literature) have cholesterol intake is not associated with
addressed the research development (risk) of cancer; smoking
problem. is not a cause of cancer; existence of
(ii) Briefly redefine the research informal institutions is not associated
problem. with minimal conflicts in project
(iii) State the main and specific areas. Alternative hypothesis is stated
objectives. to indicate the actual expectation or

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relationship. It is usually a positive the first words used in the hypothesis

statement about certain variables, for “There is” with the words “Is there”
example, there is a relationship between and also replacing the period with
truancy in schools and poor performance question mark. For examples, Is there
in academics; Other examples, the rate any relationship between population
growth and development?
of survival will increase after surgery;
a high cholesterol intake is associated Types of research questions
with the development of heart disease;
There are three types of research
cigarette smoking is a cause of cancer;
questions which are;
existence of informal institutions
in water projects is associated with Firstly, a descriptive research question;
minimal conflicts in the project areas. this seeks to identify and describe
some phenomenon. For example:
Generally, there are many sources that
Will the rate of survival increase
can enable a researcher to formulate after surgery? Secondly, a differences
a hypothesis. The main sources of research question; this asks if there
hypothesis formulation include personal are differences between groups on
experiences, imagination and thinking, some phenomenon. For example: do
observation of phenomena, scientific students who engage in remedial classes
theories, reviewing previous studies and perform better than students who
cultural disposition. engage in sports activities? Thirdly,
a relationship research question; this
A good stated hypothesis can be asks if two or more phenomena are
identified by observing the following related in some systematic manner. For
criteria: it should be stated in the simplest
instance, Is the existence of informal
terms which ensure easy understanding institutions associated with minimal
by others; it should not conflict with conflicts in the areas?
any law of nature which is known to be Activity 2.7
true; and it permits the application of
1. In groups of five students
desirable reasoning. Other qualities are use personal experiences,
hypothesis should be limited in scope imaginations, thinking, observation
and must be specific; it should be capable of phenomenon or scientific
of being tested within specific time; and theories to:
should allow the application of deductive
(a) Brainstorm about ten
reasoning.
hypotheses in your area of
Research questions interest in geography.

Research questions are the specific (b) Assess the quality of

issues that the study wants to hypotheses.
investigate from data collection and (c) Present your hypotheses and
that data will answer them. In writing research questions to the class
research questions, one can replace for an extensive discussion.

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Re-write your hypotheses interpretation and reporting. It will

and research questions with also reduce unnecessary expenditure
improvements you got from by having predefined activities and
the class discussion. resources. Usually, research designs
2. In groups of five students, visit vary with varying nature of studies.
your school library or internet The commonly used research design are,
sources and read to answer the ‘snap-shot’ or baseline sometimes called
following questions: case-study, cross-sectional, longitudinal
(a) Identify challenges faced by and experimental research design.
researchers in formulating Snap-shot or baseline is concerned with
good hypotheses and research in-depth studies aimed at searching
questions. of the current and past behaviors and
(b) Present your work to the class experiences for a single person, family,
for detailed discussion. group, or organization. Usually, the
(c) After discussion, write findings from this kind of design cannot
answers in your exercise book. be generalized. Cross-sectional research
design is a survey design in which data
(d) Rewrite the work with
amendments recorded during are collected at one point in time from a
the discussion in class. predetermined population. Data from this
design is normally used to describe the
Exercise 2.8 characteristics of the studied sample with
regard to the population when data were
1. How does hypothesis and research collected. Longitudinal research design
questions play part in narrowing is a form of survey in which data from
the study? the same area is collected at different
time interval for the sake of investigating
2. Explain how you would
the changes of a studied population over
differentiate a collection of
time. It can be after several months or
hypothesis.
years. For example, studies of climate
change in mountain climate before
Research design awareness on climate change and studies
Research design is concerned with a at different intervals after awareness
systematic and well-planned means for have enabled us to note rapid decrease
conducting a research. It is a systematic in icecaps over the mountain than it was
way of finding out new knowledge. A in the past. Meanwhile, experimental
research design is a conceptual structure research design can be used to establish
for conducting the research. Preparation cause - effect relationships between the
of the research design will smoothen independent and dependent variables
the processes of sampling, methods by means of manipulating the variables
and tools for data collection, analysis, studied through controlling them or

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randomisation. Alternatively, the studies Exercise 2.9

conducted by using this design can Answer all questions
compare groups that are closely related 1. Why is a research design regarded
or introduce an intervening variable as a road map of the research work?
from which a researcher can examine 2. Researchers are selective on
changes among the groups. For example, research designs. Explain.
studying two groups in which one of the 3. In what ways does a research
two was intervened with an activity or design act as a determinant of
project and the other not subjected to research?
an activity.
Target population, sample and
Activity 2.8 sampling techniques
1. In group of five students, brainstorm In statistical geography, sampling
on researches which you know, is concerned with the selection of a
match them with relevant research subset of elements or individuals from
designs and give reasons for the a population to estimate characteristics
matching obtained. Present your of the whole population (also, known
work to the class for an extensive as target population or universe).
discussion. Each observation measures one or
more properties (such as weight,
2. In a group of five students attempt location or colour) of observable
the following; bodies distinguished as independent
objects or individuals. Below are
(a) Use the internet, reference
books and text books to read important definitions of the commonly
about research designs. terminologies used in studies dealing
with population.
(b) Discuss the strengths and
weaknesses of longitudinal Target population: This is entire
research design and explain population that the results of the survey
when a longitudinal research should be representing. The target
design would be preferred population can be the entire country,
over cross-sectional research region, district, intervened villages,
design. Summarize your cropland or rivers or cattle. Normally,
answers. the sample is selected from the target
(c) Present the summary of (a) population. For the case of smaller
and (b) to the class for a more population, it is advised to study the
intensive discussion. entire population.
(d) Take note of all important
Elements: These include individual
contributions given and write
the final draft of your work. persons, objects, or units about which
information is collected. Thus, totality
of elements forms population.

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Sample: The sample is also known Examples:

as the subset of the target population
Assuming the basic population
because it is selected from the
amounts to 1000 persons and the
population. It is also referred to as
desired margin of error is 0.05, then
the composition of the set of elements
the minimum sample size would be:
from the population. It must be selected
according to principles of sampling and 1 000 1 000
n= = ≈ 286
this will make it a more representative ( )
1 + 1 000 × (0.05)2 1 + 2.5
of the total population. This means data from a minimum of
286 randomly selected respondents
Sample Size: is a proportional set
would be needed for the survey.
of elements selected from the target
population. Often in probability studies (b) For infinite population
it is recommended that sample to be Z 2 × p (1 − p)
optimal enough for data collection. Too n=
e2
small size is likely to increase errors Where;
in the data collected while too large
sample size will have implications on Z= the area under the normal curve
time and cost. However it is generally corresponding to the defined level
recommended that sample size should of confidence;
be proportional to the size of population p= the true share of the population
in case of finite universe. That is the that displays a certain characteristic
larger the population, the larger the (for example, female population)
sample and the smaller the population
e = the desired margin of error
the smaller the sample. In probability
studies sample size can be estimated For most common levels of
by using scientific methods as shown confidence equals as follows:
in the formula (a) and (b) below. 90%: Z = 1.645; 95%: Z = 1.960; 99%:
Z = 2.575; 99.9%: Z = 3.290
(a) For the finite population
N For example, for a population in which
n= 48% are female and the desired margin
1 + N ( e) 2
of error is 0.05, the minimum sample
size would be:
Where;
1.962 × 0.48 × (1 − 0.48)
n = sample size, N = population size n= ≈ 384
0.052
(for example total households), and
Sampling frame: is a list of units in the
population, for example a register of
e = the level of precision (desired
workers at an X secondary school in
margin of error)
Mwanza, students’ enrollment from the

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attendance register, group members in Sampling techniques

sports and list of pastoralists in ward Sampling is a process of selecting a
or village Y. The sampling frame representative of a population from
should be checked from time to time which the data will be drawn on behalf
to avoid people who were not in the of the entire population. Carefulness is
list to be counted. The list should also crucial at this stage as the researcher
be up dated as required. For instance, narrows the data source to the sample.
it is better to get the sampling frame Dealing with a sample is rewarding
from the studied village rather than in many ways. The appropriately
depending on the census survey which selected sample will save resources
may sometimes be out of date. and time; ensure accuracy and produce
Activity 2.9 manageable data. A well-designed
sample can represent the intended
1. (a) In groups of five students, visit population. The major categories of
the school office and ask for the sampling techniques are probability
attendance register for at least and non-probability sampling.
two different classes and record
the registered number of students Probability sampling
as per the respective attendance. It is a method of selecting sample
Consider the number of students as whereby every individual in the
a population and use it to estimate population has equal chance of being
the sample size. Give reasons for selected. Probability methods include;
variation of sample size of the simple random sampling, systematic
different classes. sampling, stratified sampling, cluster
(b) In groups of five students sampling, and multi-stage sampling.
use the number of all prefects
Simple random sampling technique
with their respective classes as a
population to estimate the sample It is the basic sampling technique
size. Give detailed description of whereby each member from the
your findings. population has an equal chance of
being chosen. Each individual is
Exercise 2.10 chosen entirely by chance and each
member of the population has an equal
1. Explain why researchers strive to chance of being included in the sample.
maximize the size of the sample For example, a class of twelve students
for collecting data? may write their names on a piece of
2. Compare and contrast population paper, and then the papers are rolled
and sample size. and mixed. Then one of the students
can pick randomly only four names to
3. Compare and contrast target be included in the sample (Figure 2.1).
population and sampling frame.

118 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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Sample
Population

Figure 2.1: Simple random sampling technique.

One of the best things about simple people. Furthermore, the technique
random sampling is its ease of use in is not practical to a large sampling
extracting the sample. It is also considered frame, distortion of representation of
as a fair way of selecting a sample the minority groups of interests, and
from a given population since every it is time consuming with high labour
member within a target population is requirements in case of large population.
given equal opportunity of being chosen.
Systematic sampling technique
Another interesting feature of the simple
Systematic sampling is a random
random sampling is the representation
sampling technique in which members
of the population. It is unbiased and the
from a larger population are selected
representative sample enables drawing
based on regular interval and systematic
conclusions from the results of a study.
order. Thus, a sampling interval is
Therefore, simple random sampling is
required.
reasonable in generalising the results of
the sample to population from which it Sampling interval K =
is drawn. However, the technique has Where;
the following limitations. It needs a
N = The number of element in the
complete list of all the members of the
population.
population. It is only convenient when
working with small population that has n = The number of elements for the
already been identified and listed. Simple sample.
random sampling can provide accurate In systematic random sampling, the
results but it will not give you detailed researcher first randomly picks the first
information about specific groups of item or subject from the population.

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Then, the researcher will select each subject from the list. For example, in a class
a researcher may decide to pick every third student in a row to get the total of four
students as a sample, for example, if N = 12 and n = 4, therefore K = =3. In the
first 3 elements number 2 is picked randomly. Then for the next three numbers,
one number is picked at every third member (Figure 2.2).

Figure 2. 2: Systematic sampling technique

Systematic sampling is simple since it before sampling. Every element in the

allows the researcher to add a degree population must be assigned to only one
of system or process into the random stratum; then simple random sampling
selection of subjects. The assurance that or systematic sampling is applied within
the population will be evenly sampled to each stratum. Examples of strata or sub-
ensure even coverage of an area is another groups from a population include men
advantage. It is very simple to use since it and women, rich and poor, employed
saves time and cost. However, systematic and unemployed.
sampling technique is accompanied with
some shortfalls including the hidden The measurements within strata have
periodicity within the population may lower standard stratification which gives
distort the representation of a population. a smaller error in estimation. Many
Furthermore, systematic sampling is applications, measurements become
difficult to adjust sample to suit the more manageable and/or cheaper when
circumstances and it is not practical for the population is grouped into strata.
fragmented strata. It is often desirable to have estimates
of population parameters for groups
Stratified sampling technique within the population. Several conditions
This is a probability sampling technique must be met for it to be used properly.
whereby the researcher divides the entire Researchers must identify every member
population into different sub-groups or of a population being studied and
strata, then randomly selects the final classify them into one, and only one sub-
proportionally from different strata. The population. However, the sorting process
population is based on strata. Stratification becomes more difficult and inaccurate
is the process of dividing members of the for each member of the population
population into homogeneous subgroups stratum. It is also inconvenient as it may

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require more administrative clearance in various strata and the computationally

complexity is another constraint. Figure 2.3 shows three strata, A, B, and C, one
stratum with 6 members and the other two with 3 members each. Proportionally
the 2 strata with 3 members each were presented by 1 member and the one with
six was represented randomly by 2 members.

Figure 2. 3: Stratified sampling technique

Cluster sampling technique is compensated by the possibility of

It is a method of sampling used when studying larger samples without extra
the total area of interest is large. The cost. A cluster sampling procedure
sample is obtained by dividing the area enables obtaining information from one
into a number of small non- over lapping or more areas.
areas and then samples are selected
In a cluster sampling, each cluster may
randomly from these smaller areas called
be composed of unit that are not similar.
clusters (Figure 2.4) This is applied
This pattern has a likelihood of producing
when the entire population is unclear
large sampling error and reduce the
or unknown and the sample clusters
representatives of the sample. In cluster
are geographically convenient. When
sampling, when unequal size of some
the clusters are natural in a population,
of the subsets is selected, an element
cluster sampling is less expensive and
of sample bias will rise. This type of
quicker. Cluster sample permits each
sampling does not allow generalisation
accumulation of large samples. The
of its findings to another area. In Figure
loss of precision per individual case

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 Field research techniques

2.4 there are six clusters; A, B, C, D, E, and F where two clusters C and F have
been randomly picked.

Figure 2. 4: Cluster sampling technique

Multi-stage sampling technique determined households in Tanzania,

Multi-stage sampling is concerned with through simple random sampling one
taking samples of preceding random can choose number of regions let us say
samples. This sampling technique is more five, and out of five may choose through
complex than cluster sampling which randomisation four districts in each
contains two or more stages in a sample region. Furthermore, from the districts
selection. In simple terms in multi-stage chosen may choose four wards and lastly
sampling large clusters of population are two villages from all wards. From these
divided into smaller clusters in several villages, it is where the households will
stages in order to make primary data be picked randomly for administering
collection more manageable (Figure a questionnaire (Figure 2.5). This
2.5). This technique probably solves technique is effective in primary data
more of the problems inherent in random collection from geographically dispersed
sampling. It is more useful in incidents population when face-to-face contact
when there are completely no sampling is required. It is also time and cost
frames. Moreover, by avoiding the use of effective and has high level of flexibility.
all sample units in all selected clusters, However, it has limitations such as, high
multistage sampling avoids the large and level of subjectivity, lack representation
perhaps unnecessary costs associated of a population and complex planning
with traditional cluster sampling. By and administrative issues are required
considering a study with already pre- to accomplish.

122 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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Figure 2. 5: Multi-stage sampling technique

Note: The shaded boxes indicate the randomly selected cluster or a participant
who has been selected.

Non probability sampling a sample of 35 females and 45 males

aged between 45 and 60 from a certain
This is a type of sampling in which
population. The technique lacks the
members of the population have equal
representativeness and it is biased.
chance of being included in the sample.
Members to be included in a sample Convenience sampling technique
are chosen from the population in some
This is the type of non-probability
non-random manner. Non probability
sampling method which is applied
sampling consists of quota sampling,
when the members of the population
convenience sampling, purposive
are convenient to the sample.
sampling, snowball sampling and
Convenience sampling is also known
voluntary (self-selected) sampling.
as grab or opportunity sampling or
Quota sampling technique accidental. In this technique, most
of the elements in a population that
Under quota sampling the interviewers happens to be present at the time
are simply given quotas to be filled of conducting research are selected
from different strata with some for study. The researcher opts for it
restrictions on how they are to be filled. when he/she is interested in obtaining
In other words, the actual selection of information cheaply. Like many other
the item for the sample is left to the non-probability sampling it faces the
interviewer’s discretion. For example, limitation of lacking representativeness
the researcher may be asked to draw and it is subjected to biasness.

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Purposive sampling technique Activity 2.10

This is the type of non-probability In a group of five students do the
sampling where a researcher selects following:
only those cases, thought to be typical (a) Identify all the subject
characteristics of the population. combinations available at your
Purposive sampling is also known as school and consider them as a
judgmental sampling. The researcher target population and establish
selects the samples based purely on the the total number of students.
(based on the attendance sheets/
self knowledge and credibility. In other
registration lists).
words, researchers choose only those
people whom they deem fit to participate (b) Then pick small pieces of paper
in the study. It is one of the most cost and list the names of classes/
and time-effective sampling methods combinations (for example Form
available. However, the technique has I, Form II, Form III Form IV or
EGM, HGL, HGK, PCB and
the following limitations: vulnerability
PCM) collect those paper put them
to errors in judgment by researcher,
in a container shake and pick one
low level of reliability and high level of at a time. Repeat the exercise until
biasness which subjects the research to you get the number of classes you
inability to generalize research findings. wish to study (make sure classes
to be studied are more than 2).
Snowball sampling technique (c) Find the total number of the
Snowball sampling is a special non- chosen classes and apply the
probability method used when the desired formula for finite population to
determine the sample size to be
sample characteristic is rare. It may be
studied.
extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to
locate respondents in these situations. It (d) Proportionately distribute the
relies on referrals from initial subjects calculated sample based on the
to identify additional subjects. This total number of the specific
technique is preferable in sensitive areas chosen group.
like drug abuse, domestic violence and (e) Summarise all the results obtained
investigative studies on sex workers. in each step and present your
Though the costs of conducting research work to the class for an intensive
are lowered; however, it introduces discussion.
biasness because the technique itself (f) Later organise your work properly
reduces the likelihood that the sample after effecting amendment from
will be representative of the entire the discussion and submit it for
population. evaluation.

124 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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Exercise 2.11 journal articles and other unpublished

documents. These are second hand
1. Describe the probability and non-
information obtained from already made
probability sampling techniques
material or documents. Methods for data
and show their merits and demerits.
collection are defined depending on
2. What are the advantages and mode of conducting research and types of
disadvantages of studying a sample data collected. Data collection tools also
rather that entire population? known as instruments for data collection
stands for various pre-designed means for
3. Clearly, compare cluster and capturing data in the field. The research
stratified sampling techniques. tools are classified with respect to the
4. “Multi-stage sampling technically data collection methods. The following
integrates other sampling are data collection methods:
techniques to achieve its goal.” Household survey
Explain.
Household survey is a method of
collecting data achieved by asking a
Data collection sample of participants questions in order
Proper planned methods and tools for to get information about a population
data collection is one among the means represented by the sample. Usually, it
for increasing accuracy, correctness, has slightly different names depending
precision and validity of data to be on the type and extent of data required.
collected. Data collection is a fieldwork For example, there are households’
where the researcher goes to the field surveys, census surveys, land surveys
and collects facts expected to answer and engineering surveys. In the context
the identified problem. of this topic, the focus is on household
survey. Despite survey being preferred in
Data collection methods
gathering of data related to perceptions,
Data may be collected from primary opinions and ideas still they have several
and secondary sources. Primary data limitations such as less accuracy in
are the data collected directly from the measuring behaviour, too much demand
field by the researcher using his or her for sample representativeness and low
own sense organs such as, mouth, eye, response rates.
ear, skin and nose. They are first-hand
data collected through the use of various The data collection instrument in the
methods such as survey, observation, household surveys is called questionnaire.
interview, focus group discussion and The questionnaire can be divided into
documentary review or measurement. structured and unstructured. Structured
Secondary data refers to data collected questionnaire refers to systematically
by the researcher from existing sources prepared questions in a written form
such as books, magazines, pamphlets, with a range of pre-determined responses

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 Field research techniques

(options/answer) that the respondent did you come to know the effects of
can select. The prepared questions smoking? Can you list those effects?
with answers are called closed-ended- How can the non-smokers be affected
questions. For the case of unstructured with smoking? What is your opinion
questionnaire the same questions are to people addicted with smoking? The
composed but mostly dominated with following is an example of the structured
open-ended questions. For example, are questionnaire for household survey;
you aware of cigarette smoking? How

Survey questionnaire (Sample)

This research aims at collecting data to complete a research project as a requirement to
successful completion of advanced level secondary school education. Therefore, the
data collected from this research will strictly be for educational purposes and not any
other uses.
Household’s data
1. Are you the head of the household? Yes/No
2. Total number of members in your household: Male…; Female….; grown-ups ....
(>18 years); children ….. (<18 years).
3. Level of education of the household member: 1. Illiterate 2. Primary 3. Secondary
4. Above.
4. How many members have been employed?.............
5. Information on employment of the household head: 1. Unemployed 2. Petty trade
3. Civil servant 4. Own business 5. Private employee 6. Other (please specify)
…………..................................................................................................................
6. The average monthly income in a household: 1. Less than Tsh 50 000 2. Tsh 50
001-100 000 3. Tsh 100 001- 500 000 4. 500 001- 1 000 000 5. Greater than Tsh
1 000 000
7. How often do family members watch Television? 1. (>3 hours) 2. Everyday 3. Once
a week 4. Once a month 5. Almost never.
8. Do you think the media has raised awareness on solid waste management? 1. Yes
2. No (if yes, cont. to Qn 9, if not, cont. to Qn 10).
9. Which mass media has been most useful for you in awareness raising? 1. Radio 2.
Television 3. Newspaper 4. Social media (WhatsApp/Facebook /Instagram/ twitter/)
5. Mobile short message service (sms).
10. Where do you normally store your household waste?
Storage type Number of days per week
Pit/rubbish halls ………………………
Plastic bags ………………………
Other (please specify)………………… ………………………..

126 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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Usually, structured questionnaires are some activities during implementation

tedious to prepare but easy to fill in. They of the project. When dealing with the
are easy to analyse and more efficient key informant interview, the interview
when dealing with large sample. On the guides are the main instruments used
contrary, unstructured questionnaires in collecting data from experienced
are easy to construct since they are people in the field with regard to the
dominated with open ended questions study conducted. Through in this
but difficult for the respondents to fill in method, data will solely be qualitative,
cases when they are required to do it on challenging to analyse and cannot
their own time. For example, those which be generalized. The following is an
are sent through mail. In addition, they example of the key informant interview
pose difficulties in analysing although guide for assessing the effectiveness of
they provide rich data. Furthermore, the project.
their interpretation is subject to bias. The
Focus group discussion (FGD)
questionnaire can be administered to the
respondents in different ways commonly Focus group discussion is concerned
through face-to-face interaction which with collecting qualitative data from a
is helpful in overcoming language small sample, often homogeneous group
barriers and influencing good response of people within the studied population
rates. However, it is time and resource to explore their ideas on a particular
consuming. Other methods are phone call topic based on their life experiences.
and mailing or posting questionnaires The group should not be too large to
in websites but the methods are more allow everyone to have a chance to
challenging in terms of response rates participate and should not take long time.
and managing language barrier which The group should also not be very small
has additional limitation related to to allow wide range of ideas from group
the unguaranteed turn-up of answered members. The method is recommended
questionnaire. when the researcher aims at not only
collecting interesting information, but
Interview also identifying issues and themes
Key informant interview is mainly that are related to the objectives of the
concerned with collecting qualitative research be conducted. Generally, the
data from skilled people on the focus group discussion is impractical in
topic not based on their educational situations where the language barriers
knowledge and level but their stake cannot be controlled, the researcher
on the topic investigated. For example, has little control over the situation;
if the research is about assessing the trust among the participants cannot
effectiveness of a given project, the be established; and free expressions
research should involve people from the and confidentiality cannot be ensured.
government or private institutions who In this method, checklist is used in
in one way or another were involved in data collection. Checklist is a set of

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 Field research techniques

logical pre-designed questions for data include: analysis of the collected data is
collection from focused group members time consuming and participants are not
in the field. true representatives of the population
from which are drawn. For instance,
Some of the advantages of focus group
if drawn from a village they will not
discussion are as follows: can be
represent all villagers. Thus, the data
conducted relatively quickly and easily;
will be biased and some members can
it allows flexibility in modifying the
be dominated by others. The following
process and questions and it can explore
is an example of focus group discussion
different perspectives from the group
checklist.
participants. Some of its disadvantages

Focus group discussion checklist (sample)

1. What are your opinions about the ongoing water project management practices
in your village?

2. Are you satisfied with the way village water project management is done?

3. What is going well in village with the project management?

4. What is not going well in the project management that you are dissatisfied with?

5. What kind of things would you like to see happening?

6. How about the issue of transparency among the water committee leader entrusted
with overseeing the project and collecting revenue? How about accountability?
What do you think about these?

7. Some people have said that one way to improve X is to do Y. Do you agree
with this? (Or, how do you feel about that?).

8. Are there other recommendations that you would like to make?

9. Are there any other things you would like to say before we wind up?

• Can you say more about that? [mention the aspect]

• Can you give an example?

• Jane says X. What is your opinion on that?

128 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Field research techniques

Interview guide for the key informant (sample)

1. Name of institution …………………………… date………………….
2. What is your current position?
3. Are you a focal person in the climate change adaptation implemented in village
X?
4. Based on your participation in the project, what is your opinion on the impact
of the project on livelihood and the environment?
5. With respect to your response in question 4, what is the most important factor
that motivated people in the project area to participate in the associated activities?
6. Did the project sustainably empower the community? If so, how?
7. In your opinion, what are the main reasons for some villagers to drop the
activities in the project?
8. What should be done to sustain the project activities?
9. In your opinion, was the project gender responsive?

Observation method the associated tools are opted when

there is a need for direct information,
Observation is a data collection method in to understand the ongoing behavior.
which a researcher collects information There is physical evidence, products,
in the field-based on visualisation. activities or outputs that can be observed
Tools used for data collection are and need for alternative data in cases
observation guide, recording sheet other means of data collection seem
and field notes. The observation guide to be impractical. The following is an
can be divided into semi-structured example of semi-structured observation
and structured observations guides. guide for forest surveillance activity in
Normally, observation method and a given forest studied;

How does the activity take place in semi-structured observation guide (sample)? For
example.
• Who is taking part?
• Number of participants ..........
• Nature of activity and forest surveillance ..........
• Time and location of the activity.
• How is the activity organised?
• What are the roles of participants and responsibilities?
• Who makes decision and for who?
• Are the resources made available to environmental surveillance team? For example,
special equipment, mobile phones and means of transport for surveillance.

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Although, observation method is Present the work to the class for

beneficial in collecting direct and real discussion and make any useful
time data still it has some limitations amendments for improving it.
such as it is observer biased, potentially
unreliable, interpretation and coding Data analysis and presentation
challenges; sampling can be a problem
After the data has been collected, the
and it can be labour intensive.
researcher has to do analysis. The
Transect walk researcher should classify and organise
Transect walk is a team-based field the raw data into some purposeful
walk along a defined path (transect) and usable categories. Data analysis
across the community or project area involves recording and storage of data
together with the local people often in a computer. For quantitative data will
for the sake of collecting geographical be followed by computing mean, mode,
data on various aspects by observing, median, range and standard deviation
asking, listening, watching and at the where required. The analysed data are
end producing a transect map or diagram. presented in various formats such as
The data collection tools in this method tables, graphs, charts and maps, while
include observation guide, recording qualitative data are grouped in themes
sheet and field notes. Transect walks are or topics.
usually preferred when the researcher
is interested in collecting direct data However, in case of qualitative data,
by observing people, surroundings this can be analysed through thematic
and resources in their natural settings. and content analysis. Thematic analysis
However, this data collection method emphasises on identifying, analyzing
demands good observation skills. and interpreting the pattern of meaning
of themes within qualitative data.
Activity 2.11 Content analysis examines patterns in
In groups of five students do the communication in a systematic manner.
following: The purpose of data presentation is
1. Select a topic in geography and to display the results in a presentable
brainstorm possible objectives of manner to enable easy interpretation and
studying that topic then compose report writing.
the following tools for data
collection; Hypothesis testing
(a) Questionnaire for household In this stage the researcher finds out
survey. whether the facts from the field support
the formulated hypothesis. Meaning
(b) Checklist for focus group
that, research results obtained from the
discussion .
field are used to make decisions whether
(c) Observation guide for
they support the hypothesis or not. On
observation.

130 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Field research techniques

testing the hypothesis, two possible to the researcher in arriving to

outcomes are expected, that is, the generalisation and building a theory.
findings may support or not support the As a matter of fact, the real value of
hypothesis. In case the findings do not research lies in its ability to arrive at
support the hypothesis, new hypotheses certain generalizations. As researcher
can be formulated, restarted basing on who has no hypothesis to test might seek
the findings and re-tested. In case the to explain the findings on the basis of
results are supported by the hypothesis some relevant theory or theories that
you can go directly to generalisation. underpinned the study. Finally, the
researcher has to prepare the report of
Generalizations and Interpretation
the findings.
If a hypothesis is tested and supported
several times, it can increase confidence
Revision exercise 2
Answer all questions.
1. Give an account of research methods and methodology.
2. ‘There is no need of conducting research in Tanzania.’ Comment on the
statement.
3. Distinguish between structured and unstructured questionnaire.
4. Give a brief account of the following data collection methods used in field
research.
(a) Household survey
(b) Interview
(c) Focus group discussion
5. Distinguish between structured interview and unstructured interview.
6. Discuss the roles of research in daily life.
7. Describe the challenges encountered by a researcher when conducting a research.
8. A research is logical and systematic procedure, state the stages to be used or
considered in conducting a research.
9. With examples, explain how you can conduct a field research.
10. In which circumstances would you opt to use,
(a) Observation method
(b) Household survey
(c) Interview
(d) Focus group discussion

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 Field research techniques

11. Mr Rogwa is an environmentalist from Jozani village in Zanzibar. He receives

some claims from his fellow villagers on the rate of deforestation from making
charcoal. He decided to conduct a research for his society.
(a) Suggest type of research which might be used by Mr Rogwa and give the
reason.
(b) Elaborate basic requirements to be considered by Mr Rogwa in conducting
this research.
(c) Explain four objectives for his research.
(d) Identify three problems that Mr Rogwa may encounter in conducting this
research.

132 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Chapter
Three Simple survey and mapping

Introduction
Surveying and mapping have remained important disciplines throughout the
history of human beings. In the past, humans used land and astronomic surveys
to set important marks of positions on their land or water. However, in the modern
era, surveys are used for determining site locations, demarcating boundaries of
land parcels, setting out engineering structures, and map making for various
land uses. In this chapter you will learn the concept of survey, process in survey,
classification of surveys, chain survey, compass survey, plane table survey and
levelling survey. The competencies acquired from this chapter will enable you to
determine locations of points using different land surveying methods.

Concept of land survey described ways of measuring distant

Since ancient time, land surveying has objects. The work of Liuhui founded
been used to set important marks on the growth of survey which was later
the land. The established marks, also recognized by Romans as a profession.
referred to as control points were used Thus, land surveying or geomatics as a
to establish position of features. For profession can be defined as the science,
instance, in ancient Egypt surveyors art, and technology of determining the
called rope stretchers used the control relative positions of points or features
points and simple geometry to re- above, on, or beneath the earth’s surface.
establish marks of boundaries swept-off The determination of such relative
by annual floods of the Nile River. The position involves measurements of
name rope stretchers originated from a distances, height and angles; which
marked rope which was their principal results to graphical or numerical
tool of survey, and the today’s chain presentation of measured values.
survey originated from this marked
rope surveying. It was associated with Land surveying supplies data by which
making linear measurement between accurate space-based plans and maps
the established points or stations. In his of the earth’s surface or part are made.
work, “The sea island Mathematical Survey can aid proper land management
Manual” published in 263 AD, the and administration in ecumene. The
ancient Chinese mathematician, Liuhui, planning of proper layout of streets and

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 133
 Simple survey and mapping

water supplying network, division of arable land for farming and other services
are significant contributions of land survey.

Influence of technological development in surveying

Land survey is part and parcel of

human life and his development.
Land surveying aims at establishing
boundaries, creating navigation
maps, and creating plan and maps for
different land uses. To accomplish
such tasks, humans have been
innovating tools for taking linear,
angular, and area measurements.
Figure 3.1: Ancient Egyptian survey

While the purpose of surveying has remained the same since ancient Egyptian
survey (3000 BC) (Figure 3.1), surveying instrument have evolved drastically with
technological development. The linear measurement instrument have evolved from
chains and Gunter’s steel band through steel band and metal tapes to Electronic
Distance Measurement (EDM) instruments (Figure 3.2). Subsequently, the Global
Positioning Systems (GPS) devices have improved efficiency and greater accuracy
of measurement than any other preceding instruments.

Chain Invar-tape Electronic distance GPS device

measuring device (EDM)

Figure 3. 2: Evolution of distance measuring instruments

Just as it was for linear measurements, instruments for angular measurements have
also evolved significantly from the Egyptian Groma (which has been perpetuated by
the cross-staff and its successor, the optical square) through dioptra to the compass
like-instruments called astrolabe. The dioptra and astrolabe were followed by
sextants, which are more professional and accurate. Evolution of modern angular

134 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Simple survey and mapping

measurements began with compasses that were followed by Transit, Theodolites and
Total stations (Figure 3.3). A total station is a multipurpose surveying instrument
that combine the functions of Transit level or Theodolite and electronic distance
measurement (EDM) into a single instrument.

Model of Egyptian
Model of Dioptra Astrolabe
Groma

Total station Theodolite Sextant

Figure 3. 3: Evolution of angular measuring instruments

Modern angular measurement instruments use principles of electronics to

calculate angles and distances. Morphologically, there is only a slight difference
between Theodolite and Total station. The main difference is on their function
and applications. Total station is used to measure both angles and distances while
Theodolite is used to measure angles only.
However, in this chapter you will learn basic surveying techniques using basic
instruments to understand principles of surveying, which also apply when using
modern instruments.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 135
 Simple survey and mapping

Procedures and process in land discipline. The two classes are types of
surveying surveys with their differences rooting
Most of land surveying involves three on the key assumptions they hold.
important processes: reconnaissance, Geodetic land survey assumes the Earth
fieldwork and office work. as curved surface (ellipsoid) and that
Reconnaissance is the first process in any computation must consider the
land surveying in which the surveyor ellipsoidal nature of the surface, while
gets a general view of the area to be the plane surveys assume the earth’s
surveyed. In this step, a surveyor surface as flat. However, the terms plane
gathers information related to the area surveys and plane table surveying should
to be surveyed then for familiarization be treated different. The earlier is a
with its landscape and get an overview type of surveys, the later represents a
of what may be required before the technique of plane surveying. Geodetic
commencement of a fieldwork. This methods are employed in solving a
stage helps the surveyor in planning relatively large land masses, usually
for the execution of the survey project, over 250 square kilometers at national
particularly in identifying appropriate and continental scale, and widely spaced
survey methods, instruments, required monuments or features. Plane surveys on
man power, preparation of budget and the other hand, are used in mapping areas
time schedule. covering less than 250 square kilometers.
Contrary to geodetic survey which treats
Fieldwork is the actual execution of all lines joining stations as arcs, plane
survey work which involves observations surveys consider all lines joining two or
and measurements of distances and more points as straight lines.
angles, recording of measurements in a
field notebook, preparing field sketches A demand of high accurate data in
and performing simple calculations. geodetic surveys requires instrument
of high precision, accuracy and economy
The office work is the last process which than those employed in plane surveys.
is carried out in the office and involves Prior to 1970, accurate observation of
correction of survey data, reduction angles and distances to collect spatial
of levels, calculation of coordinates, data in geodetic surveys was difficult
preparation of plans, maps and other and pains taking. Angles were measured
graphics, as well as calculation of areas using precise ground-based Theodolites
and volumes of Earth quantities. while distances were measured using
Classification of land survey special tapes made from metal with
low coefficient of thermal expansion.
Although land surveying is usually Although these instruments are still used
classified on the basis of multitude for angles and distances measurement
of criteria, geodetic and plane survey to date, satellite positioning has almost
make the general classification in the replaced other instruments in geodetic

136 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Simple survey and mapping

survey. The global positioning system

relies upon signals transmitted from
satellites for its operation. The entire
scope of satellite systems used in
positioning is referred to as global
navigation satellite systems (GNSS)
(Figure 3.4).

Figure 3. 5: Global navigation satellite

systems receiver

Although (GPS), and ‘GNSS’ are treated

synonymously and used interchangeably
by many surveyors, the terms are
distinctive and each has its own unique
Figure 3. 4: Global navigation satellite meaning. A term GNSS is an inclusive
systems term that describes satellite navigation
systems from any country or region
Receivers that use multiple satelite while ‘GPS’ refers specifically to the
system like GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, NAVSTAR satellite navigation system
and Beidou are known as global of the United States. The most common
navigation satellites system (GNSS) GNSS are GPS (United States), Global
receivers (Figure 3.5). GNSS receivers Navigation Satellite System - GLONASS
use satellites as their reference points. (Russia), Galileo (European Union),
The GPS, GLONASS, Galileo and BeiDou (China) and Quasi - Zenith
BeiDou positioning systems are satellites Satellite System - QZSS (Japan).
constellations managed by different
states or countries. The systems provide Activity 3.1
precise timing and positioning anywhere
on the Earth with high reliability and low 1. Visit your school library and read
survey books, give the types of
cost. The systems operate during day and
survey and justify criteria for the
night, rain or sunshine, and do not require
classification.
cleared lines of sight between survey
stations. Currently, GNSS receivers are 2. Trace the evolution of geodetic
used in all forms of surveying including survey instrument before and after
1970s in Tanzania and the world.
hydrographic, construction and boundary
surveying.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 137
 Simple survey and mapping

Specialised types of tape survey Equipment used in chain survey

The existence of many types of Equipment used in chain surveying
surveys, named after principal devices, include chain or tape, ranging rods or
objective and surface surveyed among pole, plumb bob, wooden or iron pegs,
other criteria implies existence of arrow pins, Abney level, clinometer,
specialised type of survey in each cross-staff, optical squares, offset rods,
area. There are many specialised types drawing and recording materials like
of surveys including chain or tape pen, pencil,notebook rubber and field
survey, compass survey, plane table sheet or notebook. Modern devices
survey, leveling survey, hydrographic such as Total station, GPS and surveyor
survey, topographic surveys, control band has replaced the chain as basic
surveys, cadastral surveys, mine instrument in chain surveying.
survey, tacheometric surveying, aerial
surveying, photogrammetric surveying Chain
and satellite surveying. However, in this A chain is primary equipment in chain
chapter the emphasis is put on chain surveying. It is a tempered steel wire
surveying, compass surveying, plane with the length ranging from 20 m to 30
table surveying and levelling surveying. m long. The commonly used chains are
Chain surveying composed of 100 or 150 links formed
Chain surveying also known as tape through pieces of galvanised mild steel
survey is one of the methods of land wire of 4 mm diameter. The ends of
surveying in which sides of various every link are looped and connected
triangles are measured directly in the together through means of three circular
field. It is the simplest but accurate or oval shaped wire rings to give
method of land surveying. The method flexibility to chain. The length of each
involves measuring a series of straight link is measured as the distance between
lines using chain or tape measure. The the centres of two consecutive middle
method is purposely carried out to map rings (Figure 3.6). The joints of links
flat small areas or near flat terrain and are welded to prevent length changes
the associated features like foot paths because of stretching. Survey chains are
and buildings; to determine the area of generally grouped into three main types
surveyed land; to prepare an accurate such as the Gunter’s chain which is 66
plan of a plot of land; to restore lost ft long, divided into 100 links with each
boundary marks; to divide a plot of land link measuring 0.66 ft; the Engineer’s
into a number of smaller units; to update chain which is 100 ft long and divided
an existing large scale map, and to set into 100 links and each link measuring
out engineering structures such as roads, 1 ft;and the metric chain which is 20 m
railways and dams when implementing or 30 m long.
engineering projects.

138 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Simple survey and mapping

Figure 3.6: Chain

Chains are marked with tallies to indicate Establishment of right angles in chain
distances from the handle. Commonly surveying is the easiest and quickest
used chains have plastic or brass markers method though it is not very accurate.
placed at some particular distances. If a survey project requires data of great
Tallies in a chain are marked at 1 m, accuracy, survey instruments such as
5 m, 10 m, and 15 m. The shape of a Theodolite or Total stations can be used.
tally symbolises a distance it represents Cross staff
wherever placed in the chain. Nowadays,
chains are replaced by cheap and readily
available measuring tapes, Surveyor
band, Total station and GPS.
Eye slit
Tape measure
A tape measure is also a primary
equipment in chain/tape surveying. It
is used to measure distance. It consists
Stand
of a ribbon of cloth, plastic fibre or metal
strip with linear measurement markings.
Surveyor’s tape are normally measures
in lengths from 50m to over 100m
(Figure 3.2). Figure 3.7: Cross staff

Cross staff
Ranging pole and ranging rods
This is a metal or wooded cross fitted
on a short ranging pole with eye slits The two equipment have always been
at right angle (Figure 3.7). It is the used interchangeably due to their visual
simplest instrument used for setting out appearance and mode of formation.
perpendicular lines from a chain line. Ranging rods and poles are wooden, or

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 Simple survey and mapping

steel rod made round or rectangular in shape. However, there is a slight difference
between ranging rod and a ranging pole. Ranging rods are used for marking
temporarily positions of stations while straightening a line. They are made of well-
sectioned straight grained timber of teak or deodar and are generally available in
2 m or 3 m length and 3 cm in diameter. A rod is divided into equal parts, each
part measuring 0.2 m. Its lower end is provided with a cross shoe of 15 cm length.
They are generally painted alternatively red and white, black and white or yellow
and white throughout their length to facilitate visibility. On the contrary, ranging
poles are similar to a ranging rod except that they are of heavier section of length
of 4 m to 6 m long. They are used for ranging very long lines in undulating ground.
Figure 3.8 (a) and (b) show ranging pole and ranging rod respectively.

Black, Yellow or
Red

White
Black, Yellow or
3m or 6m Red

2m or 3m

White

(a) (b)

Figure 3. 8: (a) Ranging pole (b) ranging rod

Arrows
These are thin steel skewers for marking points on ground temporarily. They are
30 cm to 40 cm long with coloured rag tied to the circular end to make them more
visible (Figure 3.9).

140 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Simple survey and mapping

Red rag

Figure 3.9: Arrows

Pegs

Pegs are usually wooden with 40 mm square and 50 cm long. They are used to
mark permanent positions of station in the traverse by driving them into the ground
by a mallet at the required point. In a very hard ground iron points, nail or a bar
made of cement are used to mark position permanently (Figure 3.10).

Figure 3.10: Pegs

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 Simple survey and mapping

Offset rods from a string and used for transferring

points vertically from the ground to the
Offset rods are similar to ranging rods. tape or chain and vice versa (Figure
They are usually of 3 m long, divided 3.12).
into equal parts of 0.2 m. Different from
ranging rods, offset rods are provided
with an open hook at their top to aid
for pulling or pushing a chain through
obstruction like bushes, rocks, and
small water streams (Figure 3.11). Two
narrow vertical slots passing through
the centre of the section at right angles
to one another are provided at the eye Figure 3. 12: Plumb bob
level. It is used for aligning the offset
over traversing. Abney level and clinometer

While Abney level is used for insuring

the chain or tape is on horizontal plane
Hook
when taking measurement. Clinometer is
used to measure slope angles for slope
reduction (Figure 3.13).

Slit

White

Black, Yellow
or Red (a) Abney level

Metal shoe
Figure 3. 11: Offset rods

Plumb bob
(b) Clinometer
Plumb bob is a metal weight, usually with
a pointed tip on the bottom, suspended Figure 3. 13: Abney level and clinometer

142 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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Field notebook and recording materials Terms used in chain/tape surveying

These are important facilities every There are several important technical
surveyor needs for recording all terms used in chain/tape surveying.
measurements and other information These terms are; main survey station,
taken in the field (Figure 3.14). It subsidiary survey station, main survey
include: notebook, rubber, pen, and lines, check lines and auxiliary or
pencil, however, with technological subsidiary or tie lines.
development, surveyors also use laptops, Main survey stations: are points where
and iPad for recording field data. two sides of a main triangle meet. They
are point at either end of a chain line.
Notebook Main survey stations are usually inter
visible from either side of observation.
Subsidiary survey station (or tie station):
refers to a station which is selected on the
main survey lines for running auxiliary
Pencil
Pen lines.
Rubber Main survey lines: are chain lines joining
the two main survey stations. In chain
Figure 3. 14: Notebook, pencil, pen, and rubber surveying, the main survey line is a
baseline that surveyors establish to take
Other instruments used in chain/tape
lateral measurements.
survey are optical square and surveyors
band. Auxiliary, subsidiary or tie lines: are
chain lines joining two subsidiary survey
stations. Usually, they are established to
locate the interior details which are far
away from the main lines.
Check lines: are lines established to
check the accuracy of the fieldwork.
If the measured length of a check line
correspond with the length scaled off
the plan, the survey is accurate. Each
triangle is generally provided with a
check line. The check lines may be laid
in such a way that maximum numbers
of details are intersected by it. Check
(b) Surveyors band lines may also be laid by joining the
(a) Optical square
apex of the main triangle to any point
Figure 3. 15: (a) Optical square and on the opposite side or by joining two
(b) surveyors band points on any two sides of the triangle.

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Preparation for field chain/tape survey

Field chain or tape surveying involves several operations. Before field operations,
chain surveying involves several activities including testing and adjusting the
chain length; preparing the geographical area; working schedule; transport and
precaution like first aid.
Testing and adjusting a chain
Prior to executing field chain surveying the chain length is checked whether it is of
the correct length as prescribed by the manufacturer. Chain length can be distorted
by bents of chain links during its use, or opening up of rings which consequently
decreases length of the chain. On the contrary, the length of a chain can increase
due to: wearing and tearing of chain rings; over stretching of the links and the
joints during chaining and opening out of small rings due to prolonged usage and
rough handling. Pulling of a chain through hedges, fences, rocks and thickets is
also a cause for the chain damage. Thus, it is necessary to check the length of the
chain before and after surveying. If the chain is not tested, the measurements will
be unreliable. Before checking a chain, the surveyor should ensure that its links,
are not bent, openings are not too wide and there is no mud attached to them, and
all connecting rings are circular.
Procedures in testing and adjusting chains
(i) Fix two pegs at the required distance 20m or 30m apart; measured by a standard
chain and insert nails into their tops to mark their exact points of 20th or 30th
m from peg-tops A and B (Figure 3.16).

Figure 3. 16: Distance AB measured by a standard chain

(ii) Compare the overall length of the chain against the fixed pegs and note down
the difference if any. If after comparison, a chain is found to be longer or
shorter than its standard, then length may be adjusted. Several ways can
help to adjust the discrepancy between the tested lengths and the original
manufacture’s length. Closing the opened joints of the rings can adjust the
chain. However, straightening the bent links; flattening the circular rings;
replacing one or more small circular rings by bigger ones and inserting
additional circular rings serves the chain from being obsolete.

144 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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(iii) If the chain is not adjusted, Field procedures in chain surveying

correction should be done whenever A team of three people that is the leader,
such chain is used to take distance follower and the booker or surveyor
measurements. usually carries out Chain surveying
fieldwork. The procedures involved in
Activity 3.2:
chain surveying are explained using
1. Fix two pegs with nails on their an example of village Y. Assuming a
top at a chain distance apart using village Y shown in Figure 3.17 wants to
a standard chain. implement a water supply project from
2. Measure the distance between the a newly constructed water tank, land
two pegs using a field tape and surveys will be required to locate the
compare the measured value with route of water supply network and show
that of a standard chain. the longitudinal profile of the located
route.

Figure 3. 17: Sketch map of village Y

The route of water supply network could be located by chain surveying; compass
surveying, plane table surveying or other advanced surveying methods. The
longitudinal profile could be prepared after carrying out levelling surveying. Two
field procedures; establishment of baseline and point fixation are followed in chain
surveying.
Establishment of a baseline
In chain surveying, position of points are fixed relative to a baseline. Thus, before
fixing points, a baseline should be established on a level ground for visibility of

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stations. It is further recommended that, a baseline should be run through the center
of the area to be surveyed. Establishment of a baseline involves three activities:
(i) Identifying locations for main stations. Each main station should be
located at a place where the preceding and the next main stations are
visible and most of target points are visible from a baseline.
(ii) Marking the main stations; the main stations are permanently marked
using pegs or iron pins. In Figure 3.18, base stations A, B, and C are
permanently marked to define a baseline in a village Y where water
supply project is to be implemented.

Figure 3. 18: Baseline establishment for village Y

(iii) Measuring the length of a intermediate stations, the leader

baseline; distance between any and the surveyor hold ranging
two adjacent main stations is poles at two base stations, while
measured using a chain/tape. To a follower moves with another
measure a distance, intermediate ranging pole and arrows to mark
stations are temporarily marked the intermediate stations. Then, the
by arrows along a line connecting surveyor directs a follower to move
two consecutive base (main) the ranging pole to the right or left
stations that are more than chain/ until it is aligned with the other
tape length apart. For example, two ranging poles. The follower
if two adjacent base stations are is then signaled to mark a point
50 m apart and a field chain/tape where the alignment of the ranging
is of 30 m, intermediate stations pole was achieved. In Figure 3.18,
need to be marked. When marking intermediate station 1 is temporary

146 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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marked between base stations A, Activity 3.3

and B while intermediate stations
2 and 3 are temporary marked 1. Establish a base line passing
between base stations B and C. through the centre of your school
To measure distance between compound.
stations, a chain/tape is thrown 2. By using a chain or tape. Measure
to extend to the marked stations. the length of the marked baseline.
The follower erects ranging pole
at the first base station and places
Fixing points relative to baseline
the handle of chain/tape against it.
The leader pulls and straightens In chain surveying, positions of lateral
the chain/tape towards the first details like culverts, houses and
intermediate stations and takes the boundaries right or left of the baseline
reading at a point where the chain/ are located with respect to the chain line.
tape intersects the intermediate The lateral measurement taken right or
stations. The leader reads aloud left of the main chain line are termed as
the observed values and the booker offsets. There are two types of offsets in
reads back aloud while recording
chain surveying; perpendicular offsets
the values to avoid recording
and oblique offsets. Their differences lie
errors. The distance should be
measured twice, thrice or more on the definition implied by their names;
times to provide check for errors. the ‘oblique’ and ‘perpendicular.’When
Then, the leader moves to the a lateral measurement to fix location
second intermediate station and the of a particular detail is made at right
follower to the first intermediate angle (90°) to a chain line, the offset
station to measure a distance is called perpendicular offset or right
between the two intermediate angled offset. In the Figure 3.19 (a), line
stations. The same procedures EN is a perpendicular offset on the left
should be followed in measuring side of a chain line AB. On the contrary,
distances of other intermediate when a lateral measurement to fix details
lines. Thus, the distance between made at any angle less than (90°) to the
the two main stations is the sum chain line, the offsets are referred to as
of the lengths observed between
oblique offsets. Offsets DF, and CF in
the intermediate stations. For
the Figure 3.19 (b) are oblique offsets. In
example, the length of baseline
ABC in Figure 3.18 is the sum of chain surveying, offsets with lengths less
the length between points A and than 15 m are short offsets and those with
1, 1 and B, B and 2, 2 and 3 then lengths greater than 15 m are referred to
3 and C. as long offsets.

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(b)

Figure 3.19: (a) Perpendicular offset EN and (b) oblique offsets DF and CF

Fixing position of target points relative to a baseline involves three procedures;

(i) Marking tie points; tie points are marked using procedures explained
in step (iii) of establishment of a baseline. In Figure 3.20, tie points 1
to 7 are marked where perpendicular offsets to water tank and houses
are taken.
N

Figure 3.20: Marked tie points 1 to 7 and the respective perpendicular offsets.

(ii) Measuring distances from the base points to tie points; distance from
main station to each tie points which is also called chainage is measured
and recorded in a field notebook as shown in Figure 3.21.

148 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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20, 2021
/taping

Figure 3.21: Field note book page for survey line AB

(iii) Measuring offset distances from tie points to target points; at each tie
point, offsets to target points are measured. Measured perpendicular
offset to a water tank and houses in Figure 3.20 are recorded in a field
notebook shown in Figure 3.21. Two oblique offsets or one perpendicular
offset should be measured to fix position of target points as shown in
Figure 3.22.

(a) (b)
Figure 3.22: Fixing target point by (a) perpendicular offset (b) oblique offset

Oblique offsets should be established at well-conditioned angles between 30˚ and

60˚ for accurate fixation of target points. A check line is measured to check the

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accuracy of the survey framework. The length of a check line (see Figure 3.23),
as measured in the field should correspond with its length on a plotted survey
framework.

Figure 3.23: A check line connecting points 2 and c

In fixing target points as accurately as 3. Measure and record on field

possible using chain/tape method, a notebook offsets from tie points
surveyor should observe the following to target points.
clues: use as few chain/tape lines as 4. Book the chainage (station) and
possible, avoid steep slopes and major offsets taken on survey line BC
obstacles, select one major line try to in Figure 3.18.
maintain triangle between 300 cm and
1200 cm, keep chain line shorter and Folding and unfolding a chain/tape
take accurate measurements to simplify during field operation
the surveying and minimize errors.
In chain surveying, careful handling
Activity 3.4 of equipment including folding and
unfolding of chain/tape before and after
1. On a baseline established in your a day’s field work, is a career-based
school compaund (in Activity civilization. The practices do not only
3.3), mark tie points where offsets
reduce risks of equipment damage, but
to your target points will be taken.
also increases the life span of equipment
2. Measure and record on field and ensures accuracy and reliability
notebook the chainage from in taking measurements. Unfolding a
the first main station to each tie chain/tape must be done with great care.
points. After removing the leather strap, both

150 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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the handles should be held in the left data involves three steps: determination
hand and the chain should be thrown of a suitable scale, plotting survey lines
well forward with the right hand. The (framework) and plotting offsets.
leader, then should take one handle of the (i) Determination of a suitable
chain and move forward until the chain is scale: plotting of survey data
extended to its full length (Figure 3.24). commences with determination
The chain is then examined to see if of a suitable scale. The choice of
there are any bent links. After a chain scale depends on variables such
surveying work, the chain is folded into as the importance of the work,
preservable bunch and fastened with a the extent of survey and the paper
leather strap. To do this, the handles of size.
the chain should be brought together (ii) Plotting survey lines (framework):
by pulling the chain at the middle. having determined the scale,
Commencing from the middle, take two plotting of survey lines follows.
During this phase a base line,
pairs of links at a time with the right
is first drawn in the appropriate
hand and place them obliquely across the
position on the sheet. The
other in the left hand. When the chain is positions of the intermediate
collected in a bundle which some what survey stations are carefully
resembles a bundle of corn, it is tied with scaled and marked with fine pencil
a leather strap. dots. Other chain lines forming
triangles with base line are plotted
by describing short intersecting
arcs with the lengths of their sides
as radii. The accuracy of plotting
of these triangles can be checked
by fitting in the check lines. The
Figure 3.24: Folding and unfolding of a whole framework must be plotted
chain at commencement and end of field chain and checked before plotting of the
surveying details of chain lines commences.
Plotting a chain survey (iii) Plotting offsets: this activity
The presentation of the surveyed data is done after plotting the main
according to their size and shape is survey lines and may be done in
two ways:
termed as plotting. It is a representation
of the booked survey details on a paper In the first method, chainage of
or suitable flat surface, to a suitable scale. perpendicular offsets are marked along
Plotting is done based on survey details the survey lines and their lengths are
recorded in field notebook and it starts plotted at right angles. In plotting short
after completing a field-work. Transfer of offsets, perpendicular offsets may be
booked chain surveying data into a paper estimated by eyes, but, for long offsets,
aims at developing a plan or map of the pencil lines are drawn perpendicular to
surveyed area. Plotting chain surveying survey lines by set squares.

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In the second method, a short scale, chain handling such as dragging through
called an offset scale is used. An ordinary bushes, rocky surface and rough grounds,
scale is laid parallel to the chain line such causes perturbations of the oval rings and
that the zero value of the offset scale bent of links, which elongates or shortens
coincides with the chain line. The chain the chain. Lengths obtained by faulty
ages can be read on an ordinary scale. chain are either too short or too long
The lengths of offsets are read on offset than the length that could be obtained
scale. The offset scale slides along the by using standard chain. This means
ordinary scale that is held by weights. that, if a chain has its length increased
The various offset lengths are pricked off and exceeds the standard length, the
rapidly. If the offset scale is graduated measured distance will be less. On the
such that its zero division is at the centre contrary, if the chain is shorter than the
of its length, the ordinary scale is laid standard lengths, the measured distance
down parallel to the chain line and at a will be more. The correction for faulty
distance equal to half the length of the chain can be done through the following
offset scale so that the zero value of the formula.
offset scale coincides with the chain line. L'
The offset scale may then slide to various True Length = × measured length
L
chain ages. The offsets are marked on of a chainline
both sides of the chain line. Straight or
Where:
curved lines join the plotted points as
the case may be. It must be noted that L’ = Faulty length of a chain
changes in direction of the boundary L = True length of a chain
occurs only at the end of offsets. Example
In whatever method one may chose, In a process of chain surveying the school
plotting chain surveying data demands boundaries, a survey line was measured
equipment like scale ruler, square ruler with a 30 m chain, and the total length
protractor, T-square, pair of compasses, found was 700.5 m. Unfortunately, when
drawing board and drawing pins. compared with the standard chain, the
chain used in the measurement was found
Activity 3.5 to be 0.5 m longer than the standard
length. Determine the correct total length
Plot chain surveying data recorded on
of the measured line.
a notebook during activity 3.4.
To correct the faulty total chain lengths,
Calculation and correction of errors the following procedures are followed:
caused by incorrect chain length Identification of True length (L) and
Chains/tapes used in surveying are not faulty Length (L’)
manufactured to last forever. They wear-
L’ = 30 m + 0.5 m = 30.5
out in everyday of their use. Improper
L = 30 m

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The total measured length of chain Therefore, the true distance for the
line = 700.5 measured chain line of 1500m is 1510 m

Therefore, the True length of a measured The remaining distance = 500 m

L'
chain line = × Measured length of a The length of the chain at the end of
L
chain line 1500 m = 30.40 m
30.5
= × 700.5 =712.175 m
30 The mean length of the chain while
Therefore, the true length of a measured measuring
chain line = 712.175 m. 30.40 m + 30.30 m
500 m = = 30.35 m
Sometime, in chain surveying it often 2
happens that at the beginning of The True distance of a measured chain
measurement, a chain length is correct 30.35 m
line for 500 m = ×500 = 505.83
but is damaged as the chaining process 30 m
continues. In a scenario similar to that, The exact length of a 2000 m chain line
a surveyor at Tambalang’ombe school
had surveyed a distance of 1500 m = 1510 m + 505.83 m = 2015.83 m
by using the 30m chain. At the end
of measurement, it was noted that the Activity 3. 6
chain length was 0.40 m longer than the
A distance of 864 m was measured
standard length. Again, after another 500
between point A and B using a 20 m
m, the surveyor detected that the chain
chain, which was 0.08 m less than the
was 0.30m longer than standard chain.
standard length. Calculate the correct
To correct the faulty chain length, follow
distance between points A and B.
these procedures:
Identify chain length at commencement Common errors encountered during
of 1500 m = 30 m chain survey process
Identify chain length at the end of 1500 There are number of causes of errors in
m = 30.40 m the data obtained from chain surveying.
Human source of errors out pace other
Calculate the mean chain length while sources including instrumental and
measuring environmental causes. Errors resulting
from; improper arrangement of ranging
30 + 30.40 poles, incorrect reading, misplacing
1500 m = = 30.20 m
2 decimal points, surveyors’ negligence
and inexperience leading improper set
The True distance for 1500 m = of instruments, use of incorrect unit of
30.2m
×1500 m =1510 m measurement, use of steel tape whose
30 m length varies with changes in temperature

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and use of out dated equipment lead not mutually visible due to high ground
to incorrect data acquisition and loss between them, yet the measurement has
of resources including funds and time. been recorded. Towards making sure
However, the effects of environmental the actual distance between the stations
factors such as land obstacles, weather which are not inter visible is obtained,
effects like wind and rainfalls and steep a surveyor, first erects a ranging rod
tall enough to be seen from another
slopes on a land to be surveyed can be
temporary point that is established on
overcome.
the hill or any other barring feature. In
Obstacles in chaining Figure 3.25, the chain man established
point A and D along the survey line and
It is common to be obstructed by barriers erected ranging rods on both ends. Then
along survey line. These barriers could a chain man at point A goes up hill and
be of three categories: obstacles to establishes station B and C. The Point
chaining, obstacles to ranging, and B and C are established in such a way
obstacle to both ranging and chaining. that B can see C and D clearly while C
Obstacles to chaining obstructs chaining can clearly see B and A.
but not ranging. That is the follower sees
the leader but the distance cannot be Having points B and C established,
measured, for example a pond. Obstacle the chain man at B instructs C to shift
to ranging obstructs ranging but not to C1 so that C1 align straightly with
chaining, for example a rising groove D and that C can see both C1 and D
clearly. Then, again C1 instructs B to
like hill. Obstacles to both chaining and
shift to B1 so that A, B1 and C1 are
ranging are like intervening buildings
visibly aligned in one straight line. The
such as a house this means that the ends practice continues as B1 instructs C1
of the chain are not inter visible and it is to shift to C2 so that B1, C2 and D are
not possible to lay out a chain between visibly aligned. C2 then tells B1 to shift
the two points. Reciprocal ranging as to B2 so that C2, B2 and A are aligned.
described in the next paragraph, however, The procedure continues as C2 shifted
can control these barriers. to C3 so that A, B2, C3 and D are in one
Avoiding an obstacle to ranging by line that can easily be measured. The
finalisation of this ranging will lead to
reciprocal ranging
the establishment of lateral stations A,
Reciprocal ranging is done when ends
B2, C3 and D, right or left of the barrier.
of a survey line are not inter visible due A chain surveyor then stretches or drag
to an intervening hill or ends of survey the chain from station A through B2, C3
line are far distance apart. Consider A to D and takes the intended measurement
and B as two survey stations along which as illustrated in Figure 3.25.
chain survey is to be conducted. They are

154 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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Figure 3.25: Reciprocal chaining

Avoiding obstacles to chaining

On either side of obstacles, measurement are required to avoid obstacles to chaining.
With the kind of obstacles being at our face towards the chain line, the following
two situations usually a rise: (i) It is not possible to chain round the obstacle or
(ii) it is possible to chain round the obstacle. In the case when chaining round the
obstacle is possible, the nature of the obstacle and the terrain around the obstacle
can dictate the type of a method to be employed. Some methods likely to fit include
the rectangle method, triangle method specifically right-angled triangle method,
and similar triangle method.

Chaining around an obstacle by rectangle method

In rectangle method, a chain man must understand how to establish perpendicular
lines with or without ready-made equipment. For example, to determine the distance
C to D along the chain line AB shown in Figure 3.26, establish two perpendiculars
CE and DF of equal lengths on the same side on either side of the obstruction.
Measure the distance between E and F, that equals to the desired length of CD.
Thus, distance AB (AB) = AC + EF + DB .

Figure 3.26: Avoiding an obstacle by rectangle method

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Chaining avoiding obstacle by triangle method

Right-angled triangle method typically applies a Pythagoras theorem. To determine
the distance obstructed by an obstacle in figure 3.27, in the first step establish a
perpendicular CE longer enough to avoid the obstruction. Make sure AĈE is an
accurately measured right angle. Measure both CE and BE accurately (Figure 3.27).

Figure 3.27: Avoiding obstacles and triangle methods

Similarly, the same obstacle can be avoided by taking right angle triangle of 90°
at another position. You should note that, using a right-angle construction method
in avoiding obstacles, a chain surveyor can establish a right angle at point C or E
see figure 3.27). On either side of the obstacle, for example at point E (see figure
3.28) as it may be found convenient.

Figure 3.28: Avoiding an obstacle by triangle method with right angle on either side of the obstacle

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After establishing point E on either side of the obstacle, measure distance

2 2
CE and EB. Using pythagoras theorem, distance CB = CE + EB . Thus,
distance AB = AC + CB
Chaining across the obstacle by similar triangle method
Consider a river obstacle shown in Figure 3.29. The chain line AB is crossing a
river. A surveyor can overcome river obstruction by, first establishing stations C
and D as shown in Figure 3.29. Then, the surveyor fixes poles at C and D and
sets out the right angle at C. From the established point C, a surveyor establishes
a convenient perpendicular line to station E and measures distance CO and EO.

Figure 3. 29: Avoiding obstacles by similar triangle method

A chain surveyor should then establish Exercise 3.1

a line joining station E and F, which is 1. What is chain surveying?
perpendicular to line CE and parallel
to line AB. Point F is at a position such 2. Explain the procedures to check if
that a line joining it with point D crosses the chain contains errors.
point O. A distance between station E
3. A distance of 250 m was measured
and F is then measured. Since EF is
between location P and Q using a
parallel to line AB and lines CD and FD
chain of 0.05 m longer than the
are shared by triangle COD and OEF in
standard length of 30 m. Calculate
figure 3.29, the two triangles are similar.
the distance between the two
Thus distance CD is calculated as CD =
locations.
CO/EO x EF.
Avoiding obstacle to both chaining and 4. What is a baseline?
ranging 5. With the aid of the diagram,
When both chaining and ranging are describe perpendicular and oblique
obstructed, a rectangle method, also offsets.
refered to as “parallel diversion” method
explained in Figure 3.26 may be adopted. 6. Distinguish between the following
terms as applied in surveying;

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(a) Baseline and check line intersection method, and resection

(b) Main station and tie station method.
Line of sight to an object
(c) Geodetic survey and plane N
table survey
180

4. State the function(s) of the θ

following instruments; (a) Chain/ 90 270

tape (b) Ranging rod (c) Cross staff θ
(d) Arrow.
0
5. Show how you would use the Reading end
S
right angled, rectangle and similar Figure 3.30: Measuring angle by compass
triangle chaining methods to avoid
obstacle during chaining. Concept of compass surveying
Compass surveying is commonly
employed when the land area to be
Compass surveying
surveyed is comparatively larger than area
The compass surveying involves fixing covered in chain surveying. Compared to
of an object’s position in the field chain, compass surveying is suitable for
by measuring the angles of bearings rough landscapes. Compasses for land
between the line of magnetic North surveying originated from a Chinese
(0°) and the line of sight to the object ‘iron-attracting mineral (lodestone)
(Figure 3.30). This section exposes and have been in use since 400 years
readers into concepts related to compass BC (Figure 3.31). Ancient Chinese
survey. Geography students especially of suspended the lodestone with their hands
survey class must adopt some important or on boats and other navigation facilities
personalities necessary for theoretical to help them point ‘south’. The use of
and practical studies through learning lodestone as a compass to point to the
to check for the equipment’s condition, south gave birth to its names such as
handling them with care and wearing “South-governor” and “South-pointing-
proper field-dress. Concepts covered fish”. Swinging of the lodestone, the
in this section are history of compass south governor, or the south-pointing
surveying, types of compass, compass fish as they called it to point the south,
bearing, compass traversing, local then became the origin of the today’s
attraction, closing error adjustments, compass used in survey.

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Prismatic compass
This is a non-magnetic metal case
with a graduated ring and glass top
used for determining angles, bearings
and direction to objects of surveyor’s
interest. It is a small, hand-held device
in a circular box of about 100 mm in
diameter used in fixing objects in the
field and from which the angle of bearing
Figure 3.31: Lodestone is measured between the line of magnetic
Types of compass survey north and the line of sight to the object. It
is usually used for surveying works that
There are two major types of compass
do not require very high accuracy. For
surveys which are the prismatic and
example preliminary survey for minerals
surveyor’s compasses. The compasses
are differentiated by key features exploration.
including; their body size, the bearing The morphology of prismatic compass
system they use to designate readings, can be identified by its elements. Its
and their mode of formation. cylindrical metal box, lifting pin and
lifting lever, magnetic needle, graduated
Surveyor’s compass
circle or ring, prism, object vane, eye
A surveyor’s compass is an old form vane, glass cover, sunglasses, reflecting
of compass used by surveyors which is mirror, and spring brake pin. Prismatic
similar to the prismatic compass but with compass is a cylindrical metal box with
few modifications. It is used to determine a graduated ring supported by pivot at
the magnetic bearing of a given line. The its center. Provided just below the sight
instrument has commonly been referred vane is lifting pin and lifting lever which
to as the Circumferentor. Surveyor’s assist in pressing the lifting pin when
compass is larger and more accurate than a sight vane is folded. The lifting pin
prismatic compasses and designated to with the help of lifting lever lifts the
read bearings in quadrant bearing system magnetic needle out of pivot point to
(QBS) as shown in Figure 3.32. prevent damage to the pivot head. The
magnetic needle of a prismatic compass
is a core part of the instrument. It is
attached to the graduated aluminum ring
marked in degrees from 0˚ to 360˚. It
measures bearings of lines from magnetic
meridian. The needle that always points
towards north-south pole at its two ends
when freely suspended (Figure 3.33)
Figure 3.32: Surveyor’s compass
measures angles to the objects.

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 Simple survey and mapping

either north line or south line whichever

is the nearest to the given survey line. The
bearing readings can be done clockwise
or anti-clockwise. Bearings in QBS
range from 0° to 90°. The NORTH and
SOUTH poles are designated by 0° while
WEST and EAST are designated by 90°.
In QBS, the angular value is preceded by
a prefix N or S and followed by a suffix E
or W based on its quadrant. For example,
an angle of 45° magnitude measured
from North towards East, which is in
first quadrant is written as N 45° E. In
WCB designation, bearings are measured
clockwise from North direction and
Figure 3.33: Prismatic compass range from 0° to 360°. Bearing in QBS
Another important element in the are WCB are also refered to as bearing
prismatic compass is prism. This is why and azimuth, respectively.
the technique is termed as prismatic
Compass survey by traverse method
compass. A prism assists surveyors to
read graduations on graduated compass The term traverse is used to refer to
ring and to take the exact degree values. a series of connected lines of known
The prism is made up of a hole called lengths related to one another by
prism hole. The prism hole is protected known angles. There are two types of
by prism cap to protect it from dust and traverses namely; the open traverse
moisture. The eye vane provided with and closed traverse. When a series of
an eye hole and the top glass to protect connected lines forms a closed circuit,
the ring, complements the operations of it is called ‘closed traverse. In closed
other compass parts such as sun glasses, traverse, reading and taking of bearings
reflecting mirror and spring brake. or azimuth starts and ends at the same
station as shown in Figure 3.34(a). On
Designation of compass bearing
the contrary, when the survey lines start
There are two types of bearing from one point and end at another point
designations. They include Quadrant which is not the starting point, this is
Bearing System (QBS) and Whole Circle known as open traverse as shown the
Bearing system (WCB). In QBS, the Figure 3.34(b).
bearing of survey lines is measured from

160 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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as frequently referred to by geographers,

A is different from the magnetic north
Survey station
which is the direction pointed by the
D compass, and it is different from the grid
north which is in the direction along the
B
grid lines towards the north. The true
Survey line
bearing is measured from the true north
in the clockwise direction (Figure 3.35).
C
True Meridian
Magnetic Meridian
Figure 3. 34 (a) closed traverse
True Bearing
A
Survey station Magnetic
Bearing
A
B

Figure 3.35: Magnetic variations

C
The magnetic bearing on the other hand
Survey line
E refers to the horizontal angle which the
Figure 3.34 (b) open traverse line of sight meets with the magnetic
north. It is the direction which is pointed
Reference meridians by the compass needle in response to
A bearing is horizontal angle which is the earth’s magnetic field. The deviation
made with reference to a particular line between the true north and the magnetic
called meridian to line of sight. Basing north varies from place to place as the
on the meridian, a surveyor chooses earth’s magnetic poles are not fixed
the reference. There are four types of with respect to its axis. The earth’s
meridians; the true meridian; magnetic magnetic poles are not aligned to the
meridian, grid meridian and arbitrary actual geographic north and south poles.
meridians. True bearing of a line is Instead, the magnetic South Pole is in
the horizontal angle between the true Canada which is in the north while the
meridian and the line of sight. It is also magnetic north pole lies in Antarctica
defined as the line along the earth’s which is in the south. The magnetic poles
surface connecting the North and south are inclined by about 10 degrees to the
poles. The true North is also called earth’s rotational axis (Figure 3.36).
geodetic north, the true meridian or North

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 161
 Simple survey and mapping

to B is a forward bearing whereas the

bearing (B) of the line AB in opposite
to the survey direction from B to A, is a
North magnetic back bearing (β) (Figure 3.37).

N
pole

Magnetic field MN

South magnetic
S

pole
α

A MN

Figure 3.36: Distribution of earth’s

magnetism
B

Grid bearing means horizontal angle and β

the line of sight AB to an object meets Figure 3.37: Forward (α) and back (β)bearing
with the grid meridian. An arbitrary
bearing is the horizontal angle between This means, if the forward bearing is
the line of sight AB and any arbitrary greater than 180o, then subtract 180o to
meridian established. An arbitrary get back bearing and when the forward
meridian serves as temporary north bearing (FB) is less than 1800, add 1800
whose magnetic or true bearing could to get back bearing (BB). However, it
later be determined. The meridians, must be noted that, this can only be
also termed as Norths that is, Magnetic meaningful when checking the accuracy
North, True North, Arbitrary North and of the data collected from the field. In the
Grid North, are major reference points field, the FB and BB must be measured
in compass surveying. for each survey line.

Back and forward bearing By the formula:

FB = BB ±1800
In prismatic compass survey, a survey 0
line can be defined by two bearings, the and BB = FB ±180
forward bearing which is taken from one
station to the other in the direction of a Field procedures for compass survey by
survey and back bearing which is taken traverse method
in the opposite direction of the survey
direction. Both bearings are expressed 1. Prepare all necessary equipment
in whole circle bearing (WCB). The for the prismatic compass survey.
forward and back bearing in WCB differs Important equipment includes:
by 180°. That is, the bearing (α) of the Prismatic compass, chain or tape,
line AB in the survey direction from A ranging rod or poles, tripod stand

162 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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if available, field note book and instrument required to be made at every

other drawing materials like rubber set up of the instrument are known as
and pencils. Do not dress or carry temporary or Station Adjustment. On
metal material during the compass the contrary, adjustments which are
surveying. Iron materials like a made only if the fundamental relations
bunch of keys, ear and finger rings, between the various parts of a compass,
watch, metal frame or rimmed are disturbed due to careless handling
eyes glasses can interfere with the or otherwise, are called permanent
compass readings and there after adjustments. Temporary adjustments
provide incorrect readings. include the following operations:
(i) Centering the compass; this
2. Establish stations through which
is a setting of a compass at its
your traverse will be carried out.
center over the ground station
For example, in Figure 3.38 stations mark. It involves making the
A, B, C, D, and F are established at pivot exactly vertical over the
farm corner points. ground station mark. A station
mark can be a boundary beacon
or a brick established for that
purpose. Centering is done by
adjusting the legs of the tripod.
To ensure a compass is on top of
the starting point, a plumb bob
is hunged from the centre of the
circular box, to define a vertical
line. If no plumb bob is provided,
Figure 3.38: Corner points of a farm to be the centering may be judged by
surveyed dropping a small pebble freely
from the centre of the bottom of
Prismatic compass surveying has the circular box. If the compass
important preliminary procedures to be is centred perfectly, the pebble
considered before the actual field practice will fall exactly over the ground
is carried out. Any attempt to ignore station mark.
them can lead to erroneous reading of (ii) Levelling; is the other adjustment
the bearings. Therefore, adjustment of which involves the setting of the
a prismatic compass before any activity compass horizontally such that
is conducted is necessary. Two types of its graduated ring swings freely.
adjustment can be done; Temporary and Levelling of a compass can be
permanent adjustments. done by the level specially made
for that purpose or estimated by
a) Temporary adjustment eye. Generally, the compass
A prismatic compass needs to be adjusted is provided with a ball and
at every station. The adjustments of an socket arrangement attached to

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the tripod for achieving quick forward bearing to B. Then, shift

levelling of the instrument. In the instrument to station B and
surveyor’s compass two plate read the back bearing to A to check
levels at right angles to each for angular error. Then measure a
other, are sometimes provided. distance between the station A and
The ball and socket arrangement B and record all measurement in the
is adjusted till the two bubbles field note book.
remain central in both plate
levels. 4. Continue taking forward and back
bearings and measuring distances for
(iii) Focusing the prism: The process
all remaining stations (Figure 3.39).
of moving up or down the prism
for obtaining the figures and
graduations sharply and clearly,
is called focusing the prism.
This adjustment is for prismatic
compass only.

(b) Permanent adjustments: on the

other hand, are the permanent setups
of instrument damaged or its parts
disturbed by surveyors’ careless handling
or unfortunate dropping. It involves
adjusting the plate level, sight vane,
magnetic needle and pivot.
Other survey methods for fixing objects
and lines during prismatic survey Figure 3.39: Clockwise reading of forward
(blue arrows)and back bearing (black arrows)
Fixing object or line of survey in
prismatic compass survey can be done by 5. Correct the observed field data for
methods other than traversing. A detail any error. Correction for the error
in prismatic survey can be positioned can be done in two ways: graphically
by intersection and resection methods. and mathematically. However, in
Just bear in mind that the intention of this chapter the focus will be on the
the whole process in surveying is to tell graphical methods. In the graphical
the where-about of some geographical method, the data should be plotted
features. One way of identifying location and if there are some errors, the
of the intended objects in relation to other traverse will not close. That is,
nearby permanent objects is through the last survey line will not join
prismatic compass survey. the station where a survey started
(Figure 3.40).
3. Set a compass over station A perform
temporary adjustment and take a

164 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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difference between forward and back

Closing error gap
bearings is 180°, then both end stations
are free from local attraction. If not, the
discrepancy maybe due to;
(i) An error in observation of either
forward or back bearings or both
for example, not holding the
comps steadily at 1800 when taking
bearings.
(ii) Presence of local attraction at
either station or around.
(iii) Presence of local attraction at both
stations.
Figure 3.40: Traverse closing error gap
(iv) Slugging pivot or needle.
between A’ and A
Local attraction at any station affects
Graphical correction of traverse all the magnetic bearings by an equal
closing error amount and therefore, the included
angles deduced from the affected
Commonly, the north end of a freely bearings are always correct. In case,
suspended magnetic needle of compass the forward and back bearings of lines
always points to the magnetic north, if it of traverse differ by the permissible
is not influenced by any other external error of reading, the mean value of the
forces except the earth’s magnetic field. bearings of the line least affected, may be
Sometimes, the magnetic needle gets accepted. The correction to other stations
deflected from its normal position, if a may be made according to the following
compass survey is carried near magnetic methods: graphical method based on
rocks, iron ores, cables carrying current local attraction are graphical method
or iron electric poles. Those forces based on Bowditch rule.
disturbing compass needle are called
‘Local attraction’. Prismatic compass isGraphical method based on local
therefore not reliable in areas with these
attraction
characteristics, unless these are checked
Graphical method based on local
against the presence of local attraction at
attraction involves calculation of error
each station and their elimination. due to local attraction at each station while
The presence of local attraction at any graphical method based on Bowditch
station may be detected by calculating rule does not involve calculations. The
forward and back bearings of the line procedures for correcting errors due to
to see if the difference between them local attraction are illustrated based on
is 180°. If checked and found that the traverse data presented in Table 3.1

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(i) Plot a traverse framework from to check for bearing error in each line.
uncorrected data presented in For example, in line AB, BB ̶ 180° =
Table 3.1 (Figure 3.41). 226° ̶ 180° = 46° which is greater than
the measured FB by 1°. Thus, 1° is the
bearing error due to local attraction in
line AB. Continue determining errors
in the remaining lines. Then, choose
a leg not affected or least affected and
investigate from there a leg or legs which
Figure 3.41: Uncorrected traverse ABCDE are affected by local attraction causing
the discrepancy. Then correct each
(ii) Correct the forward and back
affected leg by adding or subtracting the
bearings observed in traverse
error. If the observed bearing of a line is
ABCDE shown in Table 3.1.
more greater than the calculated bearing,
In correcting data provided in Table the error is subtracted and vice versa.
3.1, use the formula FB = BB ± 180º
Table 3. 1: Errors due to local attraction in open traverse ABCDE
Station Length Observed Observed Calculated Error
(m) FB BB FB
AB 30 45° 226° 46° +1°
BC 55 135° 316° 136° +1°
CD 50 90° 270° 90° 0
DE 75 225° 45° 225° 0

In this example, the difference between the forward and back bearings for lines CD
and DE is 0, which means lines CD and DE are not affected by local attraction.
Thus, the correction is done for forward and back bearing observed at stations
D and E. Since point C is free from local attraction, errors in line BC are due to
local attraction at point B.
Table 3. 2: Corrected forward and back bearing in traverse ABCDE.
Line Length (m) Observe bearing Error Corrected bearings
FB BB FB BB
AB 30 45° 226° +1° 46° 226°
BC 55 135° 316° +1° 136° 316°
CD 50 90° 270° 0° 90° 270°
DE 75 225° 45° 0° 225° 45°

(iii) Then on the first plot of uncorrected angle, plot the traverse using the
corrected bearing and observed distance from Table 3.2 using a protractor

166 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Simple survey and mapping

and a ruler. For example, line ‘bc’ is drawn from point C using corrected
back bearing and length of line BC. Line ab is drawn from point B using
the corrected back bearing and length of line AB. Thus, the correct plot
of a traverse is the one presented with lower case letters from ‘a’ to ‘e’.
Lines ‘cd’ and ‘de’ coincide with lines CD and DE, respectively, as
points C, D and E are free from local attraction (Figure 3.42).

d
D
c

e
Figure 3.42: Error correction in open traverse ABCDE based on local attraction

Activity 3.7

Correct the forward and back bearings provided in Table 3.3 for open traverse
PQRST.
Observed bearings in open traverse PQRST
Bearing/Traverse line PQ QR RS ST
FB 60° 115° 45° 78°
BB 241° 295° 226° 260°

Graphical method based on Bowditch rule

Is at the same level as graphical method by local attraction. In case of a closed
traverse ABCDEA in Figure 3.43, the following procedures could be followed
after plotting the traverse using the observed bearings and distances.

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Closing error

Figure 3.43: Closing error in traverse ABCDEA

1. First measure the misclosure of a traverse by ruler and record. Let’s assume
the gap is 1.5cm.
2. Draw a horizontal line (AA’) of a length, which equals to the total length of
the traverse and mark the position of traverse stations B, C, D, E, A’ to scale.
Assuming the length of line AB = 40 m, BC = 60 m, CD = 50 m DE = 60 m
and EA = 30 m, at a scale of 1:10, the position of stations B, C, D, E, and
A’ are at 4 cm, 10 cm, 15 cm, 21 cm, and 23 cm from station A, respectively
(Figure 3.43).
3. At point A’ on the horizontal line draw a vertical line to point ‘a’ at a distance
which equals the measured misclosure, the 1.5 cm to a scale used to plot the
uncorrected traverse in Figure 3.44. Then draw a line connecting station A
on horizontal line AA' and on vertical line A'a . At stations B, C, D, and E,
draw vertical lines connecting points b, c, d, and e on line Aa, respectively
(Figure 3.44).

Figure 3.44: Horizontal line AA’ and vertical lines Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee and A’a.

168 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Simple survey and mapping

4. Measure the lengths of vertical lines Aa; Bb; Cc, Dd and Ee. Then, on a plotted
uncorrected traverse draw a line parallel to line A’A at station B and mark the
position of station ‘b’ along that line. Do the same at stations C, D, and E.
Finally draw a dotted line connecting points A, b, c, d, e and A to show the
corrected traverse (Figure 3.45).

Figure 3.45: Original traverse ABCDA’ and corrected traverse A b c d e A.

Compass survey by intersection method

In intersection method, a point where two lines meet is determined. Thus, intersection
is a method of fixing the position of object relative to two or more points of known
positions. It is a method that locate points of intersection by taking forward bearing
from two or more fixed points. The procedure followed in intersection methods are:
(i) From two known points, say C and D, for instance, take forward bearing to
point X that you want to locate on a map (Figure 3.46).

Figure 3.46: Fixing objects by intersection

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(ii) Check the accuracy of the forward bearing from points C and D to point X
by taking forward and back bearing of line CD;
(iii) Lastly convert all magnetic bearings to true bearing; and
(iv) On a map, draw a line parallel to true north at point C and D. Then, using
a protractor mark the direction (basing) of lines CX and DX, and extend
these lines until they cross to work position of point X.

Compass survey by resection method

Resection differs from intersection since, instead of setting a compass at known
points, you set the compass at the unknown points, for example station Y. Thus,
forward bearing are read from station Y to points or features of known map
locations (Figure 3.47).

Figure 3.47: Fixing objects by resection method

Procedures for resection are:

(i) Set a compass at unknown station Y and perform all temporary adjustment;
(ii) Take forward bearings from point Y to two or more known points. Do not
record a car or animal as an object to fix your point (tower and house).
Animals and cars are mobile and therefore cannot be shown on the map;
(iii) Then convert all magnetic bearing to the fixed point you have chosen into
true bearing;
(iv) To fix point Y on a map, calculate the back bearings from the forward bearing
obtained in step (ii) above. Then, on a map where the location of a house and

170 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Simple survey and mapping

mobile tower in Figure 3.45, draw a fine pencil line parallel to true north at
the chosen objects, in this case, a house and a mobile tower; and
(v) Measure the respective true back bearing calculated in step (iii) at the two
chosen objects and extend these lines until they cross each other to mark
the position of point Y.

Plotting of prismatic compass field data

Field surveying of all types targets at extracting important information that

can be communicated in a manner that every user can understand. Information
obtained in compass surveying is recorded in field note books. Notebooks contain
information which is not easy to be understood by common users. They are short
hand, sometimes roughly written and peculiar to the surveyor only, (Figure 3.48).
316° C 89° E 196° A
89° 196°
50°

Tree 2 22°
Tree 7
Tree 3 Tree 4
320°
91° 45°
135° Tree 6
154° 269° Tree 4 273° 135°
113° Tree 5
269° Tree 2
135° 269°
135° 269°
B D 35° Tree 2
260° 45° 45° 15°
226° Tree 2
Tree 4
22° Tree 3
315° Tree 2 243°
Tree 5 45°
21°
89° 226° Tree 5 269°
Tree 2 Tree 4
Tree 1
45° 50 m 315° 227°
77°
225° 15°
89° A 225° C 15° E

Figure 3.48: Compass survey data recorded on field notebook.

From the field, surveyors collected data and booked as seen in Figure 3.48. After
the collection and booking of survey data, plotting follows. Plotting is therefore
a transferring of the data from the field notebooks into graphical representation
that can easily be understood and implemented. In plotting compass data, the
following procedures are followed:
(i) Prepare necessary materials for drawing a ruler, pencil, eraser and protractor
are important facilities in plotting.
(ii) Check whether the observed bearings are correct or not. If any attraction is
detected correct them.
(iii) Convert all magnetic bearing into true bearings.
(iv) Plot the true forward bearings and measured distance to scale of your choice.
After the work, the surveyor produces a plan as shown in Figure 3.49.

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Figure 3.49: Plot of field data

Activity 3.8

1. Use the following back and forward bearings obtained for different framework
lines ABCDE to answer the following question;
(a) Identify traverse station with discrepancies.
(b) Correct error if any discrepancy is observed.
(c) Plot traverse ABCDE from the observed and corrected bearings

Bearings of a traverse ABCDE

Line Distance (m) FB BB

AB 40 m 60o 240o
BC 60 m 120o 300o
CD 100 m 210o 30o
DE 140 m 317o 135o

2. Carefully study the data of a traverse ABCDEA presented and answer the
questions that follows:
Bearings of a traverse ABCDEA

172 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Simple survey and mapping

Line Distance (m) FB BB

AB 900 265o 085o
BC 700 350o 173o
CD 700 070o 250o
DE 900 110o 290o
EA 800 250o 070o
(a) Identify stations with errors in taking bearings and suggested associated
causes.
(b) Plot the traverse using measured bearings at a suitable scale on A4 paper.
(c) Correct errors using graphical method.

Earth’s magnetic field as magnetic declination. The angle of

convergence between the true north
Earth’s magnetism is a result of the
and magnetic north at any place does
convection currents of molten iron and
not remain constant. It depends on the
nickel in the earth’s core. These currents
direction of the magnetic meridian at
carry streams of charged particles
the time of observation. If the magnetic
and generate magnetic fields. These
meridian is on the eastern side of true
magnetic fields deflect ionising charged
meridian, the angle of declination is
particles from the sun (called solar
called the eastern declination or positive
wind) and prevent them from entering
declination. On the other hand, if the
our atmosphere.Without preventing this
magnetic meridian is on western side, the
magnetic shield, the solar wind could have
declination angle is called the western
slowly destroyed our life on earth. Mars
declination or negative declination.
does not have a strong atmosphere that
When both true North and magnetic
can sustain life because it does not have
meridians coincide, magnetic declination
a magnetic field protecting it. The earth’s
is zero.
magnetic field has three components
that govern its magnitude and direction; The imaginary lines joining the places
namely: magnetic declination, magnetic of equal declination either positive or
inclination or the angle of dip and the negative, on the surface of the earth,
horizontal component. are called ‘‘Isogonic lines’’. As the
earth magnetism is not regular and the
Magnetic declination intensity of its magnetic field also varies,
Geography students must understand the isogonic lines do not form complete
that the horizontal angle between true circles but these follow irregular paths.
north and magnetic north at a place and The isogonic lines with zero declination,
at a time of observation is what we term are known as “Agonic lines”.

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Determination of magnetic and magnetic bearings of a line are 78°

declination/ variation 45' and 75° 30' respectively. Use negative
sign for eastern declination and positive
True meridians and compass observations sign for western declination. As shown
are important inputs in determining in Figure 3.50, therefore the Magnetic
magnetic declination of any place. True Declination (MD) = 78°45' ̶ 75°30' =
meridians in many places are determined 3°15'. Having determined the magnetic
by making astronomical observations, bearing of a line and the magnetic
especially to stars. Compass observations declination at that place, true bearing
are made by sighting of the true of the line, may be calculated from the
meridians at the places. The angle of formula: true bearing = magnetic bearing
inclination between the true meridian ± magnetic declination. Similarly, to
and the magnetic meridian given by a calculate magnetic bearing, we must be
compass reading is the desired magnetic sure that we have calculated true bearing
declination that can be determined as of a line and magnetic declination of
the difference between the true bearing that place. This formula can therefore
and the magnetic bearing. Therefore; be used:
magnetic declination = True bearing -
Magnetic bearing = True bearing ±
Magnetic bearing. For instance, if the true
Magnetic declination

(a) (b)
Figure 3.50: (a) East declination and (b) west declination

174 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Simple survey and mapping

Variation of declination geographical position of different places.

The annual secular change is the greatest
The magnetic declination at any place near the middle point of meridians and
does not remain constant but keeps on the last at its extreme limits.
changing from time to time therefore it
may increase or decrease. We classify b) Annual variation
the changes into four subheadings as This is the change in declination at a
secular variation, annual variation, place over a period of one year. It is
diurnal variation, and irregular variation. observed at different places over a period
a) Secular variation. of 12 months. Annual variation is about
1 minute to 2 minutes, depending upon
The continual changing of the magnetic
their geographical positions.
meridian relative to geographical poles
affects the declination of a place. Secular c) Diurnal variation
variation is a slow continuous change
The departure of declination from its
in declination of places. It alters the
mean value during a period of 24 hours
declination more frequently and in a
at any place is called diurnal variation.
less regular manner from year to year.
The diurnal variation is a variation of
Due to its greatness, secular variation is
the following variables:
considered the most important for land
surveyors. It appears to be of periodic (i) The geographical position of the
character and follows a sine curve. place. Diurnal variation is the
greatest for the places in higher
The swing of declination at a place over latitudes and lesser near the equator.
a period of centuries, may be compared
to a simple harmonic motion. A secular (ii) Season of the year. Diurnal
change from year to year is also not variation is comparatively more
in summer than in winter at the
uniform for any given place. It is also
same place.
different for different places. To convert
magnetic bearings into true bearings, (iii) The time at the place. It is more
an accurate amount of declination is during the day and less at night.
essentially required. As such it is very
(iv) The year of the cycle. It is different
important for a surveyor to know the in different years in the complete
exact amount of declination. When cycle of secular variation.
observations for the declination are
made in different years of a century, d) Irregular variation
it is revealed that magnetic meridian Abrupt changes of declinations at places
moves from one side of true meridian due to magnetic storms, earthquakes
to the other. The change produced and other solar influences, are called
annually by secular variation at different irregular variations. These disturbances
places amounts from 0.02 minute to 12 may occur at any time and place and
minutes. The variation depends on the cannot be predicted. The displacement

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of a needle may vary in extent from 1° ends of legs and to points of observation
to 2°. on legs.

Magnetic dip Check that all conversions from magnetic

bearing to true bearing are accurate and
The magnetic dip is defined as the angle all scaled conversions are accurate.
made with the horizontal by the earth’s Ensure the booker takes down reading
magnetic field lines. It is also known as accurately by asking him to repeat where
dip angle or magnetic inclination and necessary. Avoid areas where there are
was discovered by George Hartman in deposits of metalliferous ores steel
the year 1544. When the inclination structures, metal gates, railway lines and
is positive, it indicates that the earth’s others, which would influence reading.
magnetic lines are pointing downward to Avoid wearing metal rimmed spectacles,
the Northern Hemisphere and when the metal bangles or steel watches when
inclination is negative it indicates that using the compass.
the earth’s magnetic lines are pointing
upward to the Southern Hemisphere. Advantages of compass survey
First, fairly rapid method in the field,
In the year 1581, Robert Norman compared to other old survey methods,
discovered a dip circle which is a method like simple chain survey. Secondly, a
used to measure the dip angle. The other check can be made on all compass
terms used are isoclinic lines (when the bearing, simply by calculating the
dip of the earth’s magnetic field is the forward and back bearing. Thirdly,
same along the line) and aclinic lines cumulative error is reduced and can
(when the locus of the points has zero be easily rectified, with the help of
dips). advanced devices used. Fourthly,
near and distant objects can be pin-
Avoidance of errors in compass pointed with accuracy by using
survey various instruments which are able to
accommodate the distance of object.
To reduce possible errors during a Fifthly, the method can be combined
compass survey, the following are with other methods such as chain
very crucial. Check the accuracy of levelling and plane table, and in fact
the compass by comparing it with an the prismatic compass is sometimes
accurate compass or with location of needed for mapping.
magnetic north (MN) for the year of
the survey with updated MN correction Disadvantages of compass survey
adjustment for field readings. Always In elementary survey, compass
check every reading with a back bearing observations over long distance object
and adjustment by adding or subtracting cannot be checked by back bearings
the mean of the error. Hold the compasses unless transport is provided. Human
steady at 180° and ensure accuracy of error is involved in taking as it is difficult
all chain or tape measurements between to hold the compass absolutely steady;

176 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Simple survey and mapping

taking the mean of the difference between forward and back bearing reduces error
but does not entirely eliminate it. The presence of ore bodies may not be known
to the surveyor and this would affect readings. It is always better to consult the
geological map or geologist first but the presence of iron ores in large quantity
would necessitate using another method.

Exercise 3.2
1. Calculate the true bearing of a line CD if its magnetic bearing is S 50° 45'
W and the declination is 3° 45' E.

2. In an old map, a survey line was drawn with a magnetic bearing of 202°
when the declination was 2° W. Find the magnetic bearing of the line at a
time when magnetic declination was 2° E.
3. In 1935, a certain line had a magnetic bearing of S 67° 30′ E and then the
magnetic declination at that place was 8° E. In 1977, the magnetic declination
was 4° W. Find the magnetic bearing of the line in 1977.
4. Discuss how diurnal variation affects magnetic declination of the Earth.
5. Explain procedures for converting closing error in compass traverse using
graphical method.
6. Convert the following bearing observed in whole circle bearing (WCB)
system to quadrant bearing system (QBS): (a) 65° 40' (b) 135° (c) 265° 25'
(d) 305° 45'.
7. An open compass traverse was run from station A through B, C, D, E, F, and
G as it is shown in Traverse ABCDEFG.

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 Simple survey and mapping

The observed forward and backward bearings in traverse ABCDEFG

are shown in the following table with the observed bearings.

Observed bearings in traverse ABCDEFG

Line FB BB
AB 45O 00' 225O 30'
BC 178O 50' 359O 00'
CD 82O 00' 263O 00'
DE 45O 00' 225O 00'
EF 100O 30' 280O 50'
FG 205O 45' 25O 55'
Use data ( observed bearings ) to:
i. Identify a traverse line which is free from local attraction.
ii. Correct bearings of all traverse lines starting from the line which
is free from local attraction.
8. By using the observed magnetic bearings and distances in a closed traverse
ABCDEA do the following ;
a. Plot a traverse and measure the closing error.
b. Correct the traverse by graphical method.
Magnetic bearing and distance in a closed traverse ABCDEA.
Line FB BB Distance (m)
AB 45O 00' 225O 20' 40
BC 100O 00' 280O 30' 50
CD 160O 30' 340O 30' 40
DE 250O 00' 70O 10' 51
EA 312O 00' 132O 00' 57

178 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Simple survey and mapping

Plane table survey Plane table are available in 750 mm ×

600 mm in dimension and the legs of the
Plane table surveying is a graphical
tripod are usually 1200 mm long. They
method of survey in which the field
are made entirely of well-seasoned wood
observation and plotting are done
except for the metal plate, bolts, nuts and
simultaneously. It is a graphical
screws, which are made of brass and the
construction of straight lines, angles, and
triangles for plotting the ground detail shoes of the legs, which are made of iron.
points. This method of land surveying
Principles of plane table survey
is simple and cheaper than theodolite
survey and only suitable on small areas. The plane table technique operates on
The plan is drawn by the surveyor in the the principle that every established ray
field while the area to be surveyed is to various details must pass through the
in front of his eyes. Therefore, there is survey station. This principle is called
low possibility of omitting the necessary parallelism which means that, all the
measurements. Hence, the method has lines drawn through various details
very low chances for committing errors. should pass through the survey station.
Just as it is for the case of compass and This principle can be best understood
chain surveying, plane table surveying by considering the graphical reduction
is named after the principal instrument of a triangle to the given dimensions.
used, the plane table. The earliest The base of the triangle is plotted on
mention and account of a plane table the desired scale and the base angles are
and plane table survey dates back to 1551 plotted directly by turning the alidade
by Abel Foullon’s in his work “Usage et at each end. In plain table survey, the
description de l’holomètre”, which was position of plane table at each station,
published in Paris. Prior to 1830, the must be maintained identical, that is, at
method was called plane table (Figure each survey station the table must be
3.51). oriented by magnetic north.

Board Equipment used in plane table

survey
In plane tabling equipment can be
grouped into basic equipment and
accessories. Equipment includes a plane
table; tripod stand and alidade. While
accessories include trough compass,
plumbing fork, plumb bob,chain or tape
Tripod stand
and ranging poles spirit level, U-fork,
water proof cover, drawing paper, pins,
Iron shoe pencil and eraser. The later supporting
instruments are what this book is
Figure 3.51: Plane table
referring to as accessories.

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 Simple survey and mapping

Plane table this is the principal equipment

in plane table surveying. It is a board
from which rays to the target objects
are established, measured and located.
Drawing board for plane tabling is made
up of well-seasoned wood with its upper
surface exactly plane. Plane tables are
in a number of sizes. The common
dimensions of plane tables are those
rectangular in shape with size 75 cm X
60 cm. Plane table comes with wooden
or aluminum tripod stand to mount on
during the surveying process. They are
Figure 3.52(b): Tripod stand with plane table
provided with clamps to fix it in any
direction. The table can revolve around Alidade is multi-task purpose equipment
its vertical axis and can be clamped in useful throughout plane table surveying
any position when necessary. The plane in assisting as a ruler and a sighting
table is mounted on a tripod stand (see instrument. It is a straight edged ruler,
Figure 3.52(b)). attached with a sighting device. One edge
of the ruler is beveled and graduated.
Tripod stand is provided with three-
Usually, the graduated edge is used for
foot screws at its top for levelling and
drawing lines of sight to objects from
adjustable legs for adjusting the height
the plane table station. There are two
of the plane table. The height of the
types of alidades available for plane
tripod stand is normally 120 cm (Figure
tabling; the simple alidade and telescopic
3.52(a)).
alidade.
Simple alidade is used for ordinary work.
It consists of gun-metal or wooden ruler
with two vertical vanes at the ends. The
eye-vane is provided with a narrow
slit while the object vane is open and
carries a horse hair. Both the slits,
provide a definite line of sight which
can be made to pass through the object
to be sighted. To draw the rays, one of
the edges of alidade is beveled and its
perfectly smooth working edge is known
as the fiducial edge. The fiducial edge
Figure 3.52(a): Tripod stand is graduated to facilitate the plotting of
distances to a scale (Figure 3.53).

180 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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Object vane needle points to the magnetic North, it

Eye vane is parallel to the sides of the box. It is
required for drawing the line showing
magnetic meridian on the paper. It is
used to orient the table to the magnetic
Fiducial edge/Bevelled edge meridian (Figure 3.55).
Figure 3.53: Simple alidade
Wooden box
Telescopic alidade: is used when it
is required to take inclined sights. It
essentially consists of a small telescope
with a level tube and graduated arc Graduations
mounted on horizontal axis. It gives
higher accuracy and more range of sight Magnetic
(Figure 3.54). needle

Pivot

Figure 3.55: Trough compass

Spirit levels are common and cheaply

available for masonries. They are flat-
based aluminum or woody bar fitted with
bubble tube and are used for levelling in
Bubble tube brick laying. In plane table surveying,
Vertical circle
Telescope spirit levels are used to level the plane
Straight edge table during surveying or ascertaining
Focussing ruler
screw if the table is properly leveled. Board’s
levelling is done by placing the level on
the board in two positions at right angles
and getting the bubble at the center of
bubble tube. To ensure that a plane table
Figure 3.54: Telescopic alidade
is perfectly leveled, a bubble of spirit
Trough compass is a thin narrow wooden level must be at the center of the bubble
box containing a magnetic needle about tube and checked with its positions in any
120 mm long. The box is moved around two mutually perpendicular directions as
on plane table surface so that when the indicated in Figure 3.56.

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 Simple survey and mapping

U-fork with plumb bob is used for

Bubble centering the table over the survey
station. U-fork is also called a U-frame.
It is attached on the plane table during
the field plotting and fixed with a plumb
to point on a station when the plotted
position of that point is already on the
Figure 3.56: Spirit level sheet. In the beginning of the work the
Apart from the instruments for the plane U-fork with its plumb bob is used to
table, there are also accessories which transfer the ground point onto the sheet
include the following; as indicated in Figure 3.57.

Figure 3.57: U-fork with plumb bob

Note that, u-forks appears in different shapes as indicated in Figure 3.58 (a, b, and c).

(a) Point end

Hook
Point
(b)
Plumb bob
U frame

(c)
Thread

Plumb bob

Figure 3.58: Different shapes of u-forks

182 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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Field practical operations

Form five, and six geography students

should note that proper handling of plane
table equipment and its accessories
and performing surveying activities
diligently and in accordance with the
practice and rules which ultimately build
a foundation for obtain reliable, and
accurate field data is very important. In
performing plane table surveying, two
main steps are involved: Setting up a Figure 3.59: Plane table on ground beacon station
plane table and locating the position of The table then is leveled using the
points or features as required. spirit level (Figure 3.60). The board
is considered level when a spirit level
a) Setting up the plane table over the bubble is at the center. After mounting a
chosen station plane table on tripod stand, the process of
making a plane table perfectly horizontal
Setting up a plane table involves three is what we phrase in this book as plane
operations. Centering, levelling and table levelling. The spirit level is placed
orienting. Centering the plane table parallel to the two perpendicular sides
means putting the table exactly over of a plane table at each corner. Then, its
the starting point you have chosen. The bubble is brought to the center by either
procedure involves setting up of tripod turning the three foot-screws or adjusting
by fixing them firmly and properly the three legs of a tripod stand.
spread on the ground and mounting
a plane table board on a tripod at a
convenient height. The table should be
approximately leveled by tripod legs by
judging by the eyes. Then the operation
of centering is carried out by means of Figure 3.60: Spirit level
u-frame and plumb bob.
Orienting the table is another equally
It is a preliminary stage to plane tabling, important and necessary process for
after mounting the board, then a point on setting up of a plane table before any
the ground is transferred to a paper sheet, measurement is taken. It is a process
spread on top of the board (Figure 3.59). of aligning setting up a plane table in
such a way that, all the lines plotted on

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 183
 Simple survey and mapping

a sheet are parallel to corresponding In orienting by trough compass, a line

lines on the ground. The procedure representing a meridian is drawn on a
and processes of making lines drawn drawing sheet to orient a plane table. A
on sheet of paper on the board parallel trough compass is then placed along this
to the corresponding lines on ground, line, and a table is turned until the trough
are refered to as orientation of plane compass points towards the north-south
table. The accuracy of plane table survey direction. At this position, the plane table
mainly depends upon the accuracy of is clamped. This method is quick but
plane table orientation at each station unsuitable in areas with metal ferric ores
point. The orientation of a plane table can which affect the direction of magnetic
be achieved by either trough compass needle due to local attractions. Consider
or back-sighting method. Therefore, ABCD and E step by step using radiation
orientation here means assuring that the method (see Figure 3.61).
plane table is strictly oriented towards
the magnetic meridian.

Figure 3.61: Plane tabling the farm ABCDE

Procedures:
(i) Set the plane table at P and perform centering and levelling using spirit
level as described in the preceding paragraphs. Put a mark on paper sheet
at a point above point P. The point P is transferred to p on the sheet paper
by using U-fork and plumb bob;
(ii) Then using a trough compass, establish north direction somewhere on the
right-hand side on the sheet of paper. To indicate north direction, place a
trough compass where you would like to draw it and keep twisting to make
sure a compass arrow points to the North. Then draw a line towards the

184 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Simple survey and mapping

meridian as shown by a compass to in a school map by locating the new

indicate north direction as shown infrastructure established recently or it
in Figure 3.61. After fixing the may aim at demarcating land parcels for
north direction, then the direction housing, farming and others. In plane
to orient a plane table is ready and table, position of points or features
all lines will be drawn parallel to is determined by scaling down the
it; and measured distances and plotting them on
(iii) Then start taking measurement a drawing sheet. There are three common
from the table to the established methods used to determine the position
stations. of points or features in a plane table
The orientation by back-sighting is a which are; radiation, intersection or
common method used in plane table triangulation; traverse and resection.
surveying. After finishing surveying
from the plane table at A, if the table is Plane table survey by radiation
to be shifted to station B, a line is drawn method
from the plotted position of station A For form five secondary students, a word
towards station B. Then distance AB radiation should be taking you back to
is measured, scaled-down and plotted the radiation topics where you generally
position of station B is obtained. Then made association of radiation and the
the table is shifted to station B, centered sun. You may apply your knowledge in
and levelled. Keeping alidade along line this topic too. Radiation is a method in
BA, the table is turned to sight station which all measurements starts from one
A and clamped. Thus, the orientation point on the plane table out widely to
of the table is achieved by the back the object or details intended. Radiation
sighting. Orientation may be checked method is only effective when the entire
by observing already plotted objects. area can be surveyed from one single
station. The plane table will be set up
Therefore, the orientation procedures in
at one station from where all the other
plane table survey aim at making sure
points that need to be fixed are visible.
that the plane table at each station, is
For example, positions of points A, B,
parallel to all other successive station,
C, D, and E in a farm, which are visible
hence the emergence of the principle of
from station P, can be fixed using the
parallelism.
radiation method through the following
procedure:
b) Locating position of points or features
(i) Set up a Plane table at point
All surveys exist to accomplish one
P where all other points to be
important objective, which is locating
fixed (that is, A, B, C, D, E)
or positioning of both natural and are easily seen. Then decide a
man-made features. Plane table survey scale for the measurement that
is not different from this objective. you are going to make, let’s
It may aim at updating information

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 185
 Simple survey and mapping

say, 1cm represents 10 metres. However, preliminary set up of plane table

must be conducted as outlined in a setting up plane table section above;
(ii) Put the alidade on point ‘P’ marked on the drawing paper vertically
above point ‘P’, and the first point, say A is sighted from it . A ground
distance from P to A is measured and presented on the sheet the line of
sight connecting points P and A is drawn (Figure 3.62) ;

Figure 3.62: Plane tabling setup and procedures

Continue measuring all other stations using the alidade to sight to points B, C, D,
and E and present their distances on the paper as shown on the board as ‘b’, ‘c’,
‘d’, and ‘e’ (see Figure 3.63).

Figure 3.63: Farm ABCDE

(iii) Then join the Points ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’, and ‘e’ as shown in Figure 3.63; and
(iv) Finally, produce a plan of a farm surveyed. However, it should be
remembered that, point ‘P’ must be located in such a way that a surveyor
is not there and the plan is found, any other person can determine its
location.

186 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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Generally, the points that the surveyor wants to locate are boundary point A, B, C,
D and E. In this case point ‘P’ is just a reference point from which the stations A,
B, C, D and E can be identified. It should be remembered that A, B, C, D, and E,
can also be used to locate ‘P’. It must be remember that, radiation method, fixes
location or position of details from a single point.
Plane table survey by intersection method
Different from radiation method, where a line of sight is defined and the distance
to a fixed point is measured, in intersection method, only a line of sight is defined.
This means that in order for a point or feature, such as a building, a water well and
others to be fixed, two lines of sight are defined from two different points towards
a point to be fixed. For example, two corners, A and B of one side of a building,
are fixed using the intersection method from two points, S1 and S2.
For instance, in the Figure 3.64 if the interest is to locate a form two class building
from point S2 near water tank and point near S1 the headmaster’s house, a plane
table survey through intersection method can go through the following procedures:

S2

S1

Figure 3.64: Plane table setting at stations S1 and S2

(i) Firstly, set up a plane table at stations where points A and B can easily
be seen. In Figure 3.64, we establish stations S1 and S2.
(ii) Secondly, the alidade is put on point S1 marked on the drawing paper
vertically above point S1 and A is sighted from S1. The line of sight
connecting points S1 and A is drawn. The same is done to S1 and B
which are also drawn on a drawing paper.
(iii) Thirdly, a baseline connecting stations ‘S1’ and S2 is defined by measuring
the distance between stations S1 and S2 on the ground and plotting it to
a suitable scale on the drawing sheet between points S1 and S2 (Figure
3.65).

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 187
 Simple survey and mapping

Figure 3.65: Intersection of points A and B from survey stations S1 and S2

(iv) In the fourth step, a plane table position of point B, marked as b

is moved to station S2 and set up on the drawing paper.
such that S2 is vertically above
point S2. Then, the alidade is put Plane table survey by traverse method
along a line connecting points S2 This method has been used in previous
and S1. A plane table is turned
lessons. It has been used in chain and
horizontally about a vertical axis
prismatic surveying. Traverse involve
until the alidade bisects a ranging
pole held at station S1 and the establishing a series of connected lines
table is clamped. whose positions are to be determined.
A traverse method in plane table
(v) Finally, the alidade is put on point surveying is different from traverse in
S2, turned to bisect stations A
chain and prismatic surveying. In plane
and B to define their respective
table survey, plotting is done instantly
lines of sight on a drawing paper.
A point where lines of sight for in the field. Plane table is also used in
station A from stations S1 and fixing survey lines between stations of a
S2 intersect is a position of point closed or open traverse. Through traverse
A, marked as a on the drawing method, a plane table is set up at each
paper. Similarly, a point where traverse station. For example, a traverse
lines of sight for station B’ from method is used to fix five corners A, B,
stations S1 and S2 intersect is a C, D and E of a farm (Figure 3.66).

188 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Simple survey and mapping

Figure 3.66: Fixing positions of five corners A, B, C, D, and E of a farm using traverse methods
of plane table surveying.

The following procedures are followed axis until the alidade bisects
to fix position of points using traverse a ranging pole held at station
method of plane table survey: ‘A’, then the table is clamped.

(i) A plane table is set up at (iv) The alidade is put on point ‘b’,
one of the corner points, say turned to sight a ranging rod
corner point ‘A’, where the held at C, then the line of sight
next corner point, say ‘B’, connecting points B and C is
is easily seen. The setting- drawn on a drawing sheet. A
up involves the procedures distance BC is measured and
discussed. plotted to a suitable scale.

(ii) From point ‘A’, a sight is taken (v) Steps (iii) and (iv) are repeated
towards B and the distance AB for traverse stations C, D, and
is measured and plotted to a E.
suitable scale as ‘ab’ on the Plane table survey by resection
drawing sheet.
method
(iii) The plane table is moved to Resection is the method used in
station ‘B’ and set up such determining a location of an unknown
that ‘b’ is vertically above ‘B’.
point in relation to known points. The
Then, the alidade is put along
plane table is fixed at an unknown point
a line connecting points ‘b’
and ‘a’. A plane table is turned to allow sighting of points of known
horizontally about a vertical positions. The method is usually applied

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 189
 Simple survey and mapping

when some objects may be difficult to However, due to incorrect orientation,

see them from the base line stations. the rays may form a small triangle with D
either within or outside the triangle. This
To do this, the board is moved to the
is referred to as the triangle of error. The
position of the object position, oriented
error can be fixed through the following
by trough compass and clamped. Rays
procedure;
are drawn on a tracing paper from
three objects in the field A, B, and C Case 1
as shown in Figure 3.67. If the board is
(i) If the position of D is within
correctly oriented, the rays will intersect
the triangle of error, it can be
at unknown point D. If the positions found by drawing short lines
of rays A, B, and C coincide with their within the triangle, each line
positions on the map, the position of D vertically from the ray line
can then be established on the map. and proportional to the length
of their respective rays. If they
are properly drawn with a
compass they should intersect
at D’s position as shown in
Figure 3.68.

(a)

Figure 3.68: Correcting error when point D is

within the triangle.

(ii) To check the new position of

D, lay the alidade on D, turn
the board slightly until A and
D are aligned and draw a new
ray. Do the same for B and C.
(b) The new rays should meet at
Figure 3.67: Fixing position of object by point D, if they do not, repeat
plane table resection method. the process.

190 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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Case 2 or failure of proper setting of the plane

table at the start. Some faults from
(i) If the position of D lies outside
human error include: improper setting
the triangle of error, point
A, B, and C being in front of of the drawing board; improper setting
the observer, D may be on of the fixing clamp and alidade being not
the right or left of the triangleparallel with the line of sight. Errors from
of error. The board may be manipulation include those resulting
moved slightly to the right to from defective levelling, sighting,
orient it correctly with A, B, orientation, and centering. Consistently,
and C. Thus, the position of defective scale of a map and wrongly
D will be to the left. To fix D intersecting the rays drawn from two
use vertical lines from rays different stations contribute highly to
proportional to the length of production of faulty survey data.
the rays as shown in Figure
3.69. Significantly, plane table surveying is a
simple and rapid method for survey work
of small land areas where by a map or
plain can be produced. But, the methods
provide little room for surveyors to omit
necessary measurement in the field. The
fact that, the land area surveyed is in
front of the surveyors’ eyes, surveyors
are able to compare feature sizes easily.
It demands fairly simple skills. It is
being more field based, the possibility
of making mistakes is minimized.
Despite advantages mentioned, plane
Figure 3.69: Correcting error when point D is table surveying has some weakness
outside the triangle. such as; the method cannot be used in
rainy and windy conditions. The plane
Source of errors in plane table table equipment is heavy to carry so this
Plane tabling like other survey methods, may require the use of a car which adds
is not free from errors. Errors in plane expenses. A single error in the ground
table survey could fall into three base line measurement can throw out all
categories, mainly instrumental errors, angle measurement. The table uses a lot
errors in manipulation and sighting and of equipment and accessories which are
errors in plotting. Instrumental errors easier to forget while in the field. Lastly,
include instability of the table due to the method cannot be used for a large
the shrinking of the paper, thickness of scale survey.
the pencil and faults related with poor

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 191
 Simple survey and mapping

Exercise 3.3
1. Describe resection in plane table survey.
2. (a) Explain advantages of plane table survey.
(b) Write short notes on the importance of centering in the plane table survey.
(c) Describe two problem in plane table survey.
3. What do you understand by the term ‘orientation’ as used in plane table
survey?
4. Show the effect of bad orientation on traverse.
5. Describe how you would carry out plane table survey by traverse method of
the area provided in the following figure.

6. With the aid of diagrams, describe radiation method as applied in the plane
table survey.
7. Compare and contrast the following surveying methods:
(a) Compass traversing and plane table traversing
(b) Radiation and intersection methods
8. (a) What is meant by triangle of error and how can one deal with it in
setting a plane table?
(b) Illustrate the intersection in plane table surveys.
9. (a) What is a plane table survey?
(b) What are the possible sources of error in plane table survey?
10. Describe five (5) equipments used in plane table survey.

192 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Simple survey and mapping

Levelling survey sections of the earth such as sewers,

pipelines, roads and railways.
Levelling is a method of land survey
that focus on determining the heights of Common terms in levelling survey
given points above or below a datum line There are many special and non-special
or determining difference in elevation terms commonly used in levelling.
between points. Datum is the point or Some of these are highlighted in this
the surface with respect to which levels section without emphasis and detailed
of other points are calculated. explanation. Other terms will be
explained in each section they appear.
Most of survey methods have their
These terms are;
names derived from the main survey
equipment employed or the activity Instrument station: is the point where
that is carried out, the technique used instrument is set up for observations.
or the survey objective. Levelling Station: is the point where levelling staff
survey derives its name from the survey is held. It is the point whose elevation
objective, levelling, and its principal is to be determined or the point that is
equipment level. Mentioning a word to be established at a given elevation.
“level” may seem new to some students
but it has been used quite often in our Height of instrument (HI): is the elevation
daily activities. A spirit level shown in of the line of sight with respect to the
Figure 3.70 is the most common level assumed datum. It is also referred to as
that is used in masonry works, especially, height of collimation (HC). In levelling it
maintaining perfect wall horizontality does not mean the height of the telescope
and verticality during brick laying. above the ground level where the level
is set up.
Back sight (BS): is the first sight taken on
a levelling staff held at point of known
elevation. It ascertains the amount by
which the line of sight is above or below
the elevation of the point. Back sight
enables the surveyor to obtain the height
Figure 3.70: Spirit level of the instrument.
Levelling survey uses the same principles Fore sight (F.S): is the sight taken on a
used by masons to maintain the levelling staff held at a point of unknown
horizontality and verticality during brick elevation to ascertain the amount by
laying. Levelling survey has been very which the point is above or below the line
useful in contouring mapping, preparing of sight. Fore sight enables the surveyor
land cross section and longitudinal to obtain the elevation of the point. It is
section. Levelling survey provides data also generally known as minus sight as
helpful for construction works of narrow the foresight reading is always subtracted

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from the height of the instrument (except Mean sea level datum (M.S.L): is a mean
when the staff is held inverted) to obtain sea level obtained by making hourly
the elevation. observations of the tides at any place
Change point (CP): is a point on which over a period of 19 years. The M . S . L
both the fore sight and back sight are datum adopted by the survey of India for
taken during the operation of levelling. determining the elevations of different
Two sights are taken from two different points in India is that of Mumbai. In
instrument stations, a fore sight to East Africa, the datum line is situated in
ascertain the elevation of the point while Mombasa, while in Nigeria it is in Lagos
a back sight is taken on the same point and for South Africa it is in Cape Town.
to establish the height of the instrument Reduced Level (R.L): is the height or
of the new setting of the level. depth of a point above or below the
Intermediate sight (IS): is the fore assumed datum. It is also known as
sight taken on a levelling staff held at elevation of the point. Elevations of
a point between two change points or the points below the datum surface are
a benchmark and a change point, to known as negative elevations.
determine the elevation of that point. It Vertical line: is a line that follows the
may be noted that are stations sighted local direction of gravity as indicated
between BS and FS. by a plumb line.
Bench mark (BM): refers to a relatively
Level surface: is a curved surface that at
permanent and fixed reference point of
every point is perpendicular to the local
known elevation above the assumed
plumb line (i.e., the direction in which
datum.
gravity acts)
Line of collimation (LC): refers to the
line passing through the optical centre of Level line: is a curved line on a level
the objective and the point of intersection surface
of the cross hairs stretched in front of the Horizontal place: is a plane perpendicular
eye piece and its continuation. to the local direction of gravity and
Line of sight (LS): refers to a line tangential to the level surface.
passing through the optical centre of
Horizontal line: is a line on a horizontal
the objective, traversing the eye-piece
which is perpendicular to the vertical
and entering the eye.
line.
Vertical datum: refers to any level surface
to which elevations are referenced. Vertical control: is a series of benchmarks
Means sea level is one of the vertical or other points of known elevation
datum assigned on elevation or reduced established throughout an area.
level of zero.

194 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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Equipment used in levelling survey

Traditional levelling survey requires three major equipments for its operations.
The equipments includes; a level, tripod stand and a levelling staff.
A level is an instrument with a telescope and bubble tube and levelling head used
for sighting targets, particularly, levelling staff (see Figure 3.71). A telescope is
an optical instrument mounted on levels to magnify and view distant objects. It
provides a line of sight. A bubble tube is used together with the levelling head to
make the line of sight horizontal by bringing the bubble to the center of its run.
Bubble tube
Diaphragm

Vertical
Eyepiece Tribrach spindle Objective

Levelling
Trivet stage screws

Tripod

Vertical axis

Figure 3.71: Components of a level instrument

There are three basic types of level instruments, namely: Dumpy levels, engineers’
or tilting levels and automatic levels. The first two are spirit bubble levels. The
dumpy level is a very simple basic instrument, while the tilting level has certain
modifications which give it greater convenience of operation and a possibility of
greater clarity. However, the most often used and “quick set” level is a tilting level
without foot-screws. The automatic type of levels which gives a horizontal line of
sight automatically, are the most favorable to use, but they are relatively expensive.
(a) Dumpy level: is characterized by their telescope being rigidly attached to the
vertical spindle (see Figure 3.72). The levelling of the instrument is done by
means of three-foot screws separating their two plates. The upper plate with
the vertical spindle on which the telescope and bubble tube are mounted has
to be levelled with the foot screws.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 195
 Simple survey and mapping

Figure 3.72: Dumpy level

(b) The engineer’s level: also known as Figure 3.73: Engineer’s level
tilting level has a telescope which
(c) The automatic level: automatic
is not rigidly fixed to the vertical
levels are fairly advanced than
spindle (Figure 3.73). Instead,
the telescope is capable of tilting dumpy and tilting levels. They are
slightly in the vertical plane about provided with either foot screws
a point just below the telescope. or a ball-and-socket joint (Figure
This vertical movement of the 3.74). However, they do not have
telescope is made by rotating a a bubble tube for precise levelling,
tilting screw below the eyepiece. instead they use compensators to
They have two bubbles, circular automatically to make the line of
bubble on the upper plate is used sight horizontal once an approximate
to achieve approximate levelling levelling has been achieved. Setting
by means of the three foot screws up and approximate levelling is
and telescope bubble (tube bubble) done with the circular bubble in
to be levelled for each sighting by the same way as for a tilting level.
the tilting screw only. This type of
levels exists in two features, the
“quickest” and normal tilt levels.
Contrary to the “normal” tilting
level the “quickset” level does not
have foot screws in the levelling
head. A ball-and-socket joint is
provided to level the instrument
quickly, but only approximately.
Accurate levelling of the instrument
must be completed with the tilting
screw for each sighting.
Figure 3.74: Automatic level

(d) Tripod stand: is an important

component in any levelling process
for it carries a level instrument
during levelling survey. The level

196 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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is mounted on a tripod stand which

consists of three solid wooden or
aluminum framed legs. At the lower
ends, the legs are provided with
pointed iron shoes for driving them
on the ground during the levelling
process (Figure 3.75).

Figure 3.76: Reading on a levelling staffs

(i) Self-reading staff: are those in

which the readings are directly
obtained by the observer through
the telescope. In self-reading staff
any ordinary man can hold the staff
and keep it in plumb. Self-reading
staffs are of three types: the solid
Figure 3.75: Tripod stand staff, the folding or hinged staff and
(e) Levelling staffs: are wooden or the telescopic staff. The Solid staff
metallic rods, graduated into metre are usually available in 3 m long in
or feet and further smaller divisions one length. The absence of hinge or
of 10 mm intervals and marked socket on these staffs, makes them
in red, black and white for easy more accurate in reading compared
reading (Figure 3.76). The staffs to hinged ones. However, the staffs
are available in 3 m to 5 m long. are inconvenient to carry in the
The bottom of the levelling staff field. Use of a solid staff is generally
represents the zero reading. The restricted to only precise levelling
reading given by the line of sight work. Folding or hinged staff are
on a levelling staff held vertically made of well-seasoned timber
is the vertical distance above the with 4 m long. They consist of two
point on which the staff is held. portions, each being 2 m hinged
Levelling staffs may be grouped together. The width and thickness of
into two classes; self-reading staffs the staff, is kept 75 mm and 18 mm
and target staffs. respectively. Telescopic or Sopwitch
type of staff consists of three pieces;

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 Simple survey and mapping

Top piece is solid 1.25 m long

whereas central piece 1.25 m and
lower piece 1.5 m are hollow. The
top portion slides into the central
portion telescopically. When fully
extended, total length of the staff is
4 m. The upper two pieces are held
by brass spring catches.
(ii) Target staff: is a class which consists
of two ordinary rods, the upper rod
6 ft. in length and which slides into
lower one which is 7 ft. in length.
A target which can be moved up
and down is attached to the staff.
The rod is graduated in feet, and
its tenths and hundreds. For taking Figure 3.77: (a) Electronic theodolite
readings the level man directs the
staff man to raise or lower the target
till it is bisected by the line of sight.
The staff man clamps the target and
takes the reading. This means that
the duties of a target staff-man are
as important as those of the observer
and demand the services of a trained
man.
(f) Theodolite and total station:
although levels are still highly
in use, it is not because they are
the only equipment that can be
used for levelling. Technological
development has provided options
to other advanced and sophisticated
equipment like Theodolites and
Total stations (Figure 3.77).
Figure 3.77: ( b) Total station

198 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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Theodolite is an optical or electronic vertical distances direct from the field

equipment for measuring horizontal and and indirect levelling in which vertical
vertical angles or distances. Total station distances are not measured directly in
is an electronic instrument for measuring the field. Direct levelling is of two types
both horizontal and vertical angles and namely differential levelling and profile
distances. The two equipment are used in levelling.
a trigonometric levelling. Trigonometric
levelling applies trigonometric Differential levelling
relationship to determine elevation of
Differential levelling is carried out to
points from measured vertical angles and
determine the elevation of a distant point
measured horizontal or slope distances.
that cannot be determined with a single
set up of the instrument. It involves
Types of levelling
setting up a level several times to take
Different books classify levelling reading along the route between the
differently based on different perspectives benchmark and the distant point. At
and context. All levelling practice each instrument set up, only two staff
can be divided into direct levelling readings, a back sight and a fore sight
which involves all methods which take are observed (Figure 3.78).

Figure 3.78: Differential levelling

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 199
 Simple survey and mapping

(a) Profile levelling

Profile levelling is another category of direct levelling which determines elevations
of a series of points along a line before shifting a level to another station. In this
type of levelling, an instrument can determine elevation of several points between a
back sight and fore sight. As such a back sight, a fore sight and as many intermediate
sights as possible are taken in profile levelling (Figure 3.79). Profile levelling is
particularly considered important in drainage and terrace layout.
1.72 2.0 1.0
2.01
B.S F.S
1.82 1.5
F.S
B.S Intersight

0.55 0.45
Intersight
Q2 Q3 B
A Q4
BM Q1
121.500m

Figure 3.79: Profile levelling

Levelling procedures (tribrach) is approximately

The execution of levelling starts with levelled. To fix the instrument
the adjustments of the level instrument on tripod stand, tripod legs are
and followed by leveled observation and well spread on the ground to place
a tripod’s head nearly level and
record observed levels in level sheets.
at convenient height, a level is
Instrument adjustment mounted and fixed on the tripod.
Then adjust the tripod’s legs and
The instrument adjustment done in bring all the foot screws of the
levelling is categorized into temporary level in the centre of their run.
adjustment and permanent adjustment. Modern levels such as automatic
levels, are provided with a small
(a) Temporary adjustment circular bubble on the tribrach for
These are adjustments performed at achieving approximate levelling
each instrument station where a level is of the instrument.
set-up before taking any observation. (ii) Levelling is done with the help
Temporary adjustment involves setting of foot screws and bubbles. The
up a level, levelling and eliminating purpose of levelling is to make
parallax. The following procedures are the vertical axis truly vertical.
carried out: The method of levelling depends
(i) Setting up the level: this operation upon whether there are three-
includes fixing the instrument foot screws or four-foot screws.
on the tripod and levelling the In all modern instruments three-
instrument approximately by leg foot screws are provided and
adjustment. The tripod legs are so only procedures for levelling
adjusted that the telescope is at a instruments with three-foot screws
convenient height and the machine are explained. In the first step, a

200 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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tubular bubble is aligned parallel (b) Permanent adjustment

to any two-foot screw which are Contrary to temporary adjustment,
then simultaneously turned inward permanent adjustment can be carried
or outward to bring the bubble when the device has major technical
to the centre. Then, the tubular problem. Two types of permanent
bubble is aligned perpendicular adjustment are usually carried out in
to these two foot screws and a
levelling: adjustment of bubble tube
third screw is turned to bring the
error and collimation error. The bubble
bubble to the centre. The tubular
bubble is turned to different tube error happens when the vertical
positions to check whether the axis of a level is not truly vertical after
bubble remains central. When bringing the bubble to the centre. The
the bubble is central, the level collimation error happens when the line
is levelled, otherwise permanent of sight is not horizontal after bringing
adjustment is required. the bubble to the centre.
(iii) Elimination of parallax involves Field procedures and field data booking
two operations, focusing on the Field levelling procedures involve
eye piece and focusing on the setting up the instrument as described
objective. To focus on the eye-
in temporary adjustment, reading vertical
piece, first direct the telescope
distances on the levelling staff and
either towards the sky or hold a
sheet of white paper in front of recording them on field note books.
the objective. Then move the eye Reading vertical distances
piece in or out till the cross hairs
appear distinct and very dark. To take the staff readings the following
In some levels, the eye-piece is procedure are carried out:
graduated and numbered. Once (i) The level is set up at a convenient
the eye-piece is focused, the position, such as X and the level
observer may note this position staff is placed over the benchmark
to save much of his time at other (BM), such as the BM of a reduced
settings. level of 100 m (Figure 3.80). Then,
the first reading, called back sight
The objective is focused to adjust (BS) is taken at the BM. Let its value
the visibility of a staff through be 1.82 m.
a telescope. To focus on the
(ii) The staff is now moved to points A
objective, direct the telescope and B in turn and readings, called
towards the levelling staff to see intermediate sights (IS) are taken.
the staff. If the staff is not seen Let their values be 1.0 m and 0.6
from the telescopic level, turn m. The staff is moved from station
the focusing screw till the staff B to C and the last reading let its
image appears clear and sharp. value be 0.25 m, called foresight
The image of the staff should be (FS) is taken with the first set up of
formed on the plane of cross hairs. the instrument.

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(iii) After taking the last reading in the first set up of the instrument, the level
is moved to the second position, say Y. Then, the staff held at station C is
turned towards station Y and a back sight reading is taken at it. Let its value
be 1.94 m (Figure 3.80). The staff is moved from station C to D and the last
reading, called foresight (FS) is taken before the instrument is shifted again,
or the levelling observation stops. In Figure 3.80, BM is a benchmark, A
and B are intermediate sights and E is the last station while X, Y, and Z are
instruments stations.

1.94

BM
Figure 3.80: Levelling procedures

Recording staff reading

The staff readings are then recorded on a field note book and reduced using the
rise and fall method or the height of collimation method.

Rise and fall method

In rise and fall method, the amount which a point is above or below another point
is determined by subtracting each staff reading, the IS or FS from the preceding
staff reading, which could be the BS or IS. The method uses a table of eight
columns, namely, Station, BS, IS, FS, Rise, Fall, RL and Remarks. At each row,
staff readings and reduced level at a particular station are recorded. The following
procedures are followed in Rise and Fall method:
(i) In the first row, record reading taken at the first station, BM. The station
identifier is recorded in the first column, the BS in the second column and
the RL in the seventh column. In the last column a remark is provided
(Table 3.3).
(ii) In the second row, record the station identifier, A and the IS in the third
column.

202 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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(iii) Subtract staff reading at A (IS) from sight reading at BM (BS). If the
difference is positive, point A is relatively above BM, meaning there is
a rise in ground surface from BM to A. Record the difference in the fifth
column called Rise. If the difference is negative, point A is relatively
below BM, meaning there is a fall in ground surface from BM to A.
Thus, the difference should be recorded in the sixth column, called Fall.
The negative sign should be ignored when recording Fall values, that is
only magnitude values should be recorded.
(iv) Calculate the RL of station A by adding the Rise to or subtracting the
Fall from the RL of the BM. In this case, a Rise at A is added to the RL
of the BM and recorded in the seventh column. Repeat the procedures
(i) to (iv) for stations B, C, D and E (see Table 3.3).
(v) At the end of the table arithmetic check must be shown. The check is
given by:
ΣBS - ΣFS = Σ(Rises) – Σ(Falls) = RLLAST – RLFIRST

Table 3.3: Rise and fall method

Station BS (m) IS (m) FS (m) Rise Fall RL (m) Remarks

(m) (m)
BM 1.82 100.00 Benchmark
A 1.00 0.82 100.82
B 0.60 0.40 101.22
C 1.94 0.25 0.35 101.57 Change point
D 0.52 1.82 0.12 101.69 Change point
E 1.00 0.48 101.21 Last station

∑ BS = 4.28 m
∑ FS = 3.07 m
∑ (Rises) = 1.69 m
∑ (Falls) = 0.48 m
RL of the last station (RL LAST ) = 101.21m
RL of the first station (RL FIRST ) =100.00 m

Since ΣBS ̶ ΣFS = Σ (Rises) ̶ Σ(Falls) = RLLAST ̶ RLFIRST

4.28m ̶ 3.07 = 1.21m, 1.69m ̶ 0.48m = 1.21m, 101.21m ̶ 100.00m = 1.21m
Therefore, recording and reduction of levelling was correctly done.

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Example

Record and reduce levelling data using Rise and Fall method.

Change
point
HC 2.454 0.973 HC
18 cm 638.236
637.305 1.743 1.021 1.103 1.523

637.25

636.284 536.202
635.562
635.782

Horizontal A B x C D Y E
distance 18 cm 29 cm 30 cm 34 cm

The staff reading in Figure 3.80 are recorded and reduced as shown in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4: Rise and Fall method for a profile levelling in Figure 3.76
Station BS IS FS Rise Fall RL Remark
A 1.743 635.562 Benchmark
B 1.021 0.722 636.284 B
C 1.103 0.082 636.202 C
D 2.454 1.523 0.42 635.782 Change point
E 0.973 1.481 637.263 Last station
ΣBS = 4.197 m
ΣFS = 2.496 m
ΣBS – ΣFS = 4.197 m – 2.496 m = 1.701 m
Σ(Rises) = 2.203 m
Σ(Falls) = 0.502 m
Σ(Rises) – Σ(Falls) = 2.203 m – 0.502 m = 1.701 m
RL of last station (RLLAST) = 637. 263 m
RL of the first station (RLFIRST) = 635.562 m.
RLLAST – RLFIRST = 637.263 m – 635.562 m = 1.701 m
Since ΣBS – ΣFS = Σ(Rises) – Σ(Falls) = RLLAST – RLFIRST = 1.701,
Therefore, the recording and reduction of levelling was correctly done.

204 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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Height of collimation method

In height of collimation method, the height of collimation (HC) is determined at

each instrument set up by adding the BS to the respective RL. The method uses
a table of seven columns, namely, Station, BS, IS, FS, HC, RL and Remarks. At
each row, staff readings and reduced level at a particular station are recorded.
The following procedures are followed for height of collimation method:
(i) In the first row, record reading taken at the first station, say BM. The
station identifier is recorded in the first column, the BS in the second
column and the RL in the seventh column. Add a staff reading at BM
(BS) to the RL of the BM to get the height of collimation (HC) at the first
instrument set up, and record it in the fifth column. In the last column
a remark is provided (see Table 3.5) that uses data from Figure 3.78.
HC at first set up = BS at BM + RL of station BM
(ii) In the second row, record a staff reading taken at A (IS) in the third
column. Then, subtract staff reading at A (IS) from HC of the first setup
of instrument to get the RL of station A and record it in the sixth column.
Continue determining and recording RL at all stations observed in the
first set up (see Table 3.5).
RL at A = HC at first set up – IS at A
RL at B = HC at first set up – FS at B
(iii) Add a BS reading taken at B in the second set up of the instrument to
the RL of station B to get the second height of collimation (HC) and
record it in the fifth column as shown in Table 3.5.
HC at second set up = BS at B + RL of station B
(iv) In the fourth, fifth and sixth rows, subtract staff reading taken at stations
C, D and E from the HC of the second set up of instrument to get their
respective RL and record them in the sixth column.
RL at C = HC at second set up – IS at C
RL at D = HC at second set up – IS at D
RL at E = HC at second set up – IS at E
(v) Repeat the procedures (iii) to (iv) for any instrument set up that follows.
(vi) At the end of the table, arithmetic check must be shown. The check for
height of collimation method is given as:
ΣBS – ΣFS = RLLAST – RLFIRST.

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Table 3.5: Height of Collimation method for a profile levelling

Station BS (m) IS (m) FS (m) HC (m) RL (m) Remark
BM 0.55 122.05 121.50 Benchmark
A 0.45 121.60
B 1.82 1.72 122.15 120.33 Change point
C 2.01 120.14
D 1.50 120.65
E 1.00 121.15 Last station

ΣBS = 2.37 m
ΣFS = 2.72 m
ΣBS – ΣFS = – 0.35 m
RL of last station (RLLAST) = 121.15 m
RL of the first station (RLFIRST) = 121.05 m.
RLLAST – RLFIRST = – 0.35 m
Since ΣBS – ΣFS = RLLAST – RLFIRST = – 0.35 m,
Therefore, the recording and reduction of levelling was correctly done.
Remember:
(i) Only, one staff reading is recorded in each row, except at a change point.
In Table 3.5 for instance, one staff reading is recorded at the first, second,
fourth and fifth rows, while two staff readings (BS and FS) taken at
change point (CP) B are recorded in the third row.
(ii) In Height of Instrument or Height of Collimation, the HC is recorded at
a BM and every change point. In Table 3.5 for instance, HC is recorded
at BM change point (CP) B.
(iii) In rise and fall method, only magnitude values of rise and fall are
recorded, their associated algebraic signs are not written.

206 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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Activity 3.9

1. Identify intermediate stations and change points in a profile levelling shown

in given figure.
2. In the following figure, record and reduce the following staff reading at
station A to E using; (a) rise and fall method (b) height of collimation method.

0.3 m 0.5 m 0.6 m 1.2 m

BM 0.4 m 0.7 m 0.5 m

100.0 m
A B
P
C E
Q Q

Staff reading along a profile levellin

Application of levelling involves the following procedure:

Levelling skills and knowledge are of (i) A level is set at a convenient

great demand in our daily life. Apart from position in the area and a BS
the general problem of determining the reading is taken at an appropriate
difference in levels between two points, bench mark.
the main applications of levelling are in (ii) The height of collimation is found
contouring, preparation of longitudinal and the required staff reading for
and cross-sectional profiles and setting a contour line is calculated. The
out of levels in construction works. required staff reading is determined
by subtracting a contour on the
Contouring height of collimation staff reading
(IS or FS) = HC – contour value.
Contouring is the process of creating
(iii) The instrument man asks staff
contours. Contours are imaginary lines man to move up and down in the
connecting points of equal elevation. area till the required staff reading
Contouring can be done using direct is found. In Figure 3.81, a staff
method or indirect method. reading of 1.3 m is needed to
mark a contour of 101.5 m. The
Direct method of contouring staff was first held at point 1 and
In the direct method of contouring, points its reading was higher than 1.3
defining a contour line are pegged out on m, thus it was moved to points
the ground and their horizontal positions of higher elevations until a staff
determined. The contouring method reading of 1.3 m was taken.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 207
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HC = 102.8
2.8 1.3

BM 100 m

Figure 3.81: Direct contouring

Then, a surveyor determines the on the plan, reduced levels are marked
horizontal coordinates of that point using and contour lines are interpolated
chain surveying, compass surveying, between the selected points. During
plane table surveying or other advanced the interpolation it is assumed that the
surveying. The method is very accurate ground is uniform between any two spot
but, slow and tedious. heights. The indirect method is further
classified into grid and radiation methods
Activity 3.10 based on the approach used to select
points for staff reading.
A contour line connecting points of
elevation of 105 m is to be established Grid method
by direct method from a benchmark of
103.625 m. Determine the staff reading Grid method is best suited to gently
at points where the contour line passes. sloping undulating land and fairly
small areas. In this method the area to
Indirect contouring be surveyed is divided into grid or series
of squares. The grid corners are marked
In the indirect contouring method, staff on the ground and their spot heights are
readings are taken at some selected determined through levelling. The grid is
points and their levels are reduced. That plotted to the scale and the spot heights
is the horizontal position is established of grid corners are entered. The contours
first and then the levels of those points of desired values are then located by
are found. After locating the points interpolation as shown in Figure 3.82.

208 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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A B C D E
0 22.5 24.0 25.0 26.0 24.0 0

23
24
25
50 24.0 25.5 26.5 27 27.0
50
26

27
28
100 26.0 28.0 28.5 27.5 27.5 100

28
27
26.5
150 28.0 28.5 27.0 26.5 150

27.0
200 28.5 28.5 26.5 26.0 200
A B C D E

Figure 3.82: Grid method of indirect contouring

Radiation method regular interval along the radiating line
and their spot heights are determined
Radiation method is useful for areas through levelling. The radiating lines and
located in small hills. The method the marked points are plotted to scale and
establishes a central position on a hill and the spot heights of the marked stations
set out radiating lines using the prismatic are entered. The contours of the desired
compass, theodolite or total station. values are then located by interpolation
Points are then marked on ground at a as shown in Figure 3.83.

Figure 3.83: Radiation method of indirect contouring

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Errors in levelling or fog can impair visibility of the staff

from the instrument man, hence errors.
This category of errors can be accidental
The fact that surveyors’ personalities
and compensative.
and ability to adhere to ethical guides
of survey to be unavoidable. Just as Manipulation errors are mistakes or
may be the case with other surveying blunders as other surveyor’s call. In
methods, errors in levelling exist and most cases, they originate from failed
can be grouped into Personal errors adherence to surveying ethics. They
(due to natural causes) and instrumental may be caused by careless setting up
errors. Personal errors can include of a level; the presence of parallax (the
those resulting from sighting problems, imperfect focusing on eyepiece and
manipulation errors, error in reading objective) and imperfect levelling of
the staff, those from recording and an instrument. Too much trust over
computation. Sighting errors can be a your experiences or assumptions and
result of visual impairment or failure of instrument’s verticality cause an error of
a tool’s cross hair to coincide with the no-verticality of the staff. The absence
staff graduations. The later could be a of a staff bubble plate attached to a
result of either due to long sights or due staff causes difficulty in holding of the
to coarseness of the cross hairs and the staff verticality. Other equally defective
staff. In some cases, natural changes causes for errors are incorrect reading,
of atmospheric conditions during the recording and computation of the staff
practice, such as the presence of mist reading.

Exercise 3.4

1. Mention components of a level machine.

2. A profile levelling was carried out to determine elevations of stations A,
B, C, D, and E as shown in the following figure indicating profile levelling
through stations A, B, C, D, and E.

1.2 0.6 1.8

1.5 1.8
1.6
A 0.6 1
X
BM = 200 m B C Y
D
Z E

(a) Identify intermediate stations (IS) and change points (CP).

210 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Simple survey and mapping

(b) Record staff readings and determine the reduced levels of stations A, B, C,
D, and E using;
(i) Rise and fall method.
(ii) Height of collimation method.
(c) Perform the arithmetic checks for the two methods applied in (b) above.

3. Complete by filling in the following table using height of collimation method.

Station BS IS FS HC RL Remarks
BM 1.82 500 Benchmark
A 1.68
B 1.42
C 1.40 0.68
D 1.48
E 1.62
F 1.84
ΣBS = ΣFS =
4. Record staff readings shown in the following figure and calculate the reduced
level of points A, B, and C using rise and fall method.

1.3 0.2
0.4 1.0
B
BM = 1000
A

Staff readings at BM, A, and B.

5. (a) What is the meaning of land survey to a geographer?

(b) Using relevant examples, differentiate chain survey from levelling.
(c) Explain four ( 4) ways in which chain survey is significant in the day
to day life.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 211
 Simple survey and mapping

Revision exercise 3
1. (a) Write short notes on the 5. Give out six differences between
following; prismatic and surveyors compass.
(i) Differential levelling 6. Explain procedures of adjusting a
(ii) Profile levelling prismatic compass.
(b) Describe instruments used in 7. The following consecutive
leveling. readings were taken with a dumpy
2. (a) Differentiate; level along a chain line at common
interval of 15m. The first reading
(i) Vertical line and vertical
control. was at a chainage of 165 where
RL is 98.085. The instrument
(ii) Horizontal line and
was shifted after fourth and ninth
horizontal plane.
reading, and the following readings
(iii) Level surface and level line
were recorded; 3.150, 2.245, 1.125,
(iv) Mean sea level and bench 0.860, 3.125, 2.760, 1.835, 1.470,
mark. 1.965, 1.225, 2.390 and 3.035.
(b) Identify the sources of errors (a) Make entries of the observed
in levelling, and explain how readings.
personal errors can be reduced.
(b) Find the RL of all points by using
3. The following consecutive readings the height of collimation and rise-
were taken with a level and a 4m fall methods.
levelling staff on a continuously 8. Describe types of survey stations
sloping ground at common interval and survey lines.
of 30 m. 0.855 on A, 1.545, 2.335,
(a) Why perpendicular offsets are
3.115, 3.825, 0.455, 1.380, 2.055, more preferred than oblique
2.855, 3.455, 0.585, 1.015, 1.850, offsets.
2.755, and 3.845 on B.
(b) Outline the guidelines of
(a) Make the entries in a level book
establishing offsets.
and apply the usual check.
(b) Determine the gradient of AB. (c) Outline factors that determine the
length of offsets.
4. Differentiate the following terms:
9. Explain eight criteria that you
(a) Isogonic line and agonic lines. would consider in order to select
(b) Irregular and secular variation. survey stations.
(c) Diurnal and annual variation. 10. Differentiate single-lines from
(d) Prismatic and surveyors compass. double line field book.
(e) Well-conditional triangle and ill- 11. Analyse eight precaution you will
conditioned triangle. take while entering in the field book.

212 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Simple survey and mapping

12. Describe procedures of plotting BM 2, 5.75 (–S) and 10.44 (+S) on

field data. TP2, and 4.68 (–S) on BM Rock.
13. Describe instruments used in Prepare, check, and adjust the
differential levelling. notes.
21. Describe the method of chaining
14. Describe six natural errors in
along the sloping ground.
levelling survey.
22. (a) Analyze the common mistakes
15. Explain personal errors in levelling.
in chain survey.
16. Differentiate between errors and (b) Provide eight precautions
mistakes. against errors and mistakes in
17. Explain six common mistakes chain survey.
during leveling. 23. Classify survey on the basis of
18. Suggest six ways by which errors instruments and describe all
can be minimized in leveling necessary equipment for field work
survey involving one of them.

19. A differential leveling loop began 24. With the aid of a neat sketch,
and closed on BM Tree (elevation describe how ranging across the
654.07 ft). The plus sight and chain obstacle can be done.
minus sight distances were kept 25. Give a critical description of
approximately equal. Readings (in different chains used in surveying
feet) listed in the order taken are while indicating relative advantages
5.06 (+) on BM Tree, 8.99 (–S) of each.
and 7.33 (+S) on TP1, 2.52 (–S)
26. Identify at least six precautions
and 4.85 (+S) on BM X, 3.61 (–S)
to be observed when entering the
and 5.52 (+S) on TP2, and 7.60
field data.
(–S) on BM Tree. Prepare, check,
and adjust the notes. 27. A crossed traverse is conducted
with five stations A, B, C, D, and E
20. A differential leveling circuit
in anticlockwise direction to form
began on BM Hydrant (elevation
the pentagon. If FB of AB is 400,
1823.65 ft) and closed on BM Rock
find the FB of other sides
(elevation 1841.71 ft). The plus
sight and minus sight distances 28. Describe methods of plotting the
were kept approximately equal. compass traverse
Readings (in feet) given in the 29. (a) How closing errors occurs in
order taken are 8.04 (+S) on BM traverse?
Hydrant, 5.63 (–S) and 6.98 (+S) (b) By using the Bowditch’s
on TP1, 2.11 (–S) and 9.05 (+S) on rule, explain procedures of
BM 1, 3.88 (–S) and 5.55 (+) on adjusting the mis-closure.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 213
 Simple survey and mapping

30. (a) What is local attraction? 36. (a) In which circumstances

(b) How will you detect and does differential leveling
correct local attraction? recommended?
31. Describe procedures of setting up (b) Differentiate height of
the plane table over a station instrument and rise-fall
32. (a) What is three-point problem? method.
(b) By using the Bessel’s method 37. Jamasule is studying at Karume
describe how it can be Institute of Science, Faculty of
resolved. Engineering. He was assigned to
33. (a) Differentiate between conduct survey around sloped area
traversing and parallelism. in his college environment.
(b) How does plane table survey (a) Identify an appropriate surveying
differs from other methods of technique which might be used.
surveying.
(b) Describe for equipments which can
34. (a) What is plane table orientation? be used in the surveying technique
(b) Explain methods of orienting named in (a) above.
the plane table.
(c) Explain four uses of the surveying
35. (a) Describe plane tabling techniques named in (a) above.
procedural by intersection
and resection. 38. The magnetic bearing of the line
(b) Describe plane tabling CD is S 30° 15’ W. find the true
procedural by radiation and bearing if the declination is 20°
traversing methods. 15’ E.

214 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Chapter
Four Maps and map interpretation

Introduction
Map reading and interpretations are important skills in the world today. Geographers
and non-geographers use the skills of reading and interpreting different types of
maps. In this chapter, you will learn about different types of maps, measurements
on topographical maps, presentation of relief on the maps and map interpretation.
The competencies acquired from this chapter will enable you to do some daily
activities such as distance measurements, area calculation and decision making
on socio-economic activities of an area with reference to the skills obtained from
map and map interpretation.

Maps much larger with a lot of features. That

is why, every map is drawn to a certain
Maps are scaled representation of all or scale, the size of which depends on the
part of the earth on a flat surface such as coverage intended by the cartographer.
sheet of paper or wood. It is a graphical Therefore, the amount of reduction by
representation of places by using points, which the ground reality is reduced varies
lines, symbols and colors to show how from one map to another, due to the use
selected cultural and natural features of different types of scales. Usually, the
are located, arranged and related to one amount of reduction increases with an
another. Maps can represent distributions increase in the ground surface coverage
and patterns of settlements, streets, intended to be mapped. Therefore, a map
transport routes, climate and location comprises scale to show the extent or
of human activities. A person who makes degree by which the ground reality has
maps is called a cartographer. been reduced to suit the desired area of
the material on which the map has been
Main characteristics of a map
drawn.
Maps of whatever kinds have more or less
common defining identities, acting as the The map uses signs and symbols. The
characterising features which include the surface of the earth, that a map represents,
following: A typical map is represented is of a wide coverage and consists of
to scale since the area on which it is different features such as vegetation,
drawn is much smaller compared to water bodies, relief, and settlement
reality on the earth’s surface, which is patterns among others. Normally,

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 215
 Maps and map interpretation

symbolic representation of these features In addition, a map is communicative

is conventionally agreed. Different as it conveys meaning of different
symbols are used depending on the kinds, depending on the nature of the
nature of the features to be represented. area it represents and the purpose of
Common symbols used include point its production. With important map
symbols, which stand for features that interpretation skills, even a person who
appear in point form, such as houses, is not familiar with the place on the map
line symbols representing features which can extract or interpret the map and get
appear in the form of lines such as roads the meaning represented by the map.
and area symbols that stand for features
A map is a source of geographical data.
of wide coverage such as swamps. All
It is difficult for human beings to store
these symbols are defined in a key which
in mind different trends of events on the
guides meaningful map interpretation,
earth’s surface such as land cover and
since each symbol is purposely selected
general spatial distribution of cultural
to stand for a particular real object or
and natural features. Therefore, the map
fact in the real ground surface.
is the best medium in which information
Map is a projection. Maps are drawn from is stored. Data from a map can be used
the mathematically transformed curved in different fields such as pedology,
earth so as to present them on flat surface. engineering, demography, geology,
Therefore, maps are representation of hydrology and policy formulation for
the three-dimensional earth into the sustainable development. Map shows
two dimensional flat surface. A map is only a static situation. For example, the
a model of reality. It is a representation map of Babati produced 30 years ago
of certain geographical features that exist would not show the current situation
in real life. in the area, instead that of 30 years
past. However, due to changes caused
A map is a generalisation of information
by nature and the influence of human
and is selective. Since it cannot include
activities geographical areas also change.
everything found in the area, some
Due to this it is important for the user
information is generalised. The extent
of the map to consider the date of its
of generalisation depends on the
production to get the most appropriate
number of factors including the scale,
information
the purpose of the map and the interest
of the cartographer. Generalisation The value of maps to a geography
normally increases with the coverage student
which is determined by the size of the Maps are widely used in human life and
scale. Symbols which stand for the particularly in Geography as a discipline.
real objects on the earth’s surface are Maps act as the bases for description of
generally selected. For instance, a dot the area depending on the nature of the
may be used to represent houses which fields in which they are applied. Since
are not in the same size and quality. maps represent the earth’s surface, they

216 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

portray the existing relationship between Maps also provide a basis for studying
features such as geomorphology and geographical problems such as floods,
hydrology. storms and deserts. Maps provide
valuable data for statistical analysis such
Maps provide an outstanding base for
as population distribution and rainfall
spatial description of geographical
patterns. Researchers provide valuable
phenomena. The knowledge and skills
information for research project with the
of map reading and interpretation are
help of maps.
keys for understanding the geographical
characteristics of the area in terms of Types of maps
relief, climate, drainage system, soil type Maps are normally of different types.
and their relative significance to human Despite the existing varieties of maps,
life. The map orients the geography each of them serves the purpose of
student to the knowledge of geographical its production in the intended area
skills including cartographical techniques of specialisation. The following are
related to map production and preparing different types of maps and their
them to become the best cartographers respective criteria for classification.
in the future. Maps also enhance critical
thinking of the students as it requires the (a) Basing on the function and content;
integration of knowledge in interpreting maps are classified into topographical
and understanding a certain mapped area. and statistical maps:
For instance, to understand clearly nature
(i) Topographical maps: are maps
of drainage, a student has to integrate
designed to represent both cultural
basic knowledge about geology,
and natural features. The word
pedology and geomorphology. topography is derived from the Greek
Maps act as the mirror of past geographical word “topos” which means “place”.
events through which a student can see Topographical maps are drawings
the mapped area today and detect some of a part of the earth’s surface.
These maps show location by using
changes that have occurred overtime.
compass bearing, grid reference,
Maps provide much information
latitudes, longitudes and names of
about the nature and distribution of places. They also show cultural
geographical phenomena such as features such as roads, railways,
settlement and settlement patterns. The cities, town and dams; landscapes
use of maps enable the student to provide such as mountains, valley and
insight into the existing relationships plateaus; and drainage like rivers,
between igneous rocks and tectonic lakes and ocean. Therefore, through
activities, relief and drainage, climate interpretation of maps, someone may
and vegetation, and the way these have a thorough understanding of
natural relationships influence peoples an existing area even without their
mode of life, particularly construction physical presence in the area.
and distribution of human settlements.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 217
 Maps and map interpretation

Topographical maps are useful for shape of the earth to a flat surface. This
describing features of the earth’s application gives us topographical maps.
surfaces, planning the best uses of
land and guiding people to reach their Sketch maps: are types of maps which
destinations. In general, development are roughly drawn with no mathematical
of physical infrastructures such as basis like scale. They can be drawn even
roads, agricultural projects and in other subject text books such as history
sustainable human settlement are to illustrate certain concepts or showing
all depending on the data from historical sites, in a particular country.
topographical maps.
(c) Basing on size of the scale, maps are
(ii) Statistical (distribution) maps: are
classified as small scale, medium and
maps which represent distribution
large scale maps.
of geographical phenomenon.
Geographers are also interested Small scale maps: are drawn by using
in careful investigation and a small scale to give a large coverage
visualisation of spatial distribution of the earth’s surface even the entire
of different geographical events and earth. These maps usually contain large
phenomena particularly climatic
quantity of features and are less detailed,
elements like rainfall, temperature,
depending on the extent of coverage.
atmospheric pressure, wind speed,
sunshine intensity among others. Medium scale maps: are drawn by using
Moreover, distribution of animals, a medium scale to provide a medium
agricultural activities and movement representation of the earth’s surface.
of goods are among the interests of
geographers. Statistical maps are of Large-scale maps: are drawn to a large
different types such as dot maps, scale to cover a small area of the earth’s
isoline maps, and Choropleth maps surface, such as school or part of an urban
among others. Statistical maps are area. These maps contain less quantity
also called quantitative maps as of features and are more detailed.
they communicate a message of
magnitude. They show variation in
Contents of topographical maps
value and quantity over a space.
Topographical maps consist of three
(b) Basing on degree of accuracy: maps
major kinds of contents which are
can be classified as surveyed and sketch
natural contents, cultural contents and
maps.
supportive contents. Natural contents
Surveyed maps: involve mathematical are all features that are not man-made,
principles and theories in their they include features such as mountains,
production. Since the map represents valleys, soil types, plateaus, natural
the earth’s surface which is spherical in vegetation like natural forest, water
nature on the flat surface, mathematical bodies like rivers, lakes, and oceans.
principles and theories are applied so Cultural contents include all man-
as to transform a curved and spherical made features such as roads, railways,

218 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

buildings, dams, artificial or planted extent as it provides some important

forests and so on. The supportive contents clues on the nature of the mapped area
include information of a map which are in terms of economic activities, drainage,
provided with the aim of assisting the soil quality and climate in particular. The
reader of the map. title always should provide an answer to
what, where, and when.
Supportive information
Due to the symbolic nature of maps, its Margin
correct and meaningful interpretation Margin also known as boundary, is the
is impossible without supportive frame that encloses the map to show the
information. These are supportive endings and the coverage of the area,
contents of a map are written close but often varying in size from one map
not limited to the margin of the map. to another. If the map covers a more
They include title, boundary, North extended area, its boundary is likely to
direction, scale and key or legend. be larger, than when it covers a small
Others include date of compilation, area. Usually, the map boundary has a
sheet number, publisher and copyright, uniform space in all sides from the map.
grid reference, latitudes, longitudes and But there are maps which show only part
projection techniques. They are called of a place within its boundaries, usually,
supportive because they help the map maps of this type do not have margin or
user to interpret the map correctly. boundaries.
Title Legend
The title also known as the heading, is
Legend also known as a key, is a
an element in a map that describes the
collection of symbols and signs used in
theme or subject of a map.
the map and their respective meaning.
The title sometimes appears as the name Though some symbols used in the map
of the mapped area or as the combination are self-explanatory, the key is actually
of the name of the mapped area and the intended to act as the map dictionary,
purpose intended to be shown. When to facilitate the correct and meaningful
it appears just as the name, it is called map interpretation through describing
general title, for instance, “Songwe all unknown or unique symbols used
region map”. A map with this kind on the map. Since map symbols are
of a title can show a wide range of conventionally agreed, the key helps the
information. However, when it appears map users to translate the map language
in combination with its purpose it is into the ordinary language which can
called specific title. For instance, be simply understood. Map language is
“Songwe region relief features” normally the system of conventional symbols and
intending to show specific information signs used to represent features of the
like relief features of Songwe region. A mapped area. It also helps the map user to
title is normally communicative to some know the relationship between different

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 219
 Maps and map interpretation

features on the map. For instance, point

.
( ) symbols that stand for settlements,
always appear along the line symbol
which stands for roads and rivers.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Map scale
Figure 4.1: Examples of direction indicators
Map scale is the ratio between distance
commonly used on topographical maps
on a map and the actual distance
on the ground. Therefore, it shows Date of compilation
representation of distance on the map
by translating the value of distance on the It indicates the time when the map was
ground. This simply means that the scale published. This guides the readers to
is the determinant factor of each feature select map versions basing on their
that is represented in terms of size. Map time barred needs. It is very useful in
scale is important in map making since it recognising some changes that might
commands the coverage and amount of have occurred in the area within a given
information to be included. It also helps time interval. Normally, land cover such
the map users to make the interpretation as vegetation, settlement and water
of the real features they read on the map. sources keep on changing with time.
The scale also acts as the basis of map For instance, “Dodoma region map” of
classification. twenty years ago will be quite different
from the current map.
Direction indicator
Sheet number
A direction indicator is an arrow printed
on a map to indicate the orientation of Maps sharing the same series are
the map in reference to cardinals N-S- distinguished by the sheet number that
E-W. The indicator determines the shows what geographical area is covered
orientation of the map which facilitates by the map. It means that maps of the
interpretation of the map by locating the same series have different sheet numbers
position of each feature. This is a North for different areas. Sheet number also
arrow (Figure 4.1 (a)-(e)). It shows shows how many times a given map has
the north direction of the map used been up-dated.
to determine other directions, such as
South, West and East. It enables the map Publisher and copyright owner
user to determine trend and alignment of Map indicates the owner of the particular
features on the map, fix positions of other map and the publishing company. The
features by resection and intersection author or publisher of a map is indicated,
method. Other maps indicate direction so as to be familiar with the cartographer
by using a compass rose, with arrows to easily get useful clues on information
pointing in all four cardinal directions. regarding the extent to which the map

220 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

is biased or reliable. This will be useful Factors that influence the contents of
in drawing attention on questions such topographical maps
as “Does the map maker or organization
Amount and the nature of the map
have vested interest in how the map is
content are a combined function of a
perceived by the map reader?”
number of factors. Maps are drawn by
Grid references different cartographers, with different
objectives using different scales to
Grid references refer to the patterns of represent the earth’s surface that differ
equally spaced vertical and horizontal in terms of nature and amount of the land
lines that are perpendicularly intersecting cover. The following factors determine
to each other forming squares. It is the the content of topographical map.
geographical coordinate system by
which different parts and features on Scale of the map
the map are located. The vertical lines are The choice of a scale depends on the
called eastings as their number increase size of the area represented, under this,
eastwards, while the horizontal lines the emphasis is put in three cartographic
are called northings as their numbers choices of a map scale namely large,
increase northwards. In reading the grid small and medium scale. For example,
reference we start with the eastings and small scale maps are less detailed.
finish with the northings. It is normally Therefore, maps of the same area
determined by the type of projection produced in the same period of time,
used in the preparation of a particular by the same cartographer are likely to
map. Apart from locating the position differ in their content, if their scales are
of different features, the patterns of not the same.
squares, are used in determining the Purpose of a map
area of features by grid square method.
Any type of a map is made by a
Latitudes and longitudes cartographer based on a certain aim.
In this regard, not all information will
These are the geographical coordinate be depicted on the maps. The aim
systems by which positions of the of the cartographer is to construct or
mapped area are determined. Therefore, make a map and determine what need
by using latitudes and longitudes, to be shown in a given map. Therefore,
the angular distance of the mapped the content that appears on the map
area from the equator and the prime is determined by desired purpose.
meridian respectively can be identified. If the purpose of the map is to show
Additionally, latitudes are important vegetation distribution, other features
elements of climate, drainage and like settlements will automatically be
vegetation interpretation. excluded on the map.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 221
 Maps and map interpretation

Date of compilation information. Almost all places do not

The date shows a period of time at which look the same throughout the four
a map was produced or published. The seasons of the year.
information that exists on earth surface
is not static, it changes over a period Map projection
of time. Due to this fact, a map shows Map projection refers to the mathematical
information which was represented by transformation of the three-dimensional
the time it was produced. Therefore, the spherical earth into two-dimensional
maps of the same area drawn at different flat surface. Normally, the process
periods of time possibly differ in terms of is associated with some distortion in
contents. For example, the map of Dar area, distance and angles, however the
es Salaam drawn in 1960’s is definitely amount of distortion varies depending
quite different from the map of Dar es on the type of projection involved. Even
salaam drawn in 2022. though map projection is associated with
Nature of the land such problems, still it is important in
Normally the surface of the earth that a map production, because it enables the
map represents is not uniformly covered representation of a three-dimensional
by features. It is covered by features that curved earth on a flat surface. Therefore,
differ in terms of amount and nature. a cartographer is supposed to select a
Some parts of the earth’s surface are projection technique with minimal and
covered by water bodies like oceans and tolerable distortions. Projection can be
lakes while others are covered by forests grouped into three geometrical shapes
and settlements. Therefore, the map namely cylindrical projection, conic
shows what is found in the area including projection and azimuthal projection.
the differences such as physical features Cylindrical projection
found in a given geographical area. It Cylindrical projection is also known
can then be concluded that maps are as Mercator projection. In this type of
mirror images of the real surfaces they projection, the surface of the globe is
represent. wrapped on the surface of a cylinder, in
Level of technology order to transfer the details of the earth
The maps drawn by using modern to the surrounding cylindrical surface.
technology like computer, digital The details are traced on the surface
camera, and satellite image, contain and rolled out to give a flat surface map
more features than those produced by (Figure 4.2 (a) and (b)). This type of
conventional methods such as by using projection has maximum distortion in the
a hand. polar areas than in other parts because
of the nature of the earth’s shape. Areas
Seasons of the year
which are more curved are likely to be
Map of the same area drawn at different
highly distorted.
seasons of the year will depict different

222 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

(a) (b)

Figure 4. 2 (a) and (b): Cylindrical projection technique

Conic projection distorted with distance from it. The

This is a method of projecting maps surface of the globe is projected onto a
of the earth’s spherical surface on the cone, which rests on top of it, resulting
surrounding cone which is then flattened to a flat map with a shape of a fannel.
to plane surface having concentric circles Since the globe only touches the cone at
as parallels of latitudes and radiating a single line of latitude, this projection is
lines from the apex as meridians. The best used in smaller areas of the world,
method works best over mid latitudes such as countries in the temperate
(Figure 4.3 (a) & (b)). The cone touches regions including USA and Canada. This
the globe at all points on a single parallel method has less distortion in the middle
of latitude and the resulting map is latitudes, however, distortion increases
extremely accurate for all areas near as the distance increases away from the
the parallel but becomes extremely middle latitude.

(a) (b)

Figure 4.3 (a) and (b): Conical projection technique

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 223
 Maps and map interpretation

Azimuthal projection Exercise 4.1

Azimuthal projection is also called Answer all questions
plane, or Zenithal projection. This is 1. Explain the following concepts:
a map projection in which a globe is (a) Map reading
assumed to rest on a flat surface whose
(b) Map interpretation
features are projected. In this method,
(c) Map analysis
the global surface is at one point and
the scale is only accurate at this point. 2. Why do you think maps are
important to you?
Azimuthal projection is good for map
focusing on a hemisphere continent or 3. Suppose you want to show the
the poles. When used to show a large population distribution on a map,
which kind of a map will you use
area great distortions occur at the edge.
and why?
It is common projections when mapping
the Arctic and Antarctic regions (Figure 4. With examples, explain the
4.4 (a) and (b)). importance of direction indicators
and scale to map maker and user.
5. What do you understand by the
term ‘map projection’?
6. With examples, explain factors
that influences the contents of
topographical maps.
7. Classify maps based on the content
and degree of accuracy.
8. Study the map extract of Mkomazi
(a) (b) sheet 109/1 given below and
Figure 4.4 (a) and (b): Azimuthal projection answer the questions that follow:
technique (a) Explain six supportive contents
of the given map.
Activity 4.1 (b) Provide at least four characteristics
In groups of four students, prepare the of the map extract given.
sketch map of your school compound, (c) Highlight five factors that have
and answer the following questions influenced the content of the given
appropriately: map.
(a) State in which category your map (d) With examples, classify the
falls. content of the given map.
(b) Classify symbols that you have (e) When was the map printed?
used in your map. (f) Who is the owner of the map.
(c) State the kind of title of your (g) State projection technique used in
sketch map. constructing the map and state its
usefulness.

224 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

Extract from Mkomazi. Sheet 109/1

Series Y 742, Edition 1 . TSD, Ministry of Lands HEIGHTS IN METRES 1 0.5 0 1 2 3 Kilometers
Government of the United Republic of Tanzania, 1974 Scale 1: 50,000

KEY
Town or area with Forest...........................................................
Steep Slope.................................................
Permanent Buildings...................................
Contours (V,1.20m)..................Depression Tree Swamp................................................
Other Populate Area,
Houses.........................................................
Air Photo Principal Point with
All Weather Road: Film No........................................................ Papyrus Swamp, Marsh, Boge.....................
Bound Surface.............................................
Water Course, Waterfall Riverine Trees..............................................
All Weather Road: Rapids, Dams...............................................
Loose Surface............................................. Plantation: (Coffee C, Palm,
Water Course, (Wide), Sisal S, Sugar Su, Wattle W.........................
Waterfall Rapids..........................................
Dry Weather Roads.....................................
Woodland.....................................................
Main Track (Motorable).............................. Watercourse (Indefinite)..............................

Borehole, WaterHole, Scrub............................................................

Other Track and Footpath............................
Well, Spring................................................
Cut Line....................................................... Scattered Trees.............................................
Railway, Siding, Station, Bund, Major Fence, Hedge.........................
Level Crossing............................................. Palm Trees....................................................

Railwa Light................................................. Cliff.............................................................. Seasonal Swamp..........................................

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 225
 Maps and map interpretation

Map scale and its importance sufficient adjustment of the scale to

cover the desired objective. The extent
Map scale of reduction is expressed as a ratio
Map scale is the relationship or a or fraction in which the numerator
ratio between the distance measured represents the distance on the map
on the map and its corresponding while the denominator represents the
actual distance on the earth’s surface corresponding ground distance. The
(ground). The earth’s surface is much larger the denominator the smaller the
larger than the paper on which a map is scale and the smaller the denominator
drawn. This necessitates reduction of the larger the scale.
such wide earth’s surface, to the extent
A scale can be expressed as
which depends on the intended coverage.
Therefore, a scale shows the extent Map distance
which a given area has been reduced Map Scale
scale =
Ground distance
to fit a particular size of the paper. As
a reflection of the reduced degree, map
Types of map scale
scale can be small, large or medium.
Map scale is generally very important The map scale is broadly classified into
to the map maker as it determines the three types namely; small medium and
content and the coverage of the area large scale (Table 4.1).The selection of
being mapped. On the other hand, map the type of map scale is guided by the
scale is important to the map user as itfollowing factors namely; the size of the
is a tool for interpretation. area to be represented, the size of space
to represent and amount of details to be
In fact, the map scale tells the reader shown on a particular map. If the area
how the map relates to the real world to be mapped is large, the small scale is
features it represents. To represent selected but if the area is small the large
the earth’s surface on a map requires scale is chosen (Table 4.2).
Table 4.1: Classification of map scales and their units
S/No. Type of scale Scale units in RF Scale units in statements
1 Small scale map 1:250 000 -1:1 000 000 1 cm to 2.5 km

1cm to 10 km
2 Medium scale map 1:50 000 -1:125 000 1 cm to 0.5 km

1 cm to 1.25 km
3 Large scale map 1:5 000 - 1:25 000 1 cm to 0.05 km

1 cm to 0.25 km

226 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

Small scale map Table 4.2: Type of scale surface,

Small scales are scales ranging from coverage and details
1:250 000 to 1:1 000 000 which are Type of scale Surface Detail
used when much detail is not required. area
The ratio of these scales has the largest Small scale map Large Little
denominator indicating the high Medium scale map Medium moderate
reduction of the mapped area which is
reflected on the size of the resultant. A Large scale map Small Large
small scale map contains large quantity
of the content of the covered area. The Factors determining size of the scale on
map covers a large area such as country
a map
or a continent or the whole world.
The content, area represented and the
Features are greatly reduced and appear
size of the map are the major factors
very small. In small scale maps the ratio
which determine the size of scale on
has a large number or large denominator.
a map. The size of scale on the map
The bigger the denominator the smaller
depends on the amount of contents to
the scale.
be shown on a map. For example, large
Medium scale map scale map is more detailed than others.
Medium scale ranges from 1: 50 000; to The scale can also be determined by the
1: 1 240 000 used for maps of medium area represented. For example, large area
sized areas. They are scales that represent like continent or the whole world can be
areas which are neither too large nor shown by using small scale while a map
too small. The maps show moderate of a certain school compound uses large
contents as the features on the ground scale. However, the scale may differ in
are relatively reduced. The ratio has a relation to the size of map, because maps
moderate denominator of different sizes differ in scale though
they can represent the same ground area.
Large scale map
Large scales have scales ranging from Ways of expressing scale
1:5 000 to 1:25 000 and are used when we A scale can be expressed in three
want to represent higher levels of detail. different ways namely representative
The map using scale of this type shows fraction, statement, and linear scale.
detailed information as everything can
be seen clearly because of the minimal Representative Fraction
reduction. This scale however, contains Representative fraction (RF) scale is also
little content due to small area covered. known as ratio scale. RF is a form of scale
This scale is used to represent areas like which is expressed in ratio and fraction
schools or hospital compounds and small in which the numerator represents the
scale villages. map distance while the denominator

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 227
 Maps and map interpretation

represents the ground distance. So, the particularly for a map produced through
RF 1:10 000 means 1 unit on the map photocopying and when the size of the
represents 10 000 units on the ground. map is modified. Under this circumstance
The size of scale in this form can there is a possibility of a mismatch of
simply be determined by the size of the distances in the produced map and the
denominator. The scale indicates how original map. This can however, be
many units on the earth’s surface are addressed using a linear or graphic scale.
represented by one unit on the map. It Linear scale
1
can either be expressed as Linear scale also called line scale, bar
100 000
or 1:100 000. With regard to the given scale, plain or graphical scale is the way
example here, it means one centimeter on of expressing the scale by the use of line
the map represents 100 000 centimeters representing the distance on the ground
(1 kilometer) on the ground. Other (Figure 4.5). It is commonly placed at
common RF scale include 1:63 360 the bottom of the map. It consists of two
(1 inch to 1 mile) and 1:1 000 000 main parts, the primary section on the
(1 cm to 10 km). The numerator of a right side with units in kilometres and
representative fraction is always 1. the secondary section on the left sidewith
units in metres. It helps the map user to
Statement scale determine quickly the ground distance
It is a written description of a scale, such of two points on the map.
as ‘One centimetre on the map represents
one kilometre on the ground’ or ‘One However, the scale cannot be directly
centimetre to ten kilometres.’ Based on used to calculate area, slope, and vertical
these two statements, the first map would exaggeration and in redrawing the map
show much more detail than the second instead demands some skills to prepare
because one centimetre on the first map it. One of the major advantages of the
covers a much smaller area than the linear scale is that it is not affected by
second map. It should be noted that both photocopying.
RF and statement scales are ineffective

Figure 4.5: A simple linear scale

228 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

Also it is easy to understand. Similarly, it allows direct linear measurement.

However, its construction requires time, special skills and experience. Furthermore,
the scale can be used by those who are familiar with the units of measurement
used in the linear scale.

Scale conversion
Dealing with scale is possible to change one form of scale and express it into another
form. For example, from representative fraction scale to statement scale, from
representative fraction scale to linear scale, from statement scale to representative
fraction scale, from statement scale to linear scale, from linear scale to representative
fraction scale, and from linear scale to statement scale.

Example 1:
Change the statement form of scale to representative fraction scale given that, one
centimetre on the map represents half a kilometer on the ground.

Solution
Data given
Statement scale, 1cm = 0.5 km
Constant 1km = 100 000 cm
Representative fraction scale =?
From the data given
1km = 100 000 cm
0.5 km =?

0.5 km × 100 000 cm

1 km
= 50 000 cm
RF scale is 1: 50 000

Example 2:
Change the Representative Fraction scale of 1:50 000 to simple statement scale.

Solution
This means 1 unit to 50 000 units.
If the unit is in centimetres then

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 229
 Maps and map interpretation

1cm ≈= 50
1cm 50 000 cm
000cm
Unit on the ground distances are expressed in kilometers
1km = 100 000 cm
x ? = 50 000 cm
1km×50 000 cm
100 000 cm
5
=1km ×
10
= 0.5 km
.
Therefore, statement scale is one centimetre on the map represents a half kilometre
on the ground.

Exercise 4. 2 (a) Drawing of linear scale

Answer all questions Linear scale can be drawn into forms
1. On a map of 1:40 000 scale, which are simple or plain or normal scale
the distance measured between and as graphic scale.
town A and town B is 8 cm, what Procedures of constructing linear scale
ground distance in kilometers are basically the same though graphic
does this represent? scale will involve some more additional
steps. The following are the procedures
2. What is the R.F scale, if the to be considered when constructing a
statement scale is one centimetre graphic scale:
represents two kilometres and a (i) Determine the scale given that
half? such as 1: 50 000
3. Convert the statement scale of (ii) Convert scale into statement
scale. For example, 1:50 000
one centimetre to one hundred becomes 1cm to 0.5 km
kilometre into ratio scale.
(iii) Use statement scale to find length
of scale or length of baseline (If
How to construct a linear scale
not guided, choose any reasonable
The construction of a linear scale can be length of baseline or length of
divided into two ways: scale, for instance 12 cm).

230 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

(iv) Then, Example 1

1cm ≈ =0.5km Use 1:50 000 to draw a graphic scale to
1cm 0.5 km
read 4 km.
12 cm = ?
12 cm × 0.5 km Solution
1 cm Data given
x = 6 km R.F scale = 1:50 000
Then Ground distance = 4 km
Thus
12 cm
12 cm ≈=66kmkm Constant, 1km = 100 000 cm

(v) Draw a baseline and divide it To convert RF scale to statement scale

into primary and secondary 1km = 100 000 cm
sections. ? = 50 000 cm
(vi) Draw perpendicular auxiliary 1 km × 50 000 cm
lines at the starting and the 100 000 cm
ending point of the the
secondary section, downwards = 0.5 km
and upwards, respectively 1cm ≈ 0.5 km
from the baseline with ten
division. To find how many cm will represent
1 km
(vii) Join the points of perpendicular
auxiliary lines to divide If, 1cm = 0.5 km
secondary section into ten ? = 1 km
equal parts. 1cm x1km
(viii) Draw oblique auxiliary lines 0.5 km
at both ends of baseline. These = 2 cm
auxiliary lines should be
drawn to equal angle between Therefore
25° to 30° from the baseline. 2 cm ≈ 1 km
Auxiliary lines should have To find the length of the base line
length which can be easily
If 2 cm ≈ 1 km
divided to required sections.
x = 4 km
(ix) Join the points of auxiliary x × 1km 2 cm × 4km
lines to divide the baseline in =
1 km 1 km
equal divisions.
x = 8 cm
(x) Trace a clear linear scale at
the bottom of drawing. The baseline length = 8 cm

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 231
 Maps and map interpretation

Figure 4.6: Graphic scale to measure 4 km

Scale Example 2
Primary side 2 cm ≈ 1 km A bus travels at a speed of 180 km/h
Secondary side 2 mm ≈ 100 m from Morogoro to Dodoma covering a
map distance of 30 cm for 20 minutes.
Activity 4.2 (a) Calculate ground distance
Draw a linear scale to measure 4.5 km (b) Determine the statement scale

(b) Linear scale in relation to speed of (c) Draw the graphic scale
a moving object
Graphic scale can also be constructed Solution
from the relationship between distance Data given
and time that describes a speed (that is, Speed of the bus = 180 km / h
speed is the ratio of distance to time) of
Map distance = 30 cm
the moving body or object such as the
motorcycle, train or any other object in Time taken = 20 minutes
motion.

232 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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From the data Map scale is 1: 200 000

1km =100 000 cm
Formula: Speed = Distance
Time ?=200 000 cm

Distance =Speed × Time 1 km × 200 000 cm

=
100 000 cm
180 km 20
= × h = 2 km
h 60
= 60 km In statement, one centimetre on the
map, represents two kilometres on the
Ground distance = 60 km ground.
Change 60 km into centimetre
Determining the baseline length
1 km = 100 000 cm
1km = 100 000 Since, the length of the scale is not
60
60 km = ??
km = provided, we can choose any
60 km ×100 000 So, let it be 22 km
1km
Then,
== 66 000
000 000
000cm
Statement scale: If 1 cm→2 km
Map distance x →22 km
Map scale =
Ground distance
30 cm x × 2 km 1 cm × 22 km
= = =
60 km 2 km 2 km

30 cm x = 11 cm
=
6 000 000 cm The baseline length = 11 cm
1
=
200 000

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 233
 Maps and map interpretation

Scale
Primary side = 1 cm ≈ 2 km
Secondary side = 1 mm ≈ 200 m
Figure 4.7: Graphic scale to read 22 km

Linear scale based on a given distance Solution

can be drawn when RF scale and specific
Data given
distance on the ground are given, see
Speed of the bus = 70 km/h
the example below.
Time taken = 30 min
Example 3 Map distance = 7 cm
A Bus Rapid Transit (Mwendokasi) in Ground Distance = ?
Dar es Salaam, travel for a speed of Formula
70 km/hr covering a distance of a road
Distance
between Kivukoni to Mbezi Magufuli Speed =
Time
bus terminal in 30 min. Assuming the
same distance measured in a map is 7 cm. Distance = Speed × Time
Construct a linear scale to read 60 km.
To change minutes into hours
= 70 km/h × 30 min

234 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

If 1 h = 60 min To find the length of the baseline

? = 30 min
If 1cm = 5 km
x × 60min 1 h × 30min
= = ? = 60 km
60min 60min
x = 0.5 h 1cm × 60 km
Distance = Speed × Time 5 km
= 70 km/h × 0.5 h
= 12 cm
= 35 km
To find scale of the map (Map scale) Base line length = 12 cm (It represents
7 cm on map ≈ 35 km on the ground 60 km). In the baseline, every 1cm will
7 cm 35 cm represent 5 km.
=
7 7 To construct a linear scale.
1 cm = 5 km

Scale
Primary side = 1 cm represents 5 km
Secondary side = 1 mm represents 500 m
Figure 4.8: Graphic scale to read 60 km

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 235
 Maps and map interpretation

Exercise 4 . 3 Distance measurements

Answer all questions Measurement of distances on maps
1. Explain the uses of a map scale to involves features that occur in linear
the map maker and to the map user. forms such as roads, coastline, rivers
Write 3 points for each. and railway lines. It can also involve
two points that are not connected by
2. Describe basic procedures for the any elongated feature. Basing on such a
preparation of the graphical scale concept, distance measured on the map
and state its strength. are of two types namely; straight and
3. Explain the differences between curved or winding distances.
primary and secondary sections
Straight distance
of a graphical scale.
Measuring the distance of this kind,
Activity 4. 3 the line is drawn to connect the
identified points, then the distance is
1. In groups of five students, use directly measured by the ruler and the
a topographical map from your actual distance is obtained with the
school library then prepare a aid of the linear scale, or by using the
graphical scale of 5 km and representative fraction scale. This kind
show the reading of 4.7 km, then of distance is much less common on
submit your work to the teacher elongated features.
for assessment.
Winding/curved distances
2. Summarise the procedures that
This is very common in the elongated
were considered to prepare the
features such as road, railway and
graphical scale in (1) above.
pipeline. The methods for measuring
distance of curved feature includes the
Measurements on topographical following: a pair of dividers, a string and
maps a straight edge of the paper.
With the map scale, the size and length of
A pair of dividers
both natural and man-made features can
accurately be transferred from the map It is commonly used to measure short
to the actual ground. It is also possible straight distances between two points
to know the extent of steepness on the on a map.
real ground surface. The method used Procedures:
in measurement of the length and size, (i) Identify the starting and
depends on the nature of the feature the ending points where
in terms of shape and straightness. measurements are to be taken.
Among the common measurements in
(ii) Divide the feature under
topographical maps include distance
measurement in straight units.
and area.

236 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

(iii) By means of a pair of dividers, Ground distance = ?

transfer each unit length on
a straight paper to form the Constant 1 km = 100 000 cm
total length. From the data given,
(iv) Change the map distance
into ground distance using 1 km = 100 000 cm
linear scale or representative ? = 100 000 cm
fraction scale.
1 km × 100 000 cm
=
100 000 cm

= 1 km
1 cm→1 km
25 cm→?

25 cm × 1 km
=
1 cm

= 25 km
Therefore, ground distance between two
points = 25 km
String or thread
Map scale 1:100 000
A piece of a thread can be used to
Figure 4. 9: Marking of distance on linear measure curved distances on a map using
scale using a pair of dividers. the following procedures.
From Figure 4.9, let the measured Procedures:
distance in the map be 25 cm, which
equals to 25 km by using linear scale. (i) Identify the two end points you
want to take measurements.
By Representative Fraction scale, the
(ii) Lay a piece of a string along
distance from the map can be converted
the points.
into the actual ground distance as
follows: (iii) Shift the string onto the linear
scale or ruler to read the actual
Data given distance (using a linear scale)
or converting the map distance
Map distance = 25 cm to actual distance using a ruler.
Map scale = 1:100 000

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 237
 Maps and map interpretation

For example, 7 cm = ?
Determine the ground distance of the 0.25 cm × 1 km
=
curved line by using thread method 1 cm
provided that the map scale is 1:25 000. = 1.75 km
Therefore the ground distance of the
curved line =1.75 km.
Straight edge of a paper
A piece of paper with a straight edge
can be used to measure curved distances
(Figure 4.11).
Procedures:
(i) Identify the two end points
of the feature you want to
Figure 4.10: Measuring distance by using a measure.
string or thread (ii) Divide the distance into small
short straight distances.
Data given
(iii) Take a straight edge of paper
Map distance = 7 cm
and lay it on the map and
Map scale = 1:25 000 measure all portion of straight
distances along the features
Constant 1 km = 100 000 cm being measured.
From data given, (iv) Shift the piece of paper onto
the linear scale or ruler to get
1 km = 100 000 cm the ground distance.
?=25 000 cm For example,
1 km × 25 000 cm Find the ground distance of the curved
= feature in Figure 4.11 by using a staright
100 000 cm
edge of paper method provided that map
= 0.25 km scale is 1:50 000 and the measured map
1 cm = 0.25 km distance is 8.6 cm

238 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

Figure 4.11: Measuring distance of the curved feature by using a straight edge of a paper

Data given Area measurements

Map distance 8.6 cm In topographical maps, area of natural
features such as swamps and cultural
Constant 1 km = 100 000 cm
features such as race truck can be actually
Map scale = 1: 50 000 determined on the ground. The method
Ground distance = ? applied in determining the area depends
on the shape of the particular feature.
From data given, Actually, some features are regularly
shaped while others are irregularly
1 km =100 000 cm
shaped. It is the interest of the map
? = 50 000 cm user to determine the area coverage of
1km ×50 000 cm features for the social, economic and
= 100 000 cm cultural purposes.
= 0.5 km Regular shaped areas
1 cm = 0.5 km The area of regular shaped features
8.6 cm = ? such as triangle, rectangle, trapezium
and circle on the topographical maps
8.6 cm × 0.5 km
= can be simply determined by applying
1 cm
mathematical formula depending on
= 4.3 km the shape of that feature. For instance,
to calculate the area of a rectangle,
Therefore, ground distance of the curved multiply its length by width. Remember,
feature is 4.3 km. if you want to determine area in ground

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 239
 Maps and map interpretation

measurements, use the map scale to convert length and width from map into
ground distances.
Examples of formula for calculating areas of different shapes are shown in Figure
4.12.
Shape Formula
Length

Broadth Area = Length × Broadth/Width

(Width)

(a) Rectangle

Height 1
Area= × Base × Height
2

Base

(b) Triangle

Radius Area = π × radius 2 or πr 2

(c) Circle

Figure 4. 12: Different shapes and formulas for calculating areas

240 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

Example 1 cm = 0.5 km
Find the ground area of the following Ground length
feature
Length
If 1 cm = 0.5 km

4.4 cm 4.4 cm→?

4.4 cm × 0.5 km
=
1 cm

Width
3.6 cm Ground length = 2.2 km
Ground width
If 1cm = 0.5 km
3.6 cm→?
Scale 1 : 50 000 cm 3.6 cm × 0.5 km
=
1 cm
Solution
Ground width = 1.8 km
Formula: L (to scale) × W (to scale)
Area = ground length x ground width
Data given = 2.2 km × 1.8 km
Map length = 4.4 cm = 3.96 km2
Map width = 3.6 cm
Irregular shaped areas
Map scale = 1:50 000
Irregular shapes on topographic maps
Ground length = ? include swamps, lakes, forest and alike.
Ground width = ? The area of such feature is obtained by
using various methods such as grid
Constant 1 km = 100 000 cm method or square method or tracing
method, strip method, graph paper
From the data given method, and geometrical figures method.

1 km = 100 000 cm Grid method

This is the method which is more accurate
? = 50 000 cm
for calculating areas of irregular features.
1 km × 50 000 cm The shape of the land which has to be
= calculated is covered by complete and
100 000 cm
incomplete units (squares).
= 0.5 km

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 241
 Maps and map interpretation

Procedures: Therefore, total square =

(i) Count the complete grid ⎛ Incomplete squares ⎞
units (square) covered in the ⎜⎝ Complete squares + 2 ⎟⎠
required area. (v) Change the RF scale into simple
(ii) Count the incomplete grid statement scale;
units (squares). (vi) Find the area of one square;
(iii) Divide the total number of (vii) Formula for calculating area
incomplete squares by 2. (viii) Multiply the area of one square
(iv) Add the results in (ii) and by the total number of squares
(iii) to get total number of counted
squares. For example, find the area covered
by the pond in Figure 4.14

Scale 1: 50 000
Figure 4.14: The area covered by the pond

242 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

Solution
Complete squares = 4
Incomplete squares = 12
Map scale = 1:50 000
⎛ Incomplete squares ⎞
Total number of squares =⎜ Complete squares + ⎟⎠
⎝ 2
12
= 4+
2
= 4+6
= 10 squares
Map scale = 1 : 50 000
= 1 cm ≈ 0.5 km

If = 1 cm ≈ 0.5 km
2 cm = ?

2 cm × 0.5 km
=
1 cm
= 1 km
Considering the grid square
Calculate area of one square
2 cm

2 cm

1 km × 1 km = 1 km2
⎛ Incomplete squares ⎞
Therefore, Area = ⎜ Complete squares + ⎟ 1 km2
⎝ 2 ⎠
10 × 1 km2 = 10 km2
Area of the feature is 10 km2
∴ Area of the feature is 10 km2

The method is useful on the map with grid lines.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 243
 Maps and map interpretation

The strip method Strip 2 =1 cm by 6 cm

The strip method is used to find the Strip 3 =1 cm by 5 cm
area of irregular shaped features which
Strip 4 = 1 cm by 6 cm
involves the division of the feature into
strips of equal width. The area of the Strip 5 = 1 cm by 5 cm
feature is the sum of all strips. 1 km = 100 000 cm
Procedures = 25 000 cm
(i) The required area is divided into
strips of equal width. 1 km x 25 000 cm
=
(ii) Calculate the area of each strip 100 000 cm
(that is, strip 1-5) by the formula = 0.25 km
length x width.
For the first strip,
(iii) The ends of the strips are drawn
Area of strip 1= length x width
across the area boundary to balance
areas left outside the boundary. 1 cm ≈ 0.25 km
4 cm = ?
(iv) Use the map scale to obtain the
actual area. 4 cm x 0.25 km
= 1km
Example 1 1 cm
Find the area of the feature in Figure Length of strip 1 = 1 km
4.16 by using the strip method. Use 1:
Width
25 000 as your map scale.
1 cm = 0.25 km
Solution 1cm = ?
Suppose that strip 1 measures 1cm by
4 cm, strip 2, 1cm by 6cm, strip 3 1cm Width of strip 1= 0.25 km
by 5cm, strip 4, 1cm by 6 cm and strip Area 1= 1 km x 0.25 km
5, 1cm by 5 cm. Area 1= 0.25 km2
For the second strip,
1 cm = 0.2 km
6 cm = ?
6 cm x 0.25 km
Length =
1 cm
Length = 1.5 km
Figure 4.16: Strip method
Width 1cm = 0.25 km
Data given Width = 0.25 km
Map scale = 1: 25 000 Area 2 = 1.5 km x 0.25 km
Strip 1 =1 cm by 4 cm Area 2 = 0.375 km2

244 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

For the third strip

Lenth 1 cm = 0.25 km
5 cm = ?
5 cm × 0.25 km
Length =
1 cm
= 1.25 km
Width 1 cm = 0.25 km

Area 3 = 1.25 km ×0.25 km

Area 3 = 0.3125 km2

For the forth strip

Area 4 = 0.375 km 2

For the fifth strip

Area 5 = 0.3125 km 2
Tota area of the feature = Sum of strip areas
Total area = 0.25 km 2 + 0.375 km 2 + 0.3125 km 2 + 0.375 km 2 + 0.3125 km 2
Therefore, area = 1.625km2

The geometrical figures method

This is also called division method, it involves the division of the feature into
several geometrical figures such as triangle, rectangle, and square depending
on the shape of the feature itself. The area of the whole feature is the sum of all
individual figures obtained geometrical method. Using the area of the feature can
be calculated as follows;
Procedures
(i) Divide the area into convenient figures such as A, B, C, D and E
(ii) By using appropriate methods, calculate area of each figure separately
such as, A, B, C, D and E
(iii) Determine the area by adding the area of A, B, C, D and E
(iv) Use the map scale to get the actual area on the ground.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 245
 Maps and map interpretation

reduction. Both of them involve the same

redrawing procedures as follows;
20 E
18 S Procedures
D (i) Study the map or required area
24
C of the map to be redrawn.
26
Q (ii) Identify the map scale and
10
20
T covert it into statement.
A
18 B (iii) Determine changing factor/
scale factor
P New scale
Scale factor =
Figure 4.17: Geometrical figures method Old scale

Activity 4. 4 (iv) Measure the length, width

and side of the grid square.
Calculate the area of the feature in But if the distances are given,
Figure 4.17 by using geometrical convert the map distance into
figure method. ground distance.
(v) Using the given map scale for
Map enlargement and reduction re-drawing, convert or change
Map enlargement and reduction can be the old map dimensions into
new map dimensions, by
described as a cartographical technique
using the scale factor.
of increasing or decreasing the size of a
map in a given area according to scale. (vi) Redraw the map and if
the original map had grid
Map reduction and enlargement (re- references then indicate them
drawing the map) is governed by two in the new map.
mathematical principles. Firstly, when (vii) Show main features and
the small scale map is redrawn by using remember to show the title,
a large scale, its size becomes large, key and the scale.
and the process is referred to as map
enlargement. Secondly, when the large Example 1
scale map is redrawn by using a small Re-draw the map provided below by
scale, its size becomes smaller as well, using the scale of 1:100 000
and the process is referred to as map

246 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
71 71

70 70

69 69

68 68

67 67

66 66
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Key
Scale 1 : 50 000 Road

Railway line

River

Solution Then
Data given New scale
Scale factor =
Old map scale = 1:50 000 Old scale
New map scale =1: 100 000
Side of each grid square = 2cm 1/ 100 000
=
Old width = 10 cm 1/ 50 000
Old length = 14 cm 1 50 000
= ×
New side =? 100 000 1
New width =? 50 000
=
New length =? 100 000
Since the new scale is smaller than the 1
=
old scale, then the resultant map will be 2
small in size (reduction).

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 Maps and map interpretation

Finding the new dimensions: Solution

New side of a grid = Old side ˟ Scale factor Data given
1
= 2 cm ˟ 2 Old map scale = 1:100 000
= 1 cm New map scale =1: 50 000
Old side of grid square = 1 cm
New length = Old length ˟ Scale factor
1
Old width = 5 cm
= 14 cm ˟ = 7 cm
2 Old length = 7 cm
New width = Old width ˟ Scale factor New side of the grid square =?
1 New width =?
= 10 cm ˟ 2
New length =?
= 5 cm
Comparison between the old and the
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
71 71 new scale shows that, the new scale is
70 70 larger than the old scale. Therefore the
resultant map will be larger in size than
69 69
the old map (Enlargement).
68 68
New scale
67 67 Scale factor =
Old scale
66 66
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
1/ 50 0000
Key =
Scale 1 : 100 000 Road 1/ 100 000
Railway line
River 1 100000
= ×
50000 1
Example 2 100 000
=
Study the hypothetical map provided 50 000
and redraw it using a scale of 1: 50 000 =2
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
71 71
Finding the new dimensions:
70 70
New side of a grid = Old side ˟ Scale factor
69 69
= 1 cm ˟ 2
68 68 = 2 cm

67 67 New width = Old width ˟ Scale factor

= 5 cm ˟ 2
66 66
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 = 10 cm
Key
Scale 1 : 100 000 Road New length = Old length ˟ Scale factor
Railway line = 7 cm ˟ 2
River
= 14 cm

248 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
71 71

70 70

69 69

68 68

67 67

66 66
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Key
Scale 1 : 50 000 Road

Railway line

River

Exercise 4.4:

1. Analyze three effects that are likely to occur when the map is reduced or
enlarged.
2. Study the hypothetical map of area X and redraw it by using the scale of
1:25 000.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 249
 Maps and map interpretation

Hypothetical map of area X.

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
71 71

70 70

69 69

68 68

67 67

66 66
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Key
Scale 1 : 50 000 Road

Railway line

River

Determining locations and directions Location: Location can be classified in

of places two different ways that are absolute and
Location, direction and distance are relative locations.
everyday ways of assessing the space Absolute location
around us and identifying our position Absolute location also known
in relation to other features and places as mathematical location, is the
of interest. They are also very basic in identification of place by some precise
understanding the processes of spatial and accepted system of coordinates.
interaction that are important in the study There are several such accepted systems
of both physical and human geography. of pinpointing positions, for example

250 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

global grid of parallels and meridians Fixing or locating position on maps

that is latitude and longitude. Absolute Fixing or locating position on maps is
location is unique to a specific place an important aspect in map reading. A
and it is independent of any other person is able to identify a place after
characteristics or observation. position has been fixed and located. The
Geographers remark location matters a position and direction of the place on
lot although their reference is usually not the earth’s surface and on maps can be
absolute but relative. Location that is the expressed in various ways such as use
position of a place or things in relation of place names, latitudes and longitudes,
to that of other place or things expresses grid reference systems and bearing.
spatial interconnection.
Place names
Relative location The place in the topographical maps
Relative location tells us that people, are identified and located by the name
things and places exist in the world of of the particular area. For example, in
physical and cultural characteristics the map of Tanzania, different regions
that differ from one place to another. can be identified by their names such
In reality when geographers talk of as, Arusha, Dodoma, Pemba and Iringa
location, they refer to the physical and (Figure 4.22).
cultural characteristics like climate, soil,
minerals, and attributes of the place Latitude and longitude
itself. These are West-East and North-South
angular distances on the earth’s surface.
Direction
They are the traditional and mostly used
This is another important aspect in geographical ways in locating position
geography. It is also expressed in of features on the earth’s surface. Most
absolute or relative terms. Absolute topographical maps indicate latitude and
direction is based on the cardinal points longitude along their edges, so as to give
of North, South, East and West. Relative their respective location on the earth’s
direction refers to “far West” or far East. surface although not all maps show these
Distance links location and divisions in detail. Therefore, by means
directions of these lines, one can identify the exact
Distance is also divided into absolute and location of a feature on the mapped area.
relative sense. Absolute distance refers In reading the latitude and longitude,
to the spatial separations between two start with latitudes then longitudes.
points on the earth’s surface, measured For example, Dare es Salaam region is
by some accepted standard unit such as located at 6o 48'S and 39o 12'E. Latitude
miles or kilometers. Relative distance and longitude in maps are important for
transforms those linear measurements locating places precisely whereby two
into other units more meaningful for reference lines are needed and adopted
spatial relationship. on the uniform basis by all countries in

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 251
 Maps and map interpretation

order to avoid confusion. Using latitude and longitude, we can know how far an
area is from the equator and prime meridian respectively. Also, latitudes are very
important in characterizing the climate of the mapped area.

Figure 4.22: A map of Tanzania locating position by place naming

Grid reference system

A grid system is a pattern of horizontal and vertical lines of uniform sizes which are
drawn on a map. The vertical lines are called eastings since their values increases
eastward from the grid origin while horizontal lines are called northings since
their values increases northwards. Grid reference system depends on the type of
projection used to prepare the map. For example, in Africa the grid systems are
based on the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection which divides the
continent into zones. Within each zone, coordinates are measured as northings and
eastings values in meters. These lines are essential for fixing position. The reading
in a grid system is referred as grid references and is provided in a six-digits in

252 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

which the first three digits are eastings and the last three digits are northings. For
example, the position of point A in Figure 4.23 is 280610.

Figure 4.23: Locating position by grid reference

Bearing and direction

This is another way of fixing position or showing geographical position on the
map. The compass bearing can be measured by using a compass. A compass is an
instrument used to find direction and bearing. It consists of free-swinging magnetic
needle which can pivot to align itself with magnetic north. If the local variation
between magnetic north and the true north is known then direction of magnetic
north gives the direction of true north. Compass bearing can be explained along
the points such as compass direction, bearing of compass, direction of a place
(trend and alignment) and North direction.
Compass directions are measured from North 000o to 360o of a circle clockwise.
It is the bearing which determines the direction. For example, when the measured
bearing is 45°, then the direction is North East, when the bearing is 90°, then its

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 253
 Maps and map interpretation

direction is East. The directions are divided into three categories which are the
four cardinal points, the eight cardinal points and the sixteen cardinal points as
shown in Figure 4.24.
360°
N
000°
NNW NNE

NW NE

WNW ENE

270° W E 90°

WSW ESE

SW SE

SSW SSE
S
180°
Figure 4. 24: Sixteen cardinal points

Bearing of compass shows the direction magnetic north pole. An observer can
of point with respect to another point check FB’s accuracy by taking BB from
measured clockwise from 000º to 360º. the object to his former position.
Bearing is expressed in degrees, which
Procedures of measuring bearing
are further subdivided into minutes and
seconds. (i) Identify the two points.

Calculation of bearing (ii) Join the two points with a

straight-line. For example
There are two types of bearings namely: from grid reference A to grid
(a) Forward bearing (FB). reference B (Figure 4.25).
(b) Back bearing (BB).
(iii) At one point either A or B
(depending on the question
Forward bearing (FB) asked) draw a line parallel
This is the degree measured from an to the North direction or grid
observer to the object along the line of vertical lines.
sight or the degree reading to an object (iv) Using a protractor, measure the
in front of the observer along the line angle or bearing at point A or
of sight, with reference to the earth’s B depending on the question.

254 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

N FB of ‘A’ to ‘B’ is the same as FB of ‘B’

from ‘A’ = 45º

B FB of ‘ B’ to ‘ A’ is the same as FB of
240°
N ‘A’ from B = 225º
FB of ‘B’ from ‘A’ is equal to ‘BB’ of ‘
060° A’ from B = 045º
Bearing of B from A = 060°
A Bearing of A from B = 240°
FB of ‘A’ from ‘ B’ is equal to BB of ‘B’
from A = 225º
Figure 4.25: Forward and back bearing
The significance of backward bearing
Back bearing (BB) Backward bearing is useful for checking
This is the degree measured from an the accuracy of forward bearing reading
object to the observer along the line of as taken from the observer to the object
sight. The rule is that, if the FB is greater along the line of sight. The accuracy
than 180º then subtract 180º from the FB is normally checked by identifying
to obtain BB. This implies that BB = FB the difference in degrees between the
-180º. If the FB is less than 180º then forward and backward bearing. The
add 180º to the forward bearing to get difference between backward bearing
BB. This implies that BB = FB + 180º. and forward bearing is normally 180º.
If the difference appears to be less or
The parallel lines and angle transverse
greater than 180°, it shows that forward,
Forward and back bearing from one backward or both bearings are not correct.
point to the next on the given map can It indicates the presence of errors which
be revealed by the application of parallel may be caused by different factors during
lines and angles of transverse (Figure surveying. The errors are corrected by
4.26). This rule provides a map-reader mean error method as shown below.
with pairs of corresponding angle and
pairs of vertical opposite. Example 1
225°
A prismatic compass surveyor recorded
forward bearing as 68o and its back
B

bearing 250o. Correct the discrepancy

of these readings
Solution

045° Data given

A FB0 = 68°
BB0 = 250°
Figure 4.26: Back Bearing and Forward Bearing

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 255
 Maps and map interpretation

Procedures Therefore, the correct readings are;

(i) Find the difference between BB BB 1 = 249°
and FB
FB 1 = 69 °
250°− 68° = 182°
Difference = 182° Example 2

The difference (D) is above 180°, Correct the discrepancy if the forward
implying presence of a positive and back bearings are 254° and 75°
error. respectively.
Solution
(ii) Determine amount of errors
Data given
Amount of error = Difference − 180°
FB0 = 254° FB1 = ?
182° − 180° = 2°
BB0 = 75° BB1 = ?
(iii) Find the mean error
Error Procedures
Mean error = = 1°
2 (i) Find the difference between FB and
Mean error = 1° BB
Subtract the mean error from a FB – BB = 180°
reading with large value. 254° – 75° = 179°
(iv) Add the mean error to the readings The difference (D) is below 180°,
with a small value. implying presence of a negative error.
BB 1 = BB 0 − 1 ° (ii) Determine the amount of error.
250 °− 1 ° Amount of error = D − 180°
= 249 ° = 179° − 180°
FB 1 = FB 0+1° = −1°
= 68 °+1° Error
(iii) Find the mean error =
2
= 69 ° −1
=
2
FB 1 = 69 °
−1
=
(v) Prove the readings, 2
BB − FB = 180 ° = − 0.5
249 ° − 69 ° = 180 ° Mean error = − 0.5°

256 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

(iv) Add the mean error to the reading FB0 - BB0

with small value and subtract mean error = 249° − 66°
from the reading with large value
= 183°
BB1 = BB0 + Mean error Difference = 183°
BB1 = 75° + (− 0.5°) The difference (D) is above 180°,
implying of positive error.
BB1 = 74.5°
(ii) Determine amount of error
FB1 = FB0 − Mean error Amount of error = D − 180°
FB1 = 254° − (− 0.5°) = 183° − 180°
FB1 = 254° + 0.5° = 3°
FB1 = 254.5° mean error = Error
(iii) Find the Mean
2
3°
(v)Prove the readings =
2
FB1 − BB1 = 180°
= 1.5°
254.5° − 74.5° = 180°
(iv) Add the mean error to the reading
Therefore, the correct readings with small value and subtract
are: mean error from the reading with
large value.
FB1 = 254.5° BB1 = BB0 + Mean error
BB1 = 74.5°
= 66° + 1.5°

Example 3 = 67.5°
BB1 = 67.5°
Detect errors and correct if any in
the following forward and backward FB1 = FB0 − Mean error
bearings as recorded by surveyor. = 249° − 1.5°
FB = 249°, BB = 66°, FB1 = ? BB1 = ? = 247.5°
Solution FB1 = 247.5°
Data given (v) Prove the readings
FB = 249° FB1 − BB1 = 180°
BB = 66° 247.5° − 67.5° = 180°
Procedures Therefore, the correct readings are;
(i) Find the difference between the FB1 = 67.5°
FB and BB BB1 = 247.5°

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 257
 Maps and map interpretation

Exercise 4.5: the position of an object compared to

resection.
1. An amateur surveyor reads forward
bearing as 265° and backward When the two forward bearings are
bearing as 80°. Correct the provided and their locations are known,
discrepancy. it is possible to locate the position of the
2. The headmaster’s office is unknown point or the object, by fixing
located at the centre of the school the positions of the given points and
compound. The bearing measured taking the bearings towards the unknown
by Fatma from the headmaster’s point as directed by the bearing method.
office to the library was 320°, but
Example
Mr Azwar measured the bearing
of 144° from the library to the Suppose the forward bearings of Dar es
headmaster’s office. Correct the Salaam and Morogoro from Arusha were
discrepancy of their measurements. 353° and 22°30', respectively. Using
Figure 4.26, find the position of Arusha
Fixing position of an object on the by grid reference, if the grid reference of
map by intersection and resection Morogoro and Dar es Salaam are 515225
method and 555223, respectively.
Bearing and direction as the method Procedures
among others of locating position, is (i) Identify two points on a map,
the basis of intersection and resection for example Dar es salaam and
methods. Morogoro;
Intersection method (ii) Draw the north direction at both,
Intersection method is a method of Dar es Salaam and Morogoro;
fixing unknown position of object on (iii) Measure the FB of the two points
the map by taking bearings to it from Dar es Salaam and Morogoro;
two or more fixed points and using the (iv) Draw straight lines from each
data to fix the object’s position on a point along the angles measured;
map. Intersection involves more than and
one observer and only the single object,
(v) Read the grid reference location
which is at the unknown position. In where the two lines intersect. The
this method, forward bearings are used point where lines intersect is the
but not changed into back bearing. It coordinate location of Arusha.
is the simplest method of identifying

258 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58

C Arusha
28

27

26

25
MN MN
Forward bearings
from A and B
24
22°30'

353°
23
A Morogoro B Dar es salaam

22

21
Figure 4.26: Intersection of points
Therefore, Arusha is located at grid reference 545 283
Resection method (ii) Identify the forward bearing of
each object.
Resection method identifies the location
of the unknown object by taking the (iii) Change the forward bearings to
bearings from it to two or more known back bearings.
points located on the map. The readings
(iv) Establish the cardinal points at
are converted to back bearings and angle
respective points.
lines drawn from the points to meet at
the observer’s position. It involves only (v) Measure the back bearings at their
one observer who is at the unknown respective points; and
position, viewing more than one object (vi) Draw the straight lines along the
at the same time. bearings measured. The observer’s
Procedures location is the point where two
lines cross each other.
(i) Identify the location of each object
by using grid reference.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 259
 Maps and map interpretation

Example 1 (iii) Note the middle point of the

line;
Ms Audrey observed a feature ‘x’ at
(iv) Draw a North direction on the
grid reference 040160 from a bearing
noted point (middle point); and
of 45°and feature ‘y’ at 060115 from a
(v) Measure the angles and give
bearing of 135°. Locate the position of
their degrees.
Ms Audrey
Trend involve two angles. The first
Changing the forward to back bearings bearing is measured from the North
direction clockwise until it touches the
BB = FB ± 180°
drawn line that joins the two points. The
From X 45° + 180° = 225 0
second bearing is drawn in the same
ways but it crosses the drawn line and
From Y 135° + 180° = 315°
touches it in the second part as shown
x
in Figure 4.28.
y
If the first angle is well measured, the
second angle is given by the use of
mathematical formula.
Using Figure 4.28, let the first bearing
be Y° and the second bearing be X°.
Figure 4.27: Plotting point C by resection X° = Y° + 180 °
using back bearing of x and y point C is
If Y°= 55 °,
plotted.
Then, X°= 55 °+ 180 °
Trend and alignment X°= 235°
Trend, also known as direction of place, X°= 235 °
is a general layout of elongated features
such as a river, valley, coastline, railway Note, the correct second bearing will
or road. Trend is expressed in degrees. be obtained only if the first bearing is
Usually trend is given in compass properly measured
bearings and the bearings are used to Trend is 55 ° to 235 °.
determine the direction. It helps the
map user to know the general layout
of features and extent of the general
curvature. y°

Procedures
(i) Identify the two points; x°

(ii) Join the two points with a

straight line;
Figure 4.28: Trend of a coastline

260 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

Alignment is a general direction of True North

elongated features such as ridge and
This is the type of north direction in
coastline. Usually, alignment is stated
which all meridians or longitudes
using direction in which the feature lies.
converge in the northern hemisphere.
The same procedures of determining
Its direction is towards the 000° North
trend are used to determine alignment.
from any place on the earth’s surface.
But in alignment, the measured angles
It is very near to the point at which the
are used to describe the general direction
rotation axis of the Earth passes through.
of the feature involved. For example, if
It is shown on the map by the star headed
the trend of the feature is 55° to 235° as
line. It is also called geographical North
shown in Figure 4.28, its alignment is NE
Pole and it is always fixed. The angle
to SW. From the illustration above, trend
measured clockwise from geographical
and alignment can be started in a general
north to the object along the line of sight
form as 55° NE to 235° SW.
is called true bearing.
NB: The best way of showing trend or
Magnetic North
alignment is by using both bearing and
direction. This is direction indicated by the freely
suspended magnetic needle. Magnetic
Types of North direction
North is the line representing the
The North direction on a map can be direction of the needle of a magnetic
shown by using different types of north. compass pointing when the map was
These are True North (TN), Magnetic published. It enables to obtain the
North (MN) and Grid North (GN) magnetic bearing. It is the point in
(Figure 4.29). northern Canada where lines of the
TN earth’s magnetic field intersect. It is
naturally a migratory point caused by
X
MN GN by the shifting behavior of the earth’s
magnetic field which is influenced by a
number of factors including the earth’s
rotation and ionisation of the liquid metal
in the outer core. This is called polar
shift theory, as the world is not static,
but dynamic. The earth is changing
every day, plate tectonic push continents
apart, sea levels fluctuate up and down,
volcanic eruption discharge ash and
smoke on the surface, denudation occurs
and climate changes.
Figure 4.29: The types of North direction

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 261
 Maps and map interpretation

Grid North position of the Magnetic North in

Grid north is the direction towards the relation to True North. Magnetic North
north in maps drawn by grid system. keeps on changing its position at specific
Grid north is a direction that is parallel to rate with time in relation to the position
the easting lines found on the Universal of the True North. It may be located in
Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid system. the western or eastern part of the True
The grid north aids in obtaining a North which never changes its position.
topographical map since it is used as However, in the African continent,
a baseline of clockwise direction. It is Magnetic North is located to the west
shown by bare line. of the True North. Determination of
magnetic variation depends on the
True bearing position of MN in relation to the TN.
A true bearing is an angle in which a
line from the observer’s position to the Principles governing calculations of
object meets with a line pointing to True magnetic variation, magnetic bearing
North. The angle is measured clockwise and true bearing when the magnetic
from true north to the object along the north is to the west of the True North.
line of sight. As shown in Figure 4.30, the position
Magnetic bearing of Magnetic North is west of the True
North. The gap between Magnetic North
A Magnetic bearing is the angle, which and True North denoted by MV1 is the
a line from the observer’s position to the initial angle recorded before the change
object meets with a line pointing in the in position of Magnetic North. As the
direction of magnetic north. The angle Magnetic North started to shift eastward,
measured clockwise from the magnetic slowly the gap started to become smaller
north to the object through the line of with time, giving the second angle in
sight is called magnetic bearing. between denoted by MV2. The angle
Magnetic variation between the new position and old
position of the Magnetic North is called
Magnetic North and the True North
total change. The observation made from
never coincide. They normally leave a
the Figure 4.30, therefore establishes
gap apart which is always changing with
that: when the Magnetic North is to the
time due to the shifting tendency of the
West of the True North and the rate of
magnetic influence. Therefore, magnetic
annual change is eastward, the final
variation is the angular distance between
magnetic variation is the difference
the Magnetic North and the True North,
between the initial magnetic variation
which usually keeps on changing with
and the total change ( TC).
time and space. The decrease and the
increase of the angle depends on the MV2= MV1 − TC1

262 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

Figure 4.30: Annual change of magnetic variation from eastward

Example 1.
Find the magnetic variation of town X = 9 1 years
in March 2020, if in September 2010 2
its magnetic variation was 20°10'05" Find the total change.
W and the rate of change stood at 10'
Then, if 1 year =10 rate of change
eastward per year.
1
Solution 9 years = ?
2
MV2= MV1− TC
9.5 × 10
= 95′ W
Data given 1
MV1= 20° 10' 05" Remember;1° = 60' and 1' = 60"
T2 = Year Month Therefore, 95' W=1°35'00" W
2020 3
Total change =1°35'00" W
T1 = Year Month
New magnetic variation
2010 9
MV2= MV1− TC
Rate = 10' E
TC = ? MV1 = 20°10'05" − 1°35'00" = 1°835'05"

MV2 = ? Therefore, magnetic variation of town X

in March 2020 was 18°35'05" W
MV2 = ?
If you carefully study Figure 4.31, you
Find the difference in time
will note that the diagram represents a
T2 - T1 bit opposite idea compared to the first
Years Months diagram. The arrow pointed in solid
2020 03 line marks the initial position of the
− 2010 09 Magnetic North (MN) separated by
09 06 narrow angular distance from the True

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 263
 Maps and map interpretation

North (TN), denoted as MV1. Slowly Solution

the narrow angular distance started to MV2= MV1+ TC
widen as the Magnetic North (MN)
shifted westward into the new position Data given
indicated by the dotted arrow pointed MV1 = 20° 10' 05"
line MN1. Then the new wider angel T2 = Years Months
denoted as MV2 exists between the new 2020 03
position of the Magnetic North and the
True North. Similarly, the narrow angle T1 = Years Months
denoted as TC is seen between the new 2010 09
and the old position of Magnetic North. Rate = 10'W
This can generally be concluded that,
TC = ?
when the position of the Magnetic North
MV2= ?
is to the West of the True North, and the
rate of annual change is westward, the Find the difference in time
final magnetic variation is the sum of T2−T1
the initial magnetic variation and the
Years Months
total change.
2020 03
MV2 = MV1 + TC − 2010 09
MN XTN 09 06
d
ar

1
tw

=9 years
es
W

2
Find the total change.
MN1
Then, if

MV2 1 Year = 10’ W

1
TC MV1 9 Years = ?
2
9.5 × 10
= 95' W
1
Figure 4.31: Magnetic variation from Remember 1° = 60' and 1' = 60"
westward annual change Therefore, 95' W= 1°35' 00"
Example 2 Total change = 1°35' 00" W
New magnetic variation
Find the magnetic variation of town X MV = MV + TC
2 1
in March 2020, if in September 2010 its
magnetic variation was 20°10'05"W and MV2 = 20°10' 05" + 1°35' 00"= 21°45'05"
the rate of change stood at 10' westward Therefore, magnetic variation of town X
per year. in March 2020 was 21°45'05" W.

264 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

Rules governing calculations of magnetic Example 1.

variation, magnetic bearing and true Determine the magnetic variation
bearing when the magnetic north is to of Mafia Island in April 2025 if its
the East of the true north. magnetic variation in September 2010
As shown in Figure 4.32, the position of was 15°30'12" E and the rate of change
Magnetic North is to the East of the True is 8' eastwards per year.
North. The gap between magnetic north Solution
and the true north denoted by MV2 is the MV2= MV1+ TC
initial angle recorded before the change
in position of magnetic north. As the Data given
Magnetic North started to shift eastward, MV1=15°30'12"
slowly the gape started to become larger
Rate of change = 8′ E
with time, giving the new wider angle
in between denoted as MV2. The angle T2 = Years Months
between the new and old position of the 2025 04
Magnetic North is called total change. T1= Years Months
From the observation made in Figure 2010 09
4.32, it can therefore be deduced that: TC = ?
when the Magnetic North is to the East
MV2= ?
of the True North and the rate of annual
change is eastward, the final magnetic Find the difference in time.
variation is the sum of initial magnetic T2−T1
variation and the total change.
Years Months
→ = MV2= MV1+ TC 2025 04
− 2010 09
TN 14 07
MN 7
= 14 years
12
= 14.58 years
'
If 1if1year
year ==8'8
MN
14.58= ??
14.58
MV2

MV1 14.58 × 8'

TC =
1
Object = 116.64
Figure 4.32: Magnetic variation from =116.64'
= 1056 '38E''
eastward annual change Remeber; 1° = 60' and 1' = 60"
Therefore,=116.64' E = 1°56’38”

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 265
 Maps and map interpretation

Total change = 1°56'38" E Example 2.

New magnetic variation Find the magnetic variation of town X
MV2= MV1+ TC in March 2020, if in September 2010 its
= 15°30'12" + 1°56'3" magnetic variation was 20°10'05" E and
the rate of change stood at 10’ westward
= 17°26'50" E
per year.
Therefore, magnetic variation of Mafia
Solution
Island in April, 2025 will be 17°26'50" E.
MV2= MV1− TC
As shown in the Figure 4.33, the position Data given
of Magnetic North is still to the East of the MV1 = 20°10'05"
True North. The gap between Magnetic
North and True North denoted by MV1 T2 = Years Months
is the initial angle recorded before the 2020 03
change in position of Magnetic North. T1 = Years Months
As the Magnetic North started to shift 2010 09
westward, slowly the gape started to
Rate = 10' W
become smaller and smaller with time
giving the new narrow angle in between TC = ?
denoted as MV2 .The angle between the MV2= ?
new position and old position of the
Find the difference in time
Magnetic North is called total change
(TC). Generally, it can be deduced that, T2−T1
when the magnetic north is to the East Years Months
of the true north and the rate of annual
2020 03
change is westward, the final magnetic − 2010 09
variation is the difference of initial
09 06
magnetic variation and the total change.
MV2 = MV1 − TC1 1
= 9 years
2
Find the total change.
Then, if
1 year → 10' W
1
9 years → ?
2
MV1 9.5 × 10
MV2 = 95' W
TC 1
Object
Remember; 1° = 60' and 1' = 60"
Figure 4.33: Magnetic variation from
Therefore, 95' W = 1° 35' 00"
westward annual change Total change = 1° 35' 00" W

266 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

New magnetic variation When magnetic variation changes

MV2 = MV1− TC magnetic bearing changes as well, but
Magnetic North remains constant.
MV2 = 20° 10' 05" − 1° 35' 00"
= 18° 35' 05" W Example 1
Therefore, magnetic variation of town X True Bearing and Magnetic Bearing of
in March 2020 was 18° 35' 05" W Mbuyuni village in September 2010 were
120°35' 25" and 75°30' 36" respectively.
The following are rules governing Determine its magnetic declination
calculation of true baring, if magnetic and Magnetic Bearing in May 2020,
bearing of an object from its observer if the rate of change was 20' W. Given
is given: Magnetic North is declined to the East.

(a) When the magnetic declination Solution

is to the West of the True North MV2= MV1− TC and MV1= TB − MB
as shown in Figure 4.34, subtract
magnetic declination or magnetic Data given
variation (MV) from the magnetic T1 = Years Months
bearing (MB) to obtain the True 2010 09
Bearing (TB).
T2 = Years Months
That is, TB = MB – MV and MB 2020 05
= TB + MV.
Rate = 20' W
(b) When the Magnetic North is to the
Determine the position of MN
East of the True North, as shown
in Figure 4.34, add Magnetic If MB < TB , it means that MN is to the
deflination or Magnetic variation East of TN
(MV) to magnetic bearing (MB)
to obtain two bearings that is, TB Rate of change
= MB +MV and MB =TB – MV. T −T 2 1

X Year Month
2020 09
− 2010 05
TB 09 08
MB = 9.67 years
MB Find total change
0
If 1 year = 20 '
Figure 4. 34: East declination of MN
9.67 years = ?

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 267
 Maps and map interpretation

T1 = Years Months
9.67 years ×20'
= 2012 10
1year
= 193.4' W T2 = Years Months
Remember; 1° = 60' and 1' = 60" 2021 12
Therefore, 193.4' W = 3°13'24" Rate of change (R) = ?
Total change 3°13'24" W MB2 = ?
MV2 = MV1 −TC
Old TB = ?
MV1 = TB - MB
Thus, Find change in time (t)
MV1 = 120 ° 35' 25" − 75 ° 30 ' 36" T2 ̶ T1
MV1 = 45°04'49" Year Month
From 2021 12
MV2 =MV1 − TC − 2012 10
MV2 45 ° 04 ' 49" − 03 ° 13' 24" 9 2
= 41°51'25"
2
Therefore, magnetic variation and = 9 years
12
magnetic bearing at Mbuyuni village in
May 2020 were 41°51'25" E, respectively. Time interval = 9.17 years

Example 2 Since both old and new magnetic

variations are given with Eastern
Magnetic variation of town Y by October directions, magnetic north is to the east
2012 and December 2021 were 45°30'05" of true north. Further, the direction of
E and 36°50'09" E respectively, while annual change is westward since old
Magnetic Bearing was 85°45'35" by magnetic variation is (MV ) is greater
1
October 2021. than new magnetic variation (MV2).
(i) Determine the annual rate of
MV2 = MV1 ̶ TC
change
(ii) Compute Magnetic Bearing and Then,
True Bearing in 2021 December TC = MV ̶ MV 1 2

Solution = 45°30'05' ̶ 36°50'09"

Data given = 8°39'59" ≈ 519.98'
Magnetic Variation1 (MV1) = 45°30'05"
Total change = 519.98'
Magnetic Variation2 (MV2) = 36°50'05"
To find magnetic variation, if
Magnetic Bearing1 (MB1) = 85°45'35"

268 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

Solution
9.17years = 519.98'
Data given
1year = ?
MB = 248°05'00"
1year×519.98
9.17years MV = 15°26'00"
MB = MV + TB
= 56.7 ' MB – MV = TB
= 56.7 ' = westward
When the magnetic declination is to the
The annual bearing in 2021 December East of the True North, add the magnetic
(MB2) declination to the magnetic bearing to
obtain the True Bearing. It means, if
TB = MB + MV variation was 15° 26' 00"
Remember; MV is to the East of TN Solution
TB = MB1 + MV1 or = MB 2+ MV2 TB = MV + MB
= 15°26' + 232°29'
Note: When Magnetic Variation changes,
Magnetic bearing change as well, but = 248°05'

True Bearing remain constant. Therefore, the True Bearing of the town
Y is 248°05'.
But, TB = MB1 + MV1
= 85°45'40" Exercise 4.6
+ 45°30'05"
1. By March 2007, town Z located
131°15'45"
in West Africa had MB and TB
TB = 131°15'45" of 45°23'12" and 250°34'57",
respectively. If the rate of change
MB = TB1 − MV1 was 15 minutes per annum
= 131°15'45" negatively; calculate the following
− 36°50'09" by September 2022:
94°25'36" (b) Magnetic variation
(c) True bearing
New Magnetic Bearing in
2021(MB2) = 94°25'36" (d) Magnetic bearing
2. Magnetic bearing of Kibo Hill in
Example 3 September 2010 was 120°35'25"
while its TB was 75°30'36".
Given that Magnetic Bearing of town Y
Determine its magnetic variation
was 248°05'00" and magnetic variation
in May 2020.if its annual rate of
was 15°26'00". Find the true bearing of
change was 20' eastward.
the town Y.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 269
 Maps and map interpretation

Representation of relief on a map they represent. Different relief features

such as mountains, hill, and direction
The relief of an area is the surface form
of the water courses are difficult to be
of the ground which shows size, shape,
interpreted with the use of hachures.
slope of the highlands and lowlands. It
They are likely to obscure other features
can also be defined as the changing nature
and their use consumes more time.
of the land or variation in the shape and
form of the earth’s surface as observed
from the sea level. The depiction of relief
and land form on a flat map is an attempt
to show three dimensional forms on a
two-dimensional surface.
Methods of representing relief on a
map
There are two methods of showing relief,
which are; quantitative and qualitative
methods. A quantitative method shows Figure 4.35: Hachuring method
exact number, for example. contour, Contour method
spot height, trigonometrical, benchmark Contour lines on a map join points
and so on. Qualitative method does not representing equal elevation above a
show numbers but uses hachuring, hill datum or reference line (mean sea level).
shading, block diagram (physiographic For example, the datum line for Nigeria
diagram), layer coloring, form lines and is taken as mean sea level at Lagos. In
naming methods. East Africa, the dutum line is based on
Hachuring method the mean sea level at Mombasa, and
Refers to the non-numerical traditional much of the survey work in South and
way of showing the nature of the terrain, Central Africa is based on the datum
by means of their value and their line at Cape Town. Usually, contours
thickness (Figure 4.35). Their thickness show various features or landforms like
and values increase with the increase in hills, plateaus, mountains and valleys,
the degree of land steepness. Despite basins and plains. Contours, also show
the fact that they are non-numerical, gentle slope when the contour lines are
hachures can successfully communicate drawn far apart from one another and
a quite specific shape of the terrain. They steep-slope when they are drawn closely.
are suitable for mountainous regions for Contour lines are drawn at definite
depicting landforms such as craters. They intervals for instance 20 m or 50 feet and
also give general ideas on the nature of do not cross one another. Contour lines
the slope. Hachures have the following form a ‘V’ pointing upwards to denote
limitations; They cannot show the extent a valley and ‘V’ pointing downwards to
of height and steepness of the landform denote a spur. The merits of contour is

270 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

to give exact height for a particular area colour are used where most details are
since the contours are numbered (Figure in the lowland areas and the brightest
4.36). They are also used to give clue colors where details are sparsely high.
of physical features depending on the
With layer coloring, it is simple to
contour layout and it can be integrated
identify the nature of the relief whether
with other methods like spot height and
lowland or highlands just by observing
trigonometrical station.
the change in colour rather than striving
Example to find the values of height as with other
methods like contour lines. It is mostly
used on small scale maps and atlas maps.
Different tones used in indicating the
change in elevation make the map more
attractive. For instance, green colour
is used to indicate lowland and white
or red colour is used for highland. A
stereoscopic is produced in which the
warmer colors such as brown and red
appear nearer the map reader while the
cooler colors like green and blue at lower
elevations, appear further away. It may
bring about confusion to some people
Figure 4.36: Contour lines
since colors have multiple implication
Form lines: are usually unnumbered in people’s minds. For example, green
lines drawn on a map joining points of colour may suggest vegetation or fertility.
nearly the same height. They are like However, not all lowlands coloured
contours but they use unnumbered lines. green are fertile. Additionally, layer tint
maps are very expensive to produce.
Hypsometric colouring method Lastly the method cannot show a clear
Hypsometric coloring also known as boundary between highland and lowland
layer tinting or colouring is a method used areas, though it uses different colors to
on maps to re-enforce the impression indicate them.
of relief and to make the land forms
more easily understood by map users. Hill Shading
It is not a complete method in itself Hill shading is a method of showing
because it relies upon the presence of relief in which parts of the map are
either contours or form lines to provide darkened by a tint or stipple of chosen
the basis for coloring. By convention, the colour as if they are in shadow cast
lower elevations are colored in various by an imaged object. It can give a
shades of green, intermediate areas in fine, modeled impression of relief that
yellow, higher altitude zones in brown strikes out eyes at once. The slopes can
or red, then purple and white. The lighter be shown easily as the shadow tone is

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 271
 Maps and map interpretation

darker on steep slopes and lighter on Spot height method

gentle slopes. It tends to make the slopes Spot height is the method of representing
in shadow to look steeper than they relief whereby a point is accurately
really are. The impression of relief is surveyed and its actual height above
sometimes much greater than the sense mean sea level is shown in metres or
of it, for example, the location of “ups” feet on a map. The method is normally
and “downs” (Figure 4.37). represented by dot and exact height such
as ● 5895 m or represented by small
circle with dot and height number for
example 5895 m. In this method, there
is no physical evidence of spot heights in
the field, but they appear frequently on
maps, along road and between contours
near sea-level to help in interpretation
of relief.
With trigonometric station and spot
height it is easy to recognise the height
of a given point on the map, unlike
Figure 4.37: Hill shading method
with the use of contour lines and
psychometric tinting method. It can be
Trigonometric point method used with contour lines to prepare the
Trigonometric point is the method of cross section. It is also very useful in
representing relief whereby a point is some mathematical interpretation of the
accurately surveyed and shown on the mapped area such as determination of
map, with their actual height in metres or slope. It may provide important elements
feet above mean sea level. The method or clues on the nature of the relief, and
is usually represented on the map by a become the basis of the relief description.
triangle and a dot with exact height. For The use of trigonometric stations as the
example, 8848 m. After surveying, method of showing relief features does
the surveyors erect concrete pillars on not obscure other details. However, with
the summits of the hills, which act as this method, it is very difficult to clearly
corners of the main triangles of the understand the nature of relief features
survey. The method is easy to recognize like mountains, valleys and steep slopes
the height of a given point on the map. in a particular mapped area.
Sometimes a trigonometric point is
called a trigonometric station. Like Benchmarks methods
trigonometrical stations, the method is A benchmark (BM) is a mark on a
used with contour lines for mathematical permanent object, which indicates an
interpretation of the map, such as elevation of a given area. Benchmark
determination of the slope and drawing serves as a reference point from which
of relief section. measurement of topographical surveys

272 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

may be made. They can be found in the degree helps to determine hemispherical
brick or stone of a building or a wall. position (location) of the mapped area. If
It is shown by a symbol followed by a a latitude degree is followed by the letter
numerical height, for example BM 1554. ‘S’ means it is taken from the Southern
Naming method hemisphere and letter ‘N’ indicates the
Naming method is the method of showing Northern Hemisphere. For example, a
relief whereby specific landforms (relief map of Vanga, sheet No. 111/1 lies from
features) are identified on topographical 4°40'00" S to 4°45'00" S indicates that it
map by using their names. is taken from the southern hemisphere.
Therefore, it is possible to find a position
Map interpretation
of a piece of land or object on the earth
Once the conventions and alphabet of
surface by using latitudes and longtudes
maps are mastered, it becomes possible
(graticule system).
to spell out situations in the landscape
from the association and relationships of Example 1. Locate Dodoma town which
symbols. In topographical maps all the is found at grid reference 328590 by
information about location, landscape using longitude and latitude, starting
and cultural features are depicted with with 30° E and 05°, S respectively (refer
the assistance of conventional signs Figure 4.23).
and symbols. It should be noted that Solution
convection signs and symbols are used
Longitude
to define the features represented on the
map. Thus, they should be relevant to the (i) Find difference in degrees
actual features represented. They should 40° E ̶ 30° E = 10° E
also be common, familiar and widely If 14.8 cm = 10° E
accepted by map readers; otherwise 8.2 cm = x
there will be misinterpretation of the x × 14.8 cm 8.2 cm × 10°
information. From such information, =
14.8 cm 14.8 cm
one can read and interpret the position,
x = 5.54°
climate, relief, vegetation, drainage,
settlement, rocks and human activities of (ii) To change degree to minutes
a particular location shown on the map. If 1° = 60'
Position 0.54° = x
The use of latitude and longitude of an x × 1° 0.54° × 60'
=
area studied will tell where the piece of 1° 1°
land lies in the world. When one knows x = 32.4'
this, it becomes easy to picture out the (iii) To change minutes into seconds
chief geographical characteristics of the
area by applying general knowledge of If 1' = 60"
geography. In addition to that, latitude 0.4' = x

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 273
 Maps and map interpretation

x × 1' 0.4' × 60" Climate

=
1' 1' A great deal of climatic information can
x = 24" be deduced from the topographical map
using latitude, drainage (water bodies),
The combined degree in (i),minutes in relief and vegetation as follows;
(ii), and seconds in (iii) gives 5°32'24"
Latitude
Thus, 30°00'00" E This is the most common hint used in the
+ 5°32'24" mapped area. It gives general indications
35°32'24" E concerning rainfall and mean annual
temperature. For instance, areas between
Latitude 0º to 5º north or south of the equator fall
(i) Find difference in degrees under equatorial climate. These areas
10° ̶ 5° S = 5° are characterised by high temperature
and high rainfall. Area between 5º and
If 7.6 cm = 5°
15º North or South of the Equator are
1.8 cm = x in category of tropical climate with
x × 7.6 cm 1.8 × 5° moderate rainfall marked by wet and dry
=
7.6 cm 7.6 cm seasons and the temperature is also high.
x = 1.18° Areas between 15º and 35º North or
If 1° = 60' South of the Equator are categorised as
0.18° = x desert climate with very high temperature
and little or non rainfall.
x × 1° 0.18° × 60'
= Altitude: the mean temperature decreases
1° 1° with altitude at an average rate of 6.5º
x = 10.8' C for every 1 000 m. Thus if one notes
the height of a place can make an easy
If 1' = 60"
arithmetic guess whether the area
0.'’ = x experiences high or low temperature.
x × 1' 0.8' × 60" Rainfall type can also be determined by
= the presence of mountains which induce
1' 1'
orographic rainfall. So, the latitude
x = 48" sometimes does not give exact type of
Thus, 1° 10' 48" climate. When relief interrupts the area,
Hence, 5°00'00" S it results to modified climate such as
+ 1°10'48" modified equatorial climate, modified
6°10'48" S tropical climate and mountainous
climate.
Therefore, position of Dodoma town at
Water bodies
grid reference 328590 lies at longitude
These are very good guide to climate
35° 32' 24" E and latitude 6° 10' 48" S.
types. The presence of many rivers

274 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

indicates high rainfall; hence, suggests escarpments, ridges, plateaus, valleys

equatorial climate, while the presence and spurs as well as, hills and ridges.
of salty lakes, bore holes, water holes, Lowland relief is normally with the
springs and wells imply dry conditions average elevation below one thousand
or semi-arid climate. Seasonal lakes and metres above the mean sea level. It is
swamps suggest low rainfall and the area characterised by lowland features such
is marked by wet and dry seasons which as deltas, plains, estuaries and cliffs.
denote a tropical climate.
Relief on topographical map can be
Vegetation shown by using various methods of
representing relief such as contour lines,
This is a good guide for map
spot height, trigonometric stations or
interpretation. The presences of forests
hill shading.
and bamboo trees indicate high rainfall,
which denotes equatorial climate in the Contour lines form a ‘V’ pointing
area. Moreover, woodlands or grasslands upstream to denote a valley and pointing
reflect medium rainfall while scrubs, down to denote a spur. Where contour
thickets, thorny bushes and scattered opens is where the river and water
bushes imply low rainfall which streams go and when several contour
represent a semi-arid climate. lines are merging it indicates a cliff.

Crops Transport and communication

Crops can indicate the type of climate of Though all types of transport are shown
an area. Some of the crops such as coffee, in topographical maps, the most common
rubber and tea are grown in areas which is land transport which includes railway
receive high rainfall, hence indicate lines, pipelines, and roads. Roads are
presence of equatorial or mountainous shown in different forms like tarmac
climate. Other crops such as sisal, millet roads also called all weather roads
and cassava tolerate dry conditions and which are represented by thick red line.
survive under moderate rainfall, hence Loose surface roads are indicated by
indicate presence of tropical climate. thick broken line, dry weather roads
are indicated by continuous white line
Relief and footpath. Some topographical maps
This can be defined as the changing show well developed and distributed
nature of the land as observed from transport and communication routes
the sea level with its characterising than others. This shows that there is
landforms. An area can be described as unequal development of transport
highland relief if its average elevation and communication systems. Some
is higher than one thousand metres of the factors that determines unequal
above mean sea level. Highland relief development and distribution of transport
is normally characterised notably by and communication includes drainage,
highland landforms such as mountains, relief, human activities and climate.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 275
 Maps and map interpretation

Apart from land transport, topographical Dendritic pattern

maps also show air transport which is It is a shaped like trunk and branches of
indicated by airfield runway and water a tree usually with tributaries converging
transport indicated by large water bodies on the main stream from many directions
like lakes, sea and oceans. and merge at acute angles (Figure
Land use and functions 4.38). They occur in rocks which
Different land uses both in urban are homogeneous (similar). They are
and rural areas are well shown in the commonly formed on massive crystalline
topographical maps. Urban land use rocks like granite or horizontal to gently
is indicated by commercial land use, dipping sedimentary strata. They are not
industrial land use, residential land use related to rock structure or differences
and open space land use. Rural land is in rock hardness.
used for different economic, political and Tributaries
social activities including commercial
cultivation. The common land uses in
rural areas are intensive cultivation land
use, forestry land use, grazing land use
Main river
and village settlement land use.
Drainage system River mouth
Drainage can be defined as the runing
water in an area by natural or artificial
streams, rivers, and infiltration as it is Figure 4.38: Dendritic drainage pattern
commanded by the nature of geology and Trellis drainage pattern
relief of the particular area. Variation in
It is a linear pattern in the shape of a lattice
the nature of relief and rocks determine
with the chief tributaries joining the main
the quality, and types of drainage
stream approximately at right angles
patterns. Drainage pattern is the layout or
(Figure 4.39). Usually, minor tributaries
plan made by rivers and their tributaries
join the chief tributaries at right angles
on the landscape. Streams and rivers are
and flow more or less parallel to the
by far the most important landscapes
main stream. The pattern is strongly
forming elements. In map reading and
related to structure or differences in rock
interpretation, the drainage basin forms
hardness (heterogeneous rocks) and is
a convenient unit of study which can be
commonly found in scarp land areas and
outlined and readily defined on a map.
regions of folded rocks. Normally, it is
Drainage can be classified according to
found in folded sedimentary rocks and
the pattern formed in relation to surface
metamorphic rocks. The chief tributaries
relief or the slope of the land, differences
are usually aligned along down fold or
in rock hardness and rock structure.
parallel zones of weak rock separated
Various drainage patterns are related to
by resistant uplands.
the surface rock structure.

276 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

Tributaries
joining the
main river

Main river flow

Figure 4.39: Trellis drainage pattern
Figure 4.41: Annular drainage pattern
Radial drainage pattern
Rectangular drainage pattern
This is an arrangement of streams flowing
This pattern is similar in plan to the
outwards down the flanks of a dome
trellis, with tributaries joining each
or cone-shaped upland such as a large
other at approximately right angles.
volcano (Figure 4.40). It is common in
Rectangular pattern also tends to have
volcanic region and controlled by the
individual streams taking sharp angular
gradient of the land.
bends along their course (Figure 4.42).
It is the result of structural control, with
streams following joints or fault lines
in the rock. It is common in volcanic
region, and granitic rocks.

Tributaries
joining the main
river

Figure 4.40: Radial drainage pattern

Annular drainage pattern Main river flow
Is the pattern with streams often joining
Figure 4.42: Rectangular drainage pattern
at sharp angles but arranged in a series
of curves about a dissected dome, basin Braided drainage pattern
or crater area. On a dissected dome This is common on broad flood plains
with alternating bands of hard and soft with low gradients, often due to back
rock the pattern may appear as several tilting (Figure 4.43). A good example
concentric curves (Figure 4.41). It is is in Mazinde area at Lushoto in Tanga
common in volcanic region. region.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 277
 Maps and map interpretation

Figure 4.45: Anastomotic pattern

Centripetal drainage pattern

This drainage is opposite to the
radial drainage pattern because it is
Figure 4.43: Braided pattern characterised by the streams which
converge at a point which is generally
Regulated drainage pattern a depression or basin. This drainage
Regulated pattern is common in flat is formed when a series of streams
sediments of recent age in coastal zones, converge in a central low basin or crater
associated with tidal rivers, numerous lake (Figure 4.46). A good example of
cracks and coastal swamps (Figure 4.44). this drainage pattern can be found in
It is very common along the coasts of Kondoa District.
West and East Africa.

Figure 4.44: Regulated drainage pattern

Anastomotic drainage pattern

Stream flow
It is very common in area on flood plains
in coastal zones or reduced gradients Figure 4.46: Centripetal drainage pattern
inland due to back tilting (Figure 4.45).
Parallel drainage pattern
It is very common for numerous double
channels, ox-bow lakes, cut-offs, and Parallel drainage pattern comprises
abandoned meanders. number of rivers which are parallel
to each other and follow the original
Rivers or streams will generally follow slope (Figure 4.47). This pattern is
the line of least resistance such as along more frequently developed on uniformly
a band of softer rock, a fault line or the sloping and dipping rock beds such as
crushed fault breccia between two faults. Cuesta or newly emerged coastal plains.

278 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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symbols closer together or giving the

Tributaries area a green tint. Dark green color may
be used. In interpretation of vegetation,
a geographer should consider the nature
or type and the way it is distributed. To
determine what vegetation appear in
which part of the mapped area, consider
the cardinal points or names to indicate
the nature of distribution. For example,
Stream flow the Eastern side of the mapped area is
covered by scattered trees and scrubs
Figure 4.47: Parallel drainage pattern while in the North West part is dominated
by thick forest. In describing vegetation
Vegetation distribution, a geographer should also
A topographical map shows both natural consider factors which account for
vegetations such as forest, Savanna, the presence or absence of vegetation
thicket, shrubs, thorny, swamp vegetation, in the particular area. Normally the
bamboo, mangrove swampy, scattered number of factors including soil quality,
bushes and others as well as artificial relief, drainage, human activities and
vegetation which may be indicated by climatic condition influences vegetation
plantations. Sometimes vegetation is also distribution. A detailed description of
indicated by pictorial symbols which vegetation, soil and climatic relationships
shows increasing density by placing the is presented in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Vegetation, soil and climatic relationships
Vegetation General description Climatic Soil relationship
type relationship
Forest Closely spaced tall and Rain most of year, Thick and fertile
medium trees, mixed rainy slopes of soil.
or in simple stands mountains, tropical
with or without bushy and equatorial
undergrowth. coastal lowlands.
Savanna Open with fewer trees A pronounced Widely varying
than closed savanna. dry season but soil from black
Scattered threes, tall annual total rainfall cotton to sandy or
grasses and thorn. permits tree volcanic.
growth.

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Dense, The drier the climate, Long dry season Similar to

medium or the frequent the bush, generally prevents Savanna but
sparse bush thickets frequent trees growth except usually thinner
(tangles of several for occasional and drier sandy
bushes) tufts of grass euphorbias or types.
or bare sandy patches baobab.
between bushes and
thickets.
Scrub Low profile thorn Very long dry Usually sandy
trees often gnarled and season, rain thin soils.
twisted with scattered unreliable.
clumps of thorny bush
and drought resistant
grass.
Heath Tufts of grass growing Moderate to heavy Infertile acidic
in close formation, reliable rainfall soil.
heath and sometimes at high altitudes
grant groundsel and (above 3500 m)
lobelia. cool temperature.
Mangrove Low bush-lie trees with Hot, wet lowland Silt or mud soil,
swamp long roots often exposed areas along coasts salt or fresh water.
at low water. or lake shores Water logged soil
and rivers, high along river banks
humidity. and lakes.
All strong grass with High temperature,
stiff spikey which often rainfall not liable
key sense growth. water supplies by
lake.

Settlement Types of settlement

Settlement refer to an organised There are two types of settlement,
permanent or temporary inhabitation namely urban and rural settlement.
of humans on a small or large area of Urban settlement is an area where its
land including slum or the requisite population approximately 80% are
infrastructural facilities. Settlement engaged in non-agricultural activities.
range in size from small to largest. Its is commonly found in district head
Settlement is another basic aspect on quarters, regional administrative centres
topographical map interpretation. and along transportation routes. Rural

280 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

settlement is an area where its population bank above flood level. The site will be
approximately 80% are engaged in convenient because of availability of
agricultural activities. Commonly water nearby. This means that, settlement
found in a countryside and villages. In is well established in an area when
interpretation of settlements geographers site and situation conditions are not
have to consider how and where the dots conflicting.
representing people, house or buildings
Form: this refers to the general shape of
and the town are located. Urban
the settlement. Usually, a topographical
settlement is simply identified through
map may indicate the features which
highly built areas, as well as densely
have influenced the form of the
linear and nucleated settlement patterns;
settlement. For example, the basic
while rural settlements are revealed in
urban forms are linear which may result
the map by sparsely hurts, light linear
from a constructed site such as valley,
and nucleated settlement patterns.
the alignment of a route way or river
In actual sense, settlement should be or an elongated relief feature such as a
studied systematically looking on aspects ridge or escarpment base. Other forms
such as site, situation, form, pattern and of settlement are as follows: concentric
function. circular form which is the form where
growth has been generally outward
Site: is the nature of land on which
from a central core or nucleus. With
the settlement is built or where town
rectangular form, the town develops in
or village is built. The site may be
blocks. A good example is Hastings town
chosen for different reasons such as
in Sierra Leone.
relief and gradient. For example, flat
areas may be preferred for easy building. Settlement pattern: this is how the
Areas with availability of water bodies settlement is distributed. In this aspect,
such as of rivers, streams, and lake; we can examine the size of settlements in
fertile soil; presence of transport and relation to the environment and we can
communication network, defensive study the pattern and shape of settlements.
site such as mountainous area can Normally settlement morphology
also be chosen for the purposes they (pattern) is determined or controlled
serves. Sometime, site choice can be by its main function. In other words, it
influenced by government policies. The depends on the human activities. There
government can allocate the use of land are three types of settlement pattens,
depending on its potentiality. namely linear, nucleated and dispersed
settlement patterns (Figure 4.48).
Situation: is the settlement’s position
in relation to other conditions such as Linear settlement pattern: occurs in the
physical features, important economic area where the marketing of cash crops
zones and communication. For example, depends upon ease of transport, or along
the village may be situated on a river communication and transport routes such

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 281
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as roads and railways. Some areas follow the pattern of river valleys. This
settlement is linear in shape where business and collecting are the major activities.
Nucleated settlement patterns: represents settlement areas characterised by clustered
or closed buildings normally for economic and social purpose. It is common in
town centers, village centers, borders of two countries and around the coastal
areas. It is common in places where there is settlement around nuclei areas such
as market centre or mining centers.
Dispersed settlement pattern: occurs in the area with sparsely or scattered people,
with few houses far apart. Such pattern can be found in pastoral societies.

Linear

Dispersed
Nucleated

Figure 4.48: Three types of settlement patterns

NOTE: Settlement morphology or social development activities. More
pattern changes with time due to social, examples of functional zones which can
political and economic development. be indicated on a map are as follows:
An area with scattered settlement may The administrative function is
over time be dominated by nucleated indicated by government offices such
settlement. as Headquarters (HQ), District Council
Function: is another technique of (DC) and Regional Council (RC).
interpreting settlement. Land use pattern Recreational function is usually indicated
within a form of larger settlements by different man-made features such as
may reveal well-defined functional car parks, gardens, football grounds,
zones, in which there are varieties of boating lakes, race courses, golf courses
specified activities. Such zones include and zoos.
the Central Business District (CBD), Cultural function is normally is indicated
which is a rectangular grid pattern of by cinemas, museums and libraries.
high class and specified shops, offices Educational function is depicted by
and banks located near the centre of the schools, colleges, universities, research
settlement. The zone is neither residential centers library building and education
nor industrial. Generally function of a offices.
settlement reflects its economic and

282 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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Industrial function is usually spacious army barracks, churches, colleges and

in layout and well away from the main alike; are significant to support living,
centre and residential areas and very hence considered important indicators
often downwind to avoid pollution. for this zone.
Cultivation function: is normally located Functional zones may be more easily
in margins of most large towns and cities. defined in large urban centres than
Horticulture is practiced to serve the in smaller settlements. In smaller
industrial and business purposes. settlements one looks for emerging or
Marketing/Trade function is indicated by embryo functional zones and tries to
buying posts town, market, and nuclear depict what future development they are
settlement pattern. likely to produce.
Residential function is classified on Types of rocks
the basis of low, medium and high Rocks vary in hardness with
density. The infrastructure serving the metamorphic being the hardest while
settlement like electricity, water pipes, the sedimentary being the softest.
dams, railways lines and roads are good Table 4.4 shows some hints that help
indicators of residential zone. to deduce types of rocks on a given
The number of institutions such as topographical map.
government offices, police stations,
Table 4.4: Identification of types of rocks on a topographical map
Types of rock Possible evidences
Land forms Water bodies Vegetation & Crops
Igneous rocks • Mountain • Radial drainage • Thick dense forest
• Hill pattern • Tea plantation
• Crater • Dendritic drainage
pattern • Coffee plantation
• Caldera
• Annular drainage • Pyrethrum
pattern
Sedimentary • Coral reef • Salt lake • Mangrove swamps
rocks • Coast land • Regulate pattern • Tree swamps
• Cave • Braided drainage • Seasonal swamp
• Sugarcane
• Delta pattern
plantation
• Cliff • Water holes • Rice plantation
• Depression • Bore holes • Sea weed
plantation
Metamorphic • Outcropped • Trellis drainage • Scrubs
rocks rock pattern
• Undulating
plateau

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 Maps and map interpretation

Describing forces affecting the landscape small and large-scale farming. Small
In topographical maps it is possible scale farming is represented by scattered
to spell out exactly about geomorphic settlements, scattered cultivation and
activities that reshaping the mapped area. inland water bodies while large scale
A geographer can identify both endogenic farming is portrayed by estates or
(folding ,faulting and vulcanism) and plantation.
exogenic (denudation and deposition) The presence of ginneries for cotton;
activities. This can be done with the help hullers for coffee; jiggery works for
of the nature of relief depicted and its sugar; tea factories Cotton Buying Post
associated landforms. Table 4.5 shows (CBP) and maize mills indicates farming.
some hints for description of forces In addition, cultivation can be presented
affecting the landscape. by the word scattered cultivation.
Table 4.5: Forces affecting the landscape Pastoralism
SN Process/ Common Livestock keeping is not easily seen on
activity evidence maps. Grassland areas with scattered
1 Vulcanism Crater, Hill, clusters of dwellings and perhaps water
Mountain pans, water holes, dams and boreholes
2 Faulting Escarpment, are the likely settings to represent
Mountains,
pastoralism. In addition, look out for
Valleys
named veterinary installations, water-
3 Folding Mountain,
Valleys and spurs pump tanks, cattle and quarantine camps,
trough races, cattle and creameries.
4 Erosion Rivers, Lakes,
Oceans, Hills, Manufacturing Industries
valleys
Ginning, hulling, tea and sisal processing
5 Deposition Lakes, Rivers,
are often done in the countryside, but
Swamps, Oceans
East African industries are in or near the
6 Weathering Rocks,
Out crops, larger towns. Normally urban settlement
Mountains indicates industrial activities. Special
symbols and signs also can be used to
Human Activities identify industries. Some words such
as ginnery, factory or industry can be
Maps describe the way man feeds
applied. Similarly, large scale plantation
himself and earns his living. The
indicates the presence of processing
following are some simple hints being
industry.
used to describe economic activities.
Trade
Cultivation
Farming is among of the basic and the It focuses on buying and selling goods
widespread economic activities of man. and services. It is depicted by the
The topographical maps show both presence of communication network

284 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

(roads, airways and railways), markets, Social Activities

shops, trading centres and settlement. Social activities are services provided
Mining and quarrying for the benefit of the community. They
are activities which aim at solving social
Some places in the drier rift valley
problems or need and therefore generate
floor are exploited for salt or soda.
social impact. Some social activities
Nevertheless, mineral symbols, salt
are like; religious activities, health
works, mineral works and quarries are
services, educational activities, transport
mostly preferable. They are also indicated
and communication, administrative
by presence of brick or cement industries
activities, Security services, power
since they depend on limestone or sand
supply services, banking services and
as their raw materials.
recreational activities. These social
Logging activities can be presented on a map in
Logging also known as lumbering refers different ways.
to the activity of cutting down trees in
Religious activities can be indicated by
order to use their related products like
worshiping centres such as churches,
wood. Woods are used to produce timber
mosques, and temples. Health services
(lumbering), charcoal and poles for
are indicated by health facilities such as
electricity, furniture as well as different
health centres, hospitals, dispensaries
industrial materials. On a map, evidence
and clinics. Educational activities are
such as saw mills and minor roads ending
depicted through schools, colleges
in forested area depict logging. Some
and training centres. Administrative
forest reserves are exploited for timber,
activities, are indicated by Headquarters
but many are not meant to be exploited.
(HQ) offices and local government
Fishing Headquarter (LGHQ). Security services
Settlement along water bodies such as are shown through Police post and
rivers, sea, ocean and dams indicate military camps. Recreational activities
fishing activities. Similarly, this is are denoted by play grounds, such as
indicated by the presence of fish trap, tennis grounds stadium, cinema halls,
fishing market centers and net drying race tracks, camp sites, and resorts.
yard. Water supply services are denoted by
water tank, tap, large water body, or
Tourism underground pipe line. Power supply
The presence of National Parks or services are shown through power
National Reserves antiquities, volcanic station, power house and electricity
features and coastal features, hotels, poles. Transport and communication are
gymnasium, cultural features, physical indicated by road, railway line, airport,
or scenery can be preferred to indicate aerodrome, port, large water body, and
tourism in the mapped area. telephone line.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 285
 Maps and map interpretation

Relief section (iv) Place or lay the straight edge of

the paper along the drawn line,
A relief section also known as cross
and mark the point of elevations
section shows the shape of a feature
on the paper. If you cross the same
(such as a mountain) viewed from the contour twice or more, mark it
side, as if cut through with a knife. It is with the same number.
lateral view of the relief. It is a graphical
representation of the two dimensions (v) Choose a vertical scale which will
show the variations in relief but
of the part of the mapped area in three
without exaggerating them too
dimensions.There are three (3) forms of much. For suitable vertical scale,
cross section; use guidelines by observing the
The fisrt is simple relief section shows type of scale given
only relief between two points. The (vi) Draw the vertical lines and plot
second is annotated section that shows the points.
relief with other information that crosses
(vii) Link the dots, produced with a
between two points including vegetation, continuous smooth line to indicate
road and river. Lastly, sketch transcend relief.
section that shows only the highest and
the lowest points. It portrays a rough Example 1
picture of general appearance of the Study the contour map and answer the
landscapes. following questions.
Procedures of constructing a relief (a) Prepare simple cross profile
section between point A and B.
(i) Identify the two given end points (b) Draw an annotated relief section
and mark their positions, features between point A and B.
and heights. (c) Prepare sketch/transcend relief
(ii) Draw a light-pencil line joining the section between point A and B.
two points.
(iii) Transfer the line drawn on the map
between two points to the graph
paper

286 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

Scale 1:50 000

Miles
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Solution 500m
How to find vertical interval (V.I) =
5
mathematically
= 100 m
H − H2 D
V.I = 1 = V.I = 100m
n +1 n +1
Therefore, interval between two
Where by
consecutive contour lines is 100 m
D = Difference between two contours,
example AB An annotated cross profile between point
A and B
n = Number of contours lines which are
unnumbered V.S = 1 cm : 100 m
1 cm =100 ˟100 cm
From the map
1cm 10 000 cm
H1 = 1500m at c =
1cm 1cm
H2 = 1000m at D V.S =1:10 000
n=4
Therefore: V.S: (1 cm represents 100 m)
(1500 − 1000)m
Then V.I = H.S =1:50 000 (1cm represents 50 000 cm)
4 +1

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 287
 Maps and map interpretation

(a) Simple cross profile between point A and B

M
M
1700 1700

1600 1600

1500 1500

1400 1400

1300 1300

1200 1200

1100 1100

1000 1000

A B

(b) An annotated cross profile between point A and B

(c) Transcend/sketch relief section between point A and B

All procedure used to draw annotated cross section are the same for drawing
sketch or transcend cross section only that in sketch cross section labeling of relief
features and other information found between the points of cross section area are
shown on the table above the cross-section graph.

288 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

Transcend/sketch relief section between point A and B

VS = 1 cm represent 100 m
HS = 1cm represent 0.5 km
Vertical exaggeration For example, if
Vertical exaggeration is a scale that is VS = 1:10 000
used in raised- relief maps, plans and HS = 1:50 000
technical drawing in order to emphasize 1:10 000
VE =
vertical features, which might be too 1:50 000
small to identify relative horizontal 50 000
scale. Alternatively, it is defined as the OR = =5
10 000
number of times the horizontal scale
VE = 5 times horizontal scale
is greater than the vertical scale. For
example, from the above relief section Note: V.E Has no unit.
vertical exaggeration can be calculated Gradient
as follows:
Gradient refers to the steepness or
Vertical scale gentleness of the ground in relation to the
Vertical Exaggeration=
Horizontal scale horizontal plane. Gradient is expressed
as the ratio or fraction of vertical rise to
Dominator of horizontal scale the horizontal equivalent, in which the
Or =
Dominator of vertical scale numerator represents vertical rise and the

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 289
 Maps and map interpretation

denominator represents the horizontal (iv) Convert the map distance measured
equivalent. The extent of steepness into ground distance in meters to
or gentleness depends on the size of get horizontal distance.
denominator, in the sense that, when (v) Divide the difference between the
the denominator is too small, gradient highest and the lowest elevation
is steeper and when the denominator is or V.I by horizontal equivalent.
too large, the gradient is gentle. Leave your answer in the simplest
Procedure for calculating gradient. form of fraction such that gradient
(i) Identify the two points by reading a
= where “a” represents vertical
grid reference or any other means b
of locating position as instructed in increase and “b” represents
the question horizontal equivalent.
(ii) Join the two points by a straight line
and measure the map distance apart Example 1
(iii) Identify the highest and the lowest Study the map provided below and then
point of elevation, if they are in feet find the gradient from point C to point D.
change them into meters.

Scale 1:50 000 N

Miles
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Solution:
Gradient from point C to D
Highest point − Lowest point
Gradient =
Horizontal equivalent

290 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

Data given Changing 3.5 km into meters so that to

Highest point = 1 500 m get horizontal equivalent
Lowest point = 1000 m 1 km = 1 000 m
Map distance = 7 cm 3.5 km = ?
3.5 km × 1000 m
Map scale = 1:50 000 =
1 km
Changing map scale, = 3 500 m
Convert map distance into ground
1500 m − 1 000 m
distance Gradient =
3 500 m
1 km = 100 000 cm
? = 50 000 cm 5 00 m
=
3 500 m
1 km × 50 000 cm
=
100 000 cm 5
=
= 0.5 km 35

1 cm = 0.5 km 1
=
7
7 cm = ?
7 cm × 0.5 km = 1:7
= Gradient = 1 in 7 or 1:7
1 cm
It implies that, for every horizontally
= 3.5 km
distance of 7 m, the land rises for 1 m.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 291
 Maps and map interpretation

Revision exercise 4
1. Study carefully the map extract of Mpanda and answer the following questions.
MPANDA

Scale 1:50 000

KEY
Town or area with Forest...........................................................
Steep Slope.................................................
Permanent Buildings...................................
Contours (V,1.20m)..................Depression Tree Swamp................................................
Other Populate Area,
Houses.........................................................
Air Photo Principal Point with
All Weather Road: Film No........................................................ Papyrus Swamp, Marsh, Boge.....................
Bound Surface.............................................
Water Course, Waterfall Riverine Trees..............................................
All Weather Road: Rapids, Dams...............................................
Loose Surface............................................. Plantation: (Coffee C, Palm,
Water Course, (Wide), Sisal S, Sugar Su, Wattle W.........................
Waterfall Rapids..........................................
Dry Weather Roads.....................................
Woodland.....................................................
Main Track (Motorable).............................. Watercourse (Indefinite)..............................

Borehole, WaterHole, Scrub............................................................

Other Track and Footpath............................
Well, Spring................................................
Cut Line....................................................... Scattered Trees.............................................
Railway, Siding, Station, Bund, Major Fence, Hedge.........................
Level Crossing............................................. Palm Trees....................................................

Railwa Light................................................. Cliff.............................................................. Seasonal Swamp..........................................

(a) Re-draw the map provided using a scale of 1:100 000, then show the
following features:
(i) Shanwe hill (ii) Railway line (iii) Dam (iv) ridge (vi) Airport

292 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

(b) Madam Halima was driving a car from Kasimba village grid reference
867964 to milestone area grid reference 823001.
(i) Find distance covered by Madam Halima in km if the map scale is
changed to 1:25 000.
(ii) Find its gradient trend and alignment.
(c)
(i) Draw an annotated cross profile between grid reference 810970 and
840010.
(ii) Calculate its vertical exaggeration.
(iii) Are the two points inter visible? Give reason(s).
(d)
(i) Name a feature located 4.75 km (2700) from grid reference 890005.
(ii) Determine the area of the feature in (d) (i).
(iii) Enumerate ecological, social, and economic importance of the feature
mentioned in d (i).
(e) Re-draw the part of the map bounded by the following grid references
840040, 860040, 840010, and 860010. Recommended scale is 1:25 000.
(f) Mr. Kipanda a regional surveyor recorded 2560 and 780 as his forward and
backward bearing respectively. Correct discrepancies.
(g) Describe the type of the map title.
(h) Why contour is used as most common method of showing a relief?
(i) Describe social economic activities of the mapped area.
(j) Identify types of rocks that are predominant in the area.
(k) Comment on the population distribution of the area.
(l) With clear evidences from the map, suggest the type of climate and drainage
system.
2. Study carefully the map extract of Arusha Sheet 55/3 and answer the question.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 293
 Maps and map interpretation

Scale 1:50 000

KEY
Town or area with Forest...........................................................
Steep Slope.................................................
Permanent Buildings...................................
Contours (V,1.20m)..................Depression Tree Swamp................................................
Other Populate Area,
Houses.........................................................
Air Photo Principal Point with
All Weather Road: Film No........................................................ Papyrus Swamp, Marsh, Boge.....................
Bound Surface.............................................
Water Course, Waterfall Riverine Trees..............................................
All Weather Road: Rapids, Dams...............................................
Loose Surface............................................. Plantation: (Coffee C, Palm,
Water Course, (Wide), Sisal S, Sugar Su, Wattle W.........................
Waterfall Rapids..........................................
Dry Weather Roads.....................................
Woodland.....................................................
Main Track (Motorable).............................. Watercourse (Indefinite)..............................

Borehole, WaterHole, Scrub............................................................

Other Track and Footpath............................
Well, Spring................................................
Cut Line....................................................... Scattered Trees.............................................
Railway, Siding, Station, Bund, Major Fence, Hedge.........................
Level Crossing............................................. Palm Trees....................................................

Railwa Light................................................. Cliff.............................................................. Seasonal Swamp..........................................

(i) Describe geomorphic activities shaping the land scape.

(ii) Comment on the possible types of soil on the mapped area.
(iii) Describe the relief of the mapped area.
(iv) Provide three reasons for the absence of swamps in the area.
(v) With evidence, provide three criteria which can be used to deduce human
activities.
(vi) Outline limitation of contour lines in depicting relief features.

294 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Maps and map interpretation

(vii) Name two drainage pattern shown in the map and for each provide at
least one factors that determine its formation.
(viii) Describe the nature and distribution of vegetation in the area.
(ix) Comment on factors that have determined the nature of land use in the
mapped area.
(x) Briefly explain the strength of marginal information in interpreting the
given map.
(xi) Explain the factors which determine the nature of settlement patterns
in the mapped area.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 295
Chapter
Five Photograph interpretation

Introduction
Photography interpretation is a skill every person practices every time and
everywhere. It is a human instinct to interpret, identify and grasp information
portrayed by photographs. For instance, you may have seen friends laughing
alone before a photo, picture or television advertisements. Laughs are effects of
interpretations given to different phenomena. In this chapter, you will learn about
types of photographs, how to make photograph and image interpretations; their
characteristics, methods of object identification and how to extract information
from photographs. You will also learn the differences between satellite images
and normal photograph and their measurements. The competencies acquired
from this chapter will enable you to interpret images and photographs or deduce
information from them.

Basic concept of photograph, of the photos are recorded within 0.3

image and sensors for imaging micrometer (µm) to 0.9 micrometer (µm)
and photography range of visible and reflected infrared
Geography students, like any other wavelengths. Therefore, photographs
persons, may have faced the contradiction are images which represent an object.
in distinguishing between photographs Although the term “image” refers to any
and images in their common uses. They pictorial representation of a feature or
may have been treated the two equally object, a photograph must be an image.
in some cases. However, photographs All images represent some aspects of
and images are different. objects. Images are categorised based
on wavelength of electromagnetic
The fact that both photograph and image radiation. Names like X-rays pictures,
presents geographic information, does infrared images, radar pictures and
not make them identical.The word photographs (Figure 5.1) are commonly
photography originates from two used for differentiation of the images
Greek words, photos which means in the environment. They are recorded
“Light” and graphein which means “to by cameras or sensors within any
draw”. Specifically, photographs are wavelength. Therefore, photograph is
images recorded on a photographic both a picture and an image, but not all
film or storage chips of cameras. Many images are photographs. Photographs

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are employed in many fields of science,

manufacturing and business, film and
video production, recreational and mass
communication.
Another distinction between photographs
and images is based on sensors. All
cameras detect a particular wavelength
and represent it in their own way. A
camera measures the visible part of
electromagnetic spectrum and represents
the wavelength as a photograph. Yet there
are x-ray sensors which detect that part
of spectrum and produces x-ray images.
Therefore, all cameras are sensors but
not all sensors are cameras.
(c) X-Ray
Figure 5. 1 Categories of images under
different wave length

Historical background of photographs

The invention and development of
photographs is not only associated
with the human struggle to master their
surroundings, but also society problems
(a) Photograph that demanded photogrammetric skills
for reference. Photographs were formally
invented by Daguerre in 1839 and Niepce
in 1927. Since then, photography and
photographic fields have been growing
with technological development. In the
rudimentary stages of photographic
technology camera were mounted on
birds and wild animals to capture static
and moving objects cameras could take
a minute or even more to capture image
of an object (Figure 5.2).
(b) Infrared image

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thinking and Geo-technologies related

to global positioning systems (GPS),
remote sensing, and geographic
information system (GIS). Photographs
as source of information in geography
are now cheap and freely available from
a several sources, including google earth
and earth explorer.
Photograph interpretation
Interpretation entails giving analysis to
an image. Everyone to a certain extent,
is a photo-interpreter. Interpretation,
therefore, involves observing objects
to recognise and analyse their shapes,
alignments and relationship to the
environment. Photograph interpretation
Figure 5.2: A camera mounted on a pigeon
is a critical examination of the presented
photographic object to identify and then
Also, the achievement of pioneering judge their significance and meaning.
generation made invention of terrestrial
and balloon photographing which is now Photograph interpretation is an interplay
called aerial photograph. The analogue of several objects and interpreter’s
Photogrammetric period marked by variables. Variables which can also be
introduction of operational airplanes and considered as the principles to objective
cameras formed a stand of the aerial interpretation, include prior knowledge
survey techniques done today and the of the captured area and understanding
surge of stereo plotter to support reading of the subject matter. Experiences
and interpretation of photographs. on shapes, sizes, tone, organisation,
The invention of computers and its shadow, texture among others are the
programme and the increase of the key variables to photo interpretation.
photographic adjustment theories marked During photo interpretation, all variables
the analytical phase of history. Recently, are applied simultaneously to deduce
with the improvement of storage devices or induce information. For example,
and special microprocessors or chips looking at Figure 5.3, one recognises
make easy access and use of digital that the objects in the photo are lions and
imagery, instead of photographs. not elephants or hyena.This recognition
is made by looking at the shape, size, own
With the development of technology experience, tone and texture variables
and increased need for environmental such as shadows, shadow point, area
management, photographs are of maximum shadow, effects of sun’s
importantly integrated into spatial altitude effects of sunlight.

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Figure 5.3: Lions

Although shadow is a pertinent element Also, there are cases where too much
to help photograph interpretation, it can brightness hinder identification of
obstruct a feature from identification. features in a photograph. Depending
Shadow can cover objects and cause on the time when the photography was
difficulty in recognition. There are times taken, a camera records the greatest
when the relief displacement of an object proportion of shadow accentuated by
matches exactly with the shadow, thus glare in areas which are away from the
it cannot be seen. The point where the sun. The quality of one’s interpretation
relief displacement of objects exactly can be affected. On recording or taking
matches with the shadows such that no picture, the place where the photographer
shadow is visible is termed as no-shadow is located determines the shape, size,
point or Hot spot (Figure 5.4). tone, organization and type of the
photograph.
Photographs can be grouped into ground
photographs, aerial photographs and
satellite images photographs.
Ground photographs as the name
suggests, are camera pictures taken
horizontally or obliquely from the
ground level. They record objects with
a camera carried by a person or vehicle
which is on the ground. Photographs
Figure 5.4: Shadow point under this category give a horizontal
view of the object recorded. Ground

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photographs are further categorise into ground horizontal photographs ground

close-up and ground oblique photographs.

Ground horizontal photograph

Ground horizontal photographs are taken from the ground perspectives when the
axis of the camera is placed horizontally towards the object. Ground horizontal
photograph is the most common type of photograph. The main characteristics
of all ground horizontal photographs is that, they show side or front view of the
objects clearly (Figure 5.5).

Figure 5.5: Ground horizontal photograph

Ground close up photograph decrease from the foreground to the back

Ground close-up photographs also ground. The main object to be shown are
known as ground view photographs somehow apart from a photographer.
are camera pictures taken closer to the Some of the photographs part include
object. They are characterized by large small horizon in their background. The
objects at fore ground (Figure 5.6). photographs are easily divided into three
Ground general view photograph shows main parts, namely the fore ground
objects in a progressively decreasing in (front view), middle ground (middle
scale size from the camera tilt angle. The view) and back ground (back view). A
photograph shows objects whose sizes picture is always clear and does not show
the top view .

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Figure 5.6: Ground close up photograph

Ground oblique photograph depends on the camera’s tilt angle.

Ground oblique photographs are taken Objects from the foreground decreased
from up heaved land. They can be taken their sizes towards the background. This
from house roofs, hills or mountain at an top part of the object partly seen relative
angle between 30˚ and 60˚. The pictures to the camera’s angle. This means that,
can easily be divided into foreground, photographs taken at an acute angle
middle ground and background. The greater than 50˚ have their top seen than
amount of horizon at the background those taken at 50˚ (Figure 5.7).

Figure 5.7: Ground oblique photograph

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Advantages of ground oblique of an object. The photograph cannot

photographs be used for large area map production.
Ground oblique photographs have served Horizon cannot be seen properly. It is
a very important role in human social important to note that the main feature
and economic sustainable development. of oblique photographs is that they show
It provide relevant landscape data top and side or front view of the objects.
timely and at the required place.
Ground photography analysis
Also, supplements data which cannot be
collected by high geotechnologies such The basic hints or techniques for ground
as the intensity and extent of flooding or photograph analysis are as follows:
the effect of locusts in a recognisable (i) Identify parts, section or position
area on global geotechnologies. of photograph that means fore,
Furthermore, oblique photographs can middle and back ground of
aid field sketching as features are large photograph and make a note of
and can be clearly seen. However, its important features shown;
inability to cover a large area makes it
(ii) Read the caption and look at the
unsuitable for interpreting features on a
position of the feature and draw
large area. It can easily be interpreted a simple sketch map of the area.
to provide a conclusion which cannot If the objects decrease from left
be generalized as the area covered may to right hand side, they indicate
not be representative of the whole area that the photographer was on
under study. However, compared to the left side. If the objects
the ground close-up, ground oblique decrease from right hand side
photograph represents more features. It it indicate that the photographer
provides more information that could was on right hand side. If the
support land use planning. The relief objects decrease from the fore
of a given landscape is much clearer to back ground of the photo they
than ground horizontal photographs. It indicate that the photographer
shows top view and side of an object. It was in front of the objects;
is important in producing small sketch (iii) Lay a piece of tracing paper
maps in the field. over the photograph and draw
Disadvantages of ground oblique a trace diagram showing more
important features;
photographs
Ground oblique photographs tend to (iv) Write short descriptions of the
distort uniformity of the photo since features shown; and
the scale decreases from the foreground (v) Describe the process which
to the background. It is difficult to have led to the formations of
determine the scale of the photograph any landforms and land scapes.
unless the photographer knows the size

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Several aspects need to be considered photography has been the most effective
in analysing photographs. The effects of photographs used for a map making,
perspective objects where objects appear showing boundary location, determining
much larger than those further away. road alignment and vegetation delineating
Each picture has a fore ground, middle among many other activities. This is the
and background section. The clarity of essence you should learn about aerial
the photograph must also be considered. photographs. Aerial photographs are
This varies due to atmospheric conditions pictorial representations captured by
and quality of the film. The caption if sensors mounted on flying plane such
provided should be considered carefully. as kites, helicopters and drones (Figure
The time of day which a photograph was 5.8). Formally, helicopters and airplanes
taken is important as long evening may were highly valuable, though recently,
obscure important details. drones are out pacing.

Activity 5.1
1. (a) Describe the categories of
ground photographs.
(b) As a practical geography
student explain what will
be the usefulness of ground
photograph.
2. Assume your are in the examination
room and you are given ground
oblique photograph.
(a) Explain criteria you would use
to identify features?
3. Explain aspects to consider before Figure 5.8: Drone
analysing the contents of a ground Classification of aerial photography
photograph.
On the basis of camera orientation, aerial
4. Explain techniques for analysing photographs can be categorised on the
ground photograph. basis of several criteria as orientation
of camera axis (such as, vertical
Aerial photographs
photograph and oblique photograph);
Aerial photograph is another type of angular coverage and emulsion type
photographs taken from above. You such as, panchromatic black and
should not be confused with the phrases white photographs, color photographs,
‘Aerial photography’ and ‘Aerial infrared, black and white photographs
photograph’. The latter is a product and false colour composite photographs.
and end result of the aerial photography. In this section, definition of types are
Since its invention in 1830s, aerial based on orientation of camera axis.

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Types of aerial photographs

Aerial photographs can be categorised into vertical aerial photographs and oblique aerial
photographs (Figure 5.9)

Figure 5.9: How different types of aerial photographs are taken

Vertical aerial photograph

Vertical aerial photographs also known
as terrestrial photographs are those taken
by a camera with its axis perfectly or
nearly vertical. Turbulence that shake
airplanes and drones can distort the
verticality. They are characterised by
showing only the top view of objects
than side views (Figure 5.10). Extra
terrestrial photograph are the picture
taken by Satellite at very high altitude.

Figure 5.10: (b) Vertical aerial photograph

Vertical aerial photograph cover

relatively large area compared to any
other type of ground photographs.
Though its scale is almost the same
especially at the centre, however it
decreases sideways the captured area and
Figure 5.10: (a) Flying aircraft taking a it is mostly small. The sizes of images
vertical aerial photograph are small. The centre of the photograph
is known as the principal point.

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Oblique aerial photograph and horizontal plane. Oblique aerial

On the other hand, oblique aerial photographs can also be divided into low
photographs are camera pictures taken oblique aerial photographs which do not
at an angle less than 90°. They are show the horizon and high oblique aerial
taken by a flying object which has its photograph which show the horizon
axis directed between the vertical axis (Figure 5.11).

Figure 5.11 (a) Low obliques photograph

Figure 5.11 (b) High oblique photograph

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 Photograph interpretation

Oblique aerial photographs give a wide By their nature, aerial photographs are
panoramic view of a large area. They raw materials for land use planning,
provide supplementary information they have also supplied images to be
to ground low oblique and ground used for planning and mapping. Plans
horizontal photographs. They also cover for settlement, infrastructure layout,
large area than ground photographs. disaster management and evacuations,
Moreover, it gives a clear picture of the and establishment of developmental
relief of a given landscape. In addition, programs and projects have made an
the scale of the photograph is medium intensive use of aerial photographs.
and less uniform compared to vertical Aerial photographs also serve as raw
scale. materials for other land and hydrographic
surveys. They are important sources of
Based on extent of area, high oblique
information for land surveys carried for
aerial photographs extract more
multiple purposes. They are baseline
information than ground photographs.
data for other activities, projects and
High oblique aerial photographs are
programme. Moreover, based on their
used to supply instant data of such
ability to capture and record terrestrial
moving objects as vehicles, ship, train
and aerial moving objects, aerial
and landslide. It can clearly show
photographs have become the tracking
layout of the different infrastructure
systems of traffic and theft management
like railway, road and houses render
in a larger part of the world.
suitable for land use planning. Oblique
aerial photography have been very Disadvantages of vertical aerial
useful in wild animal census, locating photographs
archaeological sites, strategic military However, set-backs associated with
and civilian surveillance and map their production could be a barrier to
making. the utilization of aerial photographs.
Advantages of vertical aerial Aerial photographs, other than those
photographs over maps taken by non-commercial firms, have
been costly. Their availability for
Aerial photographs facilitate studies local land use planning for example,
on the previously inaccessible areas is impaired by their cost of availability
and landscapes such as dense tropical or production. Again, hindrances
forests, desert interiors and swampland. from natural weather phenomenon
Aerial photographs are significant like heavy rain, clouds, fog and mist
decision support systems to the during acquisition have decelerated the
world’s environment management. speed at which supply could match the
They have provided the world with demand. The technological development
tools to predict the future conditions in geographical information system
of our surroundings and set policies (GIS) and the emergence of free
and strategies to countermeasure them. online geographic data sources such as

306 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
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google earth, earth explorer and many (e) Size: If the scale of the photograph
others provide the justification for is known then objects of known size
the deteriorating production of aerial such as football pitches and tennis
photographs. courts can be identified based on
their sizes.
The techniques for interpreting (f) Site: This technique enables a
vertical aerial photographs photo interpreter to identify a
(a) Tone or colour or shade: This feature according to environment
element considers the darkness where such features are found.
and brightness of the objects. For example, feature cutting a river
Some areas like forest area, large channel can be a bridge, vegetation
water bodies, including ocean, lake, along side of the river such as
rivers appear dark in colour because bamboo and in coastal areas can
of less reflective capacity. Some be mangroves.
features like beach, sandy desert, (g) Association: Is the technique of
glaciated area and all weather roads interpreting features from the
appear bright in color because of existing features. For example,
high reflective capacity. building with chimney indicates
(b) Shape: Some objects such as rivers commercial or industrial area.
and roads can be easily identified in Forest with wild animals such as
a curved elongated shape. Pitch or Giraffe and Elephant indicates
stadiums are in oval rounded shape; national parks and existence of
round about and water tank can be tourism industry.
identified with circular shape. (h) Shadow: It helps to give an
(c) Texture: This refers to the roughness impression of the depth to a
and smoothness of object. Some vertical air photography. It helps
features like forest, residential area to distinguish objects such as raw
and mountainous area are shown of trees or height of building by
with rough texture while features looking direction of shadow, to the
like water bodies, grassland and position of the sun and shape of
snow appear smooth in texture. the shadow. It can also be used to
(d) Pattern: This refers to arrangement estimate the time when the object
of the objects, where objects can was photographed.
be in regular or irregular pattern. (i) Background information: If all
Normally, urban settlements, attempt to identify objects have
planted vegetation appear in regular failed the interpreter must then refer
pattern while natural forest, shanty to maps and written descriptions of
town, mountainous regions appear the area.
in irregular pattern.

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 Photograph interpretation

Exercise 5.1
1. Carefully study the photograph below and answer the questions that
follows:

(a) What physical landscapes does the photograph represent?

(b) Describe any two ecological problems that may face the area.
(c) Identify the type of photograph giving at least two evidences.
(d) Briefly describe the mode of its formation for the feature at the photograph.

2. What kind of photograph is mostly used in map making and why?

3. Explain the differences between a vertical aerial photograph and a
topographical map.
4. All photographs are images but not all images are photographs. Justify.

The concept of satellite and image They are not sensors but they just hold
Satellites are just man-made car-like sensors intact and provide support to
carriers of sensors. They are platforms on sensors. There are various satellites in
which photographic and imaging sensors the space, developed and launched by
are mounted. They function like human different nations and companies for
hands or camera stands we are used to. different purpose (Figure 5.12).

308 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Photograph interpretation

Figure 5.12: Different satellites and their orbits

These platforms carry sensors (including which can require different techniques
camera) which collect images for and skills of reading and interpretation.
different purposes. Satellite sensors have
Satellite images or imageries
supplied billions of free and commercial
Satellites are placed on particular path
images which can easily be downloaded
called an orbit. There are three types
and used for all other photographic
of satellite orbits: sun-synchronous
applications. Some sensors do not
satellite (placed at about 500 km -
produce photograph-like-images rather
900 km); geostationary satellites or
they provide reflective and emission
also called geosynchronous (placed at
signatures of the world’s resources and
about 36 000 km) and low Earth orbits.
conditions. Every earth’s object has
Geostationary satellites carry sensors for
its unique reflection and or emission
meteorological and telecommunication
signature. This means that the reflective
monitoring. Sensors at sun synchronous
properties of vegetation differ from that
satellite are generally used for remote
of water while the reflective properties of
sensing studies. Low Earth orbiting
human bodies are different from that of
(LEO) satellites can be used for spying.
soil. Therefore, satellites provide images

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 Photograph interpretation

The satellite detect and capture mass of data in a very wide range of wavelengths,
including, but not limited to, visible (Figure 5.13), near infrared and mid infrared.
Generally, the process of acquisition of information by a recording device that is
not in physical contact with the object under study is called remote sensing.

Figure 5.13: Satelite image

Satellite sensors produce a multitude of image in these wavelengths which can

be called photographs to be interpreted and used for our daily lives. They provide
images on meteorology, oceanography, biodiversity conservation, forestry and
regional planning. They provide images on which much of decision regarding
land use planning, management and mapping can be categorised on the bases of
their imaging systems. Table 5.1 summarises imaging systems.

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 Photograph interpretation

Table 5.1: Types of imaging systems

Imaging system Example Sensor Platform

Filming Aerial photographs Camera film Air craft
Scanning Meteorological Advanced very high Satellite
satellite resolution radiometer
(AVHRR)
Earth observation Has different sensors, Satellite
satellite (Landsat) one is multi-spectral
scanner (MSS)

Exercise 5.2 information systems. Satellite images

1. Basing on its characteristics, provide meteorological data on different
briefly explain the concept of aspects including cloud cover, rainfall,
satellite image. hurricanes and oceans tides which can
be used for meteorological broadcast and
2. Explain the importance of satellite disaster prediction and control. Satellite
in society. imagery provides information regarding
3. Explain any two types of satellite wildfires, volcanoes, hurricanes, torrents
images. and rainfalls that help to minimise
negative impacts on people. Satellite’s
Contribution of satellite images to ability to produce massive images have
geographers and community helped land use planners, map makers,
oceanographers and even agriculturalists
Satellite imageries and services
to utilize them for the betterment of their
surround every body’s life. Satellites
lives. They supply data used for updating
handle our mobile phone operations,
our existing maps.
radio stations and television broadcasts.
They track vehicles and people and Difference between aerial photographs
make up navigation systems necessary and satellite images is summarised in
for geotechnologies and geographic Table 5.2.

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 Photograph interpretation

Table 5.3: Difference between aerial photographs and the satellite images.

Satellite image Aerial photograph

They cover large area approximately (185 It covers small area approximately (23
x 185 km2). This is due to the fact they x 23 km2).
are situated higher than air crafts.

Multi-band aspect that is the satellite Can record only in the visible
images of different objects hence light multi-band. This is because
different colour. Satellites record visible sensors which operate in the area of
and invisible parts of electromagnetic electromagnetic spectrum depend on
spectrum. sunlight to produce photographs.

Difficult to interpret due to low spatial Easy to interpret due to high spatial
and high spectral resolution (wide range resolution and small range of features.
of electromagnetic spectrum).

Are taken throughout the year; hence, It is impossible to have repetitive

it is easy to record and detect seasonal coverage of the whole world.
changes in the year as it captures different
images within a few days.

It shows fewer details due to small scale. It shows more details due to large
That is it has low resolution. scale. That is it has high resolution.

Image and photographs sensors

platforms
Though not very pronounced, nature of the
vehicle which carries the photographing
sensors determine the categories of the
photographs. The categorization as
ground, aerial and satellite photographs
gives an implication of the carrier of
the sensor for the purpose. Photography
platforms in this context, therefore are
the raised surface on which sensors
are carried. There are three categories Figure 5.14: (a) Ground based
of platforms which carry sensors for
photographing; ground-based, airborne
and spaceborne (Figure 5.14).

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 Photograph interpretation

inexpensive, stable and due to their low

altitude, provide high-resolution data.
Airborne platforms are sensor carriers
capable of flying up to 50 km of
elevation. They provide images
containing varieties of data. They can
provide images useful for mapping,
and can pin-point locations accurately
for boundary and other activities, like
environmental management. Kites,
airplanes, helicopters, high-altitude
aircraft and free-floating balloons are
examples of airborne platforms.
Satellites are common and known
vehicles which carry sensors for imaging
and photographing. They are spaceborne
vehicles specially made to carry sensors
around a particular prescribed path.
Figure 5.14: (b) Airborne platform
Satelite carry sensors with ability to
measure and detect different wavelengths
along the electromagnetic spectrum.
Satellites follow a particular path called
an orbit.
Photograph and image interpretation
Photograph interpretation is the process
of reading, examining and interpreting
photographs for obtaining reliable
information about natural or cultural
features presented. It requires skills
and knowledge of many professions.
Figure 5.14: (c) Spaceborne For example, it requires knowledge on
types of vegetation to help in analysing
Ground-based platforms entail all
climate, types of soil and can be used to
carriers of sensors situated on land. The
identify the possible crops that can grow
mobile and common ground vehicle,
in the area. Yet, knowledge regarding
hand held, towers and balloons are
drainage can help to analyse types of
significantly used. They elevate sensors
rocks while knowledge on crops and their
up to 50 meters. They generate data of
properties is helpful in analysing the type
instant and later use at low altitude.
and nature of soils in the photograph.
These types of platforms are relatively

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 Photograph interpretation

Therefore, photograph or image interpretation, as used in this section, is an interplay

of interpersonal qualities, environmental knowledge and many others variables. On
the other hand, characteristics associated with objects on photographs are equally
important in photograph interpretation. Elements such as a shape of an object,
size, tone, pattern, shadow, texture, location, height, depth, and site or situation
or association have a significant role in analysing relationships between features.
All elements are within the object. However, interpreter’s elements which help
in photograph interpretation include interpreter’s knowledge of the area and of
the subject.

For example, using the visible photograph (Figure 5.15), you can identify the
type of image and the angle of the sensor’s axis, identify activities, soil type and
many other variables.

Figure 5.15: Tea production farm

The photograph in Figure 5.15 shows one part of the area in Tanzania where
tea is produced. Therefore, analysis of the photograph will be assisted by prior-
knowledge of the areas associated with the cultivation of such crop. Type of crop
can support to understand type of soil, climatic conditions provided you already
know the characteristics of the crop seen in the photograph. The crop can also help
to describe the nature of drainage of the area and the general view of the photo
can help to tell the type of photograph.

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 Photograph interpretation

Exercise 5.3 Parts of a photograph

1. Carefully study the following In the process of interpreting images,
photograph and answer the a number of skills are applied. For
questions that follows: example, you may see a hygrophyte
or xerophyte plant on a photo and you
want to describe it. In that case, you
are required to section a photograph. A
photograph can be sectioned horizontally
into the; foreground; middle ground and
the background (Figure 5.16). At the
fore ground features appear to be big
and clear. The middle ground is the area
in the middle distance away from the
(a) What type of photograph is this ? camera. At this section the size of the
(b) With reasons suggest the type of objects appears to be relatively small but
soil that could favour the growth moderately clear. The area farther away
of such crop. from the camera with tall trees including
2. What other agricultural crops may the horizons is called the background.
be grown in the area where the At this part features appear to be small
photograph was taken? and not clear.

Back ground

Middle ground

Fore ground

Figure 5.16: Location of parts of photograph horizontally

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 Photograph interpretation

As the need may arise, you can divide photograph further into three equal vertical
parts: left, center and right. When describing a side of a particular object, you can
then refer them as located to the left at the foreground centre or background and
to the right at foreground (Table 5.4 and Figure 5.17). The centre or back ground
term should be used to address the object’s location relative to other objects in
the photograph. Words like top or bottom, North or East are not recommended in
photograph interpretation.
Table 5.4: Parts of a horizontal photograph commonly used in interpretation

Left background Centre background Right background

Left middle ground Centre middle ground Right middle ground

Left foreground Centre foreground Right foreground

Left Middle back Right

background background background

Left middle Centre Right middle

ground middle ground ground

Left Centre Right

foreground foreground foreground

Figure 5.17: Location of parts of a photograph commonly used in interpretation

316 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Photograph interpretation

Activity 5.2

1. Carefully study the following photograph and answer the questions that
follows

Source: https-//www.derrystrabane.com/strathfoylegreenway.

(a) What type of this photograph?

(b) Section the photograph into nine parts and mention the features found in
each part.
(c) What would be the usefulness of having such a photo?
(d) What social activities could be taking place in the area?
(e) At what time of the day was the photograph taken?

Factors which may affect the quality determine the quality of photograph.
photograph Whereby, well trained photographer is
Nature of camera to be used: Camera capable to produce best photograph.
focal-lens, film used and filtration Position of photographer: When a
capacity are the most important factors. photographer will be near the objects
Where, a camera with large focal- in term of distance and height, the
lens, high filtration capacity towards caption may be good as well as angle
different aspects such as cloudcover, at which is taken determine the quality
dust and fog may produce sharp and of photograph. That is why the ground-
good photographs contrary to the level photograph is regarded as the best
camera with small focal-lens. qualitative photograph.
Knowledge of photographer:
Competence of the photographer Nature of the targeted area: Levelled
on using camera and selecting an area influences good photograph
appropriate location for the caption also especially for ground photograph

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 Photograph interpretation

unlike the slope and mountainous area near the objects, the photograph will
which may influence image distortion. appear clearer than when the camera, is a
bit far. Colour of the object for example,
Weather condition: A good photograph objects with black colour may not be
should be taken at the clear day with clear due to their dark tones while bright
free from clouds, fog and extream coloured objects will be clear.
sunlight.
Other general skills for the
Time at which photograph taken: The
interpretation of photographs
best photograph should be neither
taken during the night nor sunny noon Apart from the qualities and elements that
time. can help you make a better interpretation
of photographs, there are several skills
Limitations to quality photograph you need to develop for photograph
interpretation interpretation. The understanding of
Efficiency and the accuracy of photo how you can determine title, estimating
interpretation is subject to some barriers time and the season, identify and explain
developed from the photographing and human activities, estimate the size of
imaging sensors. The resolution level of features, suggest location of the scenery
the image, the quality and the clarity of in the place, and estimate direction
the photograph may affect interpretation. are pertinently necessary in photo
Photograph interpretation is affected by: interpretation. These interpretation skills
weather condition at the time when the could be achieved in different ways:
photograph was taken; for example cloud Determination of the title can be
cover and fog may affect the quality of extracted from photograph information
the photograph. Also, the angle of the itself. Geographer must be careful in
sun when the photograph was taken may studying the fore ground, middle ground
determine the darkness or brightness of and the background. However, the
the photographs. Moreover, quality of familiarity of a photographed area can
the camera lens (size) may determine give a clue for suggestion of the title of
the quality of the photograph and the the photograph. Similarly, time of a day
type of the paper as well as the method when the photograph was taken can be
used to print the image. estimated. This can easily be detected
Other additional factors include season by using direction of shadow of objects.
of the year, during rainy season when For example, if a photograph was taken
vegetation is green the photograph will during or around noon shadows casted by
appear darker, but during dry season when objects will be short and centred around
vegetation is less green the photograph the object. Shadows are shortest around
will appear brighter; the position of the midday and they are longest early in the
camera towards the object, when the morning or late in the afternoon. The
photo is taken with a camera which is time would be morning if the shadows

318 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Photograph interpretation

are in the left hand side of the object, if camera towards the middle ground and
the shadow is on the right hand side of background. The sizes of objects can
the object the photograph was taken in also be approximated. First, the size of
the evening. the familiar object is estimated. For
Consistently, it is also possible to example, a coin or a pen may be placed
determine the hemisphere in which the against the rock or any other feature.
photograph was taken or the direction The size of the coin or pen can then be
in which the camera faced. Beyond the used to determine the size of the rock
tropics, the sun never gets overhead but or any other object. Heights of trees
the shadow behave similarly to those and houses, could be estimated using
in the tropics; that is, they are shortest familiar objects in the photograph such
at midday and point pole wards. Bright as cars or persons. However, comparison
clear skies with dry vegetation could should only be done for features or
indicate a dry period or season. On the objects which are on the same level and
other hand, luxuriant vegetation, young at the same distance from the camera.
crops in the field, flowering plants, For example, a person in the foreground
and clouds in the sky could indicate a will appear bigger than an elephant in
rainy period or season. Winter could be the background.
indicated by the presence of snow on Weather and climate do not appear
the ground. directly on photographs. Information
has to be gathered from the photograph,
The type of clothing worn by the people
both on physical features and human
can also indicate the temperature at
activities. Conclusions can be made
the time when the photograph was
by judging from this information.
taken. Also, the activities shown on the
The nature of the sky by the time the
photograph can help to determine the
photograph was taken can tell the
time of the year when the photograph
weather conditions of that time; presence
was taken. Activities taking place in the
or absence of clouds. The type of clothes
photograph can also enable us judge the
worn by the people in the photograph
time when the photograph was taken.
can also indicate the weather condition
For example, cotton is always harvested
experienced at the time.
during noon hours, tea harvest suggest
morning time since the leaves have to The types of houses and style of buildings
be taken to the factory in the evening. are also indicators of the climatic
condition of an area. For example short
Estimating sizes of features on a house with mud roofs in rural areas in
photograph may be difficult because Tanzania indicate semi-arid conditions.
unlike in maps where the scale is constant The type of crops grown in the field and
throughout the map, in photograph the type of animals kept can also help to
there is scale distortion; such as images determine the climatic condition of the
become progressively smaller from the area. For example, presence of sugarcane

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 319
 Photograph interpretation

plantations would mean the area is present on the photograph also can help to
generally warm, while the presence of determine the climatic condition within
tea and coffee plantation indicate cool the area. For example, dense forests with
climate. Tea and coffee also indicate tall trees suggest that the area receives
presence of high rainfall (reliable and heavy and reliable rainfall. Bushes and
abundant) which is evenly distributed grass land indicate dominance of low and
throughout the year. Sisal is a drought unreliable rainfall. Table 5.5 summarises
resistant crop; thus it indicates low the interpretation of climatic condition
rainfall in the area. Natural vegetation from photographs.
Table 5.5: Table for interpretation of climatic type from the photograph
Object and its characteristics Type of climate or season
(i) Cloud covering the sky, green Wet season
vegetation and grasses
(ii) Plants without leaves (shaded) Dry season
and dry grasses
Nature of crops
(iii) Sugarcane, cotton, sisal, cloves, Tropical climate
maize, wheat, ground nuts,
cashew nuts, and maize. Mostly
experience high temperature and
moderate rainfall.
(iv) Coffee, tea, rubber, cocoa and Equatorial climate or Tropical highland,
palm oil. Survive in area with Montane climate
reliable rainfall.
(v) Millet, sorghum, cassava thrive Semi-arid region
or survive in low rainfall and
high temperature region.
Vegetation cover
(vi) Dense forest with tall trees In consideration with other factors,
this indicates equatorial climate or
mountainous climate.
Survive better in areas with heavy rainfall
(vii) Scattered trees with tall grasses, In consideration with other factors this
baobab and swamps. This mostly indicates tropical climate.
thrive in areas with moderate
rainfall and moderate temperature.
(viii) Thicket, scrubs, grasses, thorn In consideration with other factors, it
trees,cactus and scrubs thrive or indicates semi-arid climate or tropical
survive mostly in area with low climate.
rainfall and high temperature.

320 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Photograph interpretation

Kinds of animals
(ix) Goat and sheep mostly found in Semi -arid region
dry condition.
(x) Giraffe, elephants, lions, antelope Tropical climate
survive in scattered trees and
long grasses.
(xi) Monkeys, gorilla, chimpanzee, Equatorial climate
leopard mostly found in tall trees
and forest.
Water body
(xii) Large inland water body such as Equatorial climate
lake, River or Dam.
(xiii) Water holes, wells, streams Tropical climate/semi arid
indicate an average amount of
temperature and rainfall.
(xiv) Oasis Semi-arid and arid climate

Human activities of collecting produced goods also can

There are several activities that can help to determine the type of farming.
be identified or need to be identified Size of the farm is large.
on a photograph. These include Livestock farming: may be grouped
farming, transport, fishing, forestry and into traditional, ranching and
communication . dairying. Traditional livestock
1. Agriculture or farming: Agriculture keeping is characterized by cattle
grazing in natural grassland
includes crop cultivation and
especially in semi-arid areas. Also,
livestock keeping.
traditional livestock keepers keep
Subsistence crop farming: is large herds of traditional breeds of
characterised by several features cattle, sheep and goats for example
such as permanent and temporary Zebu cattle.
houses, the land is segmented into
small portions and fields separated Ranching can be evidenced by presence
by hedges sisal or planted trees. of large field divided into paddocks,
Subsistence farming also use presence of cow sheds near the farm
rudimentary tools such as simple houses. Presence of windmills and
hand hoe and machetes. water supplies, for example, water
Commercial crop farming: is tanks, ponds, water holes, or reservoirs
characterised by presence of cash accompanied with cattle dips on the farm
crops such as tea, coffee, sisal. also may indicate ranching. Dairying is
Presence of modern machineries evidenced by high-grade cows with big
and processing factories also are udders, milk processing plants and zero
good evidence. Presence of feeder grazing units.
routes within the farm and facilities

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 321
 Photograph interpretation

Plantation farming is evidenced by a tea or coffee. These crops require

single crop covering extensive stretches processing industry within the farm.
of land, for example, sugarcane, tea, 7. Mining: in a photograph is indicated
sisal and wheat. Storage facilities near by the presence of quarry or quarries.
the farm also are good evidence. Many
laborers in the fields for example, picking Studying physical features on
tea or coffee and nucleated settlement photographs
within the farm meant for workers can The landscape is formed by a several
tell a lot about plantation farming. features.The common features we expect
to find on photographs include relief,
There are two aspects to consider on settlements and drainage.
describing the scale of production, these
are: Relief
Relief features are many and varied in
Small scale production: it is suggested nature:
by presence of food crops cultivation,
(i) Flat landscape
use of local tools such as hand hoe, axes
These can be found in both lowlands and
and machete (panga), uses of family
uplands. In the lowlands, flat landscape
labour force and size of the farm should
is called a plain. They are normally less
be small in size.
than 500 m above mean sea level and are
Large scale production: it is suggested associated with meandering rivers. Flat
by cash crop production, use of modern areas in uplands (above 500 m above
tools such as harvesters and area of mean sea level) are called plateaus.
the farm should be large and well Plateaus always have steep sloping
mechanised. edges.
2. Tourism: it is indicated when Sometimes flat lands can be identified by
photograph show large water body, the type of crops grown in the area. For
forest, wild animals, hills, coast, example, sugarcane and rice growing are
caves, historical sites or mountains. practised on flat lands. Activities such
3. Trade: this may be evidenced by the as irrigation also indicate that the area
presence of town and shop malls. is relatively flat.
4. Fishing: is indicated by the presence (ii) Mountainous landscape
of boat, large water body such as Is an elevated landform of more than
ocean, rivers, lake, dams and net 2000 m above mean sea level is referred
drying yard. to as mountainous. It is characterised
5. Lumbering: is evidenced by the by steep slopes on an individual block
presence of forest, saw mills, chain of land or an extended mountainous
saw and timber or logs. range. Crops grown in an area can also
6. Industrial manufacturing: is indicated be used to deduce the altitude of an area.
when the photograph shows industry, Crops such as pyrethrum, tea, wheat and
ginnery or large plantation of sisal, coffee are highland crops. For example,

322 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Photograph interpretation

tea is grown in the Southern highlands unevenly distributed. There can also be
in places such as Mufindi (Iringa) and evidence of farming or fishing activities.
Rungwe (Mbeya) in Tanzania. Urban settlements can be indicated by
permanent buildings, regular street
Settlements patterns, buildings with several stores,
Settlement can be divided into two major industrial areas and warehouses, high
types: rural and urban. Rural settlement population density, port facilities such
can be evidenced by simple architectural as docks, cranes, containers, and a well-
designs of semi-permanent houses. developed communication network
The dwellings are also not planned and (Figures 5.18).

Figure 5. 18: (a) Urban settlements

Figure 5. 18: (b) Rural settlements

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 323
 Photograph interpretation

Drainage shelves appear brighter. Presence of

Drainage is the natural or artificial flow waterfalls and rapids indicates that the
of water from an area by streams to the river is flowing along a steep region or
rivers and draining water from the land to landscape. River meanders show that
the lakes or oceans. However, drainage the river is in the middle or old stages. A
may include features such as swamps, river delta can be identified by presence
water holes, ponds and reservoirs. Water of many channels or dis-tributaries
features are easily recognisable in all before the river enters the lake or ocean.
types of photographs. Deep waters in In aerial photographs river patterns, for
lakes and ocean appear darker while example dendritic, trellis and radial can
shallow water in rivers and continental easily be recognised.
Activity 5.3

Study the following photograph then answer the questions that follows:

1. With reasons name the type of photograph.

2. Describe the given photograph according to its divisions.
3. With evidence identify the time when the photograph was taken.

324 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Photograph interpretation

Exercise 5.4 7. Ajmal is a new Geography student

at Chimbe chimbe Secondary
1. Describe types of photographs. school. He wanted to interpret a
2. Account for the uses of photographs ground photograph but he did not
in social and economic activities. know how to begin. Give him hints
on how to interpret his photograph.
3. Explain factors which affect the
quality of a photograph. Photographic scale
4. Briefly describe the criteria for The scale of a vertical aerial photograph
categorising the settlement patterns is a function of the camera’s focal length
of an area and give reasons for (f) and the altitude or height from which
each. the exposure is made or of air craft.

5. Mention the type of settlement and f

S=
give the reasons for each. H
6. Refer to the photograph in Where:
Activity 5.2 and answer questions
that follow: f = Camera’ focal length
H = Flying height of the aircraft
(a) How does this type of photograph
differ from a satellite image? S = Scale

(b) With evidence(s) from the Note: This formula is used when the
photograph in Activity 5.2 photograph is taken on a flat surface.
comment on the following
Vertical aerial photographs present a
(i) Relief and drainage. true record of angles. However, the
(ii) The time when the horizontal distances are subjected to
photograph was taken. wide variations due to the flying height
(iii) Economic activities carried of the aircraft and the focal length.
out in the area. Flying height of the aircraft usually is
taken from a specified elevation above
(iv) Giving reason, identify
mean sea level. Focal length of aerial
environmental problems
which are likely to face the camera varies according to specified
area. need and purpose. In Tanzania the most
common used focal lengths are the f =
(v) Explain ways to overcome 152 mm and 132 mm.
those problems.
(vi) With evidences from Note: If one knows the focal length
the photograph describe used and the altitude of the aircraft then
sections of the photography. it is possible to calculate an approximate
scale.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 325
 Photograph interpretation

However, when the photograph is Example 2

taken on a rough surface, the following
Calculate the flying height of an
formula is used compute the scale.
aircraft which produced a vertical aerial
f photograph at the scale of 1:20 000
S=
H−h whose mean ground height was 500 m
Where; above mean sea level with focal length
h = Average elevation of the photographed of 152 mm
area. Solution:
New line scale average is applicable when f
the altitude of the aerial photographs is S =
H−h
unknown or not given. In such cases
scale may be determined as shown in Given data
the following example. h = 500 m
f = 152 mm
Example 1
S = 1: 20 000
A camera in an aircraft at an altitude of H = ?
3 300m was used to take a photograph.
Determine the focal length of the camera 1 152 mm
=
if the scale of the photograph is 1:25 000. 20 000 (H − 500) × 1000 mm

Solution 20000 × 152 mm = 1 000 mm H ̶ 500 000 mm

Formula 3 040 000 mm = 1 000 mm H ̶ 500 000 mm
f 3 040 000 mm + 500 000 mm = 1000 mm H
S=
H
3 540 000 mm 1 000 mmH
Data given =
1 000 mm 1 000 mm
Height of the plane (H) = 3300 m 3540m = H
Scale of photo (S) = 1:25 000 Therefore, flying height of an air-
f=? craft is 3540 m

1 f
= Example 3
25 000 33 000 m
Find the scale of the photograph
25 000 × f = 33 000 m × 1
when two land marks shown on the
25 000f = 3 300 × 1 000 mm photograph can be located on 1:20
000 scale of topographical map. The
25 000 f 3300 000 mm
= measured distance between the land
25 000 25 000 mark is 50 mm on the map and 20 mm
Therefore the focal length = 132 mm on the photograph.

326 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Photograph interpretation

Solution: Solution:
f
DP S=
PS = ×MS H−h
DM
Where: Data given
focal length (f) = 6 inches
DP = Distance between two known
points of photograph flying height (H) = 19 000 ft
DM = Corresponding distance on the Height of the surface (h) = 100 ft
map
Scale of photo (S) = ?
MS = Map scale
6 inches
PS = Scale of the photography 19 000 ft − 100 ft
Data given: 6 inches
DP = 20 mm 18 900 ft
DM = 50 mm To change foot to inches
MS = 1: 20 000 1 ft = 12 inches
PS = ? 18 900 ft = ?
The scale of photograph is 12 inches × 18 900 ft
20 1 1 1 ft
PS = × = OR 1: 50 000
50 20 000 50 000
= 226 800 inhes
Therefore, the scale of photograph is
1:50 000 6 inches
Scale =
226 800 inches
Example 4
1
Calculate the average scale of vertical Scale =
37 800
air photograph taken by an aircraft
flying at 19 000 ft with the focal length
Therefore,the scale of photograph is
of 6 inches. The surface has an average
1:37 800
elevation of 100 ft.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 327
 Photograph interpretation

Revision exercise 5
1. If distance between village A and B is 12 cm on a photograph. Find the scale
of the photograph when the corresponding map distance is 24 cm and the
map scale is 1: 200 000
2. An air craft flying at height of 5000 m above mean sea level took a photograph
of the land at 1200 m using a camera with 152 mm focal length. Calculate
the scale of the photograph.
3. What guidelines should be considered in making interpretation of vertical
aerial photography? provide six points.
4. Assuming the scale 1: 25 000. Calculate the height of an area shot by a
camera whose focal length is 152 mm, mounted on aircraft which is flying
at 10500 m above the sea level.
5. With the aid of diagram, briefly describe the way aerial photographs are
classified into main types depending on the position of camera optical axis.
6. Briefly explain the way satellite images and extraterrestrial photogram
influence socio-economic activities of human being.
7. Illustrate the strength of photographs over maps in obtaining field information.
8. Carefully study the photograph provided and answer the questions that follows;

Source: https://www.nashulai.com/covid19

(a) Name the type of photograph.

328 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Photograph interpretation

(b) Explain the main physical features found in the area.

(c) State the main activity of the area.
(d) Name the scale of activity stated in 8(c) and support your answer by
providing three reasons.
(e) At what time the photograph was taken?

9. (a) How can the scale of vertical photograph be determined?

(b) Identify factors affecting the scale of photograph.

10. Differentiate between:

(a) Vertical photograph and oblique photograph.
(b) Vertical aerial photograph and maps.

11. Explain eight characteristics of aerial photograph.

12. Examine six elements of aerial photograph interpretation.
13. Give a critical classification of aerial photograph.
14. Examine eight factors affecting the quality of aerial photographs.
15. The side of the building measures 20 cm on the photograph taken by a 160
mm focal length camera. If the same side measures 4.25 cm on the 1: 50 000
map. Calculate the flying height of the aircraft above the ground.
16. The garden measures 24.4 cm and 34.5cm on a 1: 25 000 map. Determine the
measurement of the garden in the photograph if the photo scale is 1: 20 000.
17. Bishara and Grace are best Geography students. Bishara was taking vertical
aerial photograph while Grace was drawing the map of the same area.
(a) What hints should Bishara use in making the interpretation of such phenomina?
Provide six points.
(b) Describe main characteristics of the phenomenon taken by Bishara.

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 329
 Glossary
Bench mark a reference mark of known elevation cut or set in stone, concrete
or other durable and used in the determination of altitudes.
Data information or facts about a particular phenomenon.
Database an electronic memory.
Electromagnetic consisting of electromagnetism.
Multi spectral operating in or involving several parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum occurring or recurring simultaneously.
Parameter a descriptive property of the population while statistic is a
descriptive property of a sample.
Population a group of people, events, things, or other phenomena that you are
most interested in; it is often the “who” or “what” that you want
to be able to say something about at the end of your study. The
set of all elements that share one or more characteristics which
we wish to make an inference.
Radar an instrument which discovers the position or speed of objects
such as aircraft or ships when they cannot be detected, by using
radio signals.
Radiometer instrument for the detection or measurement of radiant energy
Sample a smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of units from
a population used to determine truths about that population in a
research process.
Satellite object which has been sent into space in order to collect information
or to be part of a communication system.
Scan examine it using a machine that can show or find things inside it
that cannot be seen from the outside.
Sensor instrument which reacts to certain physical conditions or impressions
such as heat or light, and which is used to provide information.
Spectrum a range of different colours which is produced when light passes
through a glass prism or through a drop of water.
Trigonometric station a fixed surveying station, used in geodetic surveying and
other surveying projects in its vicinity
Variable is any characteristic, number or quantity of a person, object or
phenomenon that can be measured or counted.
Wavelength distance between a part of a wave of energy such as light or sound.
X-rays a type of radiation that can pass through most solid materials.

330 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Bibliography
Abeedulah, J. (1993). Fundamentals of photointerpretor and photogrammetry.
Islamabad: Winrock International.
Agor, A. (2015). A Text book of surveying and levelling. New Delh: Khana
publishers.
Alan Strahler /Arthur Strahler (2006). Introducing physical geography. United
States of America: John Willey and sons, Inc.
Burt, J. S. Barber, G. M & Rigby, D. L. (2009). Elementary statistics for
Geographers (3rdEd), The Guilford Press A. New York: Division of
Guilford Publications, Inc.
David, P. P. & Kisser J.D. (2012). Aerial photography and image interpretor
(3rdEd). New Jersey Canada: John Willy & Sons, Inc.
Durra, S.E. (1990) Map reading, photograph interpretation and elementary
survey. Dar es salaam: General publications Ltd.
Durra, S.E. (2003). Map reading, photograph interpretation and elementary
survey for secondary level. Dar es salaam: General publications Ltd.
Ferguson, A. G. & Ngau, P. M. (1981). Fieldwork and data analysis in geography.
Nairobi: Macmillan.
John, S. & Roger, K. (2008): AQA Geography. UK: Nelson Thomas Ltd Delta
Place
Lodha, R. M. (2010). Academic dictionary of geography. New Delhi: India
Publishers.
Mc Master, D. N. (1970): Map reading for East Africa. London: Longman Group
Ltd.
Mc Master, D. N. (1971). Map reading for East Africa. London: Longman Group
Ltd.
Murry, A. (1967): Africa: The study map notes books. London: Collins Clear
Press.
Paul, P. (1979): Longman dictionary of contemporary English. Bath Great
Britain: Pitman Press.

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Prichard, J. M. (1979): Practical geography for Africa.Hongkong: Longman
Group Ltd.
Pritchard, J. M. (1990). Practical geography for Africa. Hongkong: Longman
Group Ltd.
Richard White (1984): Africa in focus, A physical human and economic
Geography.
Speak, P. & Carter, A.H. (1964). Map reading and interpretation. Long man
Group Limited
Truran, H. C. (1975). Apractical guide to statistical maps and diagrams. Nairobi:
East Africa Publishers Ltd.
United Republic Tanzania (2017). National environment statistics report, 2017
Tanzania Mainland, NBS.
United Republic Tanzania (2018). National environment statistics report,
(NERSR, 2017)-Tanzania Mainland,Dar es salaam,Tanzania Mainland.
United Republic Tanzania (2019). Dodoma region investment guide.
United Republic Tanzania (2019). Songwe region investment guide.

332 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Index

A C

Abney level 145, 150 Categorical data 4

Abstract 113 Categorical variables 6, 7
Active and attribute variables 7 Chain surveying 145, 152
Aerial photograph 312 Change point (CP) 201
aerial photographs 308, 312, 313, 314, 315, Check lines 151
316, 317, 324, 325, 332, 333, 334, 336,
Checklist 135, 138
337
Choropleth map 92
Aerial photographs 312, 313, 315, 316, 317,
321 Circular graph 64

Age and sex pyramid 61 Circumferentor 167

Agonic lines 181 Clarity 107

Airborne 316 Class interval 15, 20, 22, 25, 26, 33, 102

A level 202, 214 Clinometer 145, 150

Alidade 187 Cluster 129

Annual variation 182 Cluster sampling technique 129

Arbitrary North 169 Coefficient of range 27, 28

Assumed mean 17 Collimation method 213

Astrolabe 142 Compass bearing 260

Automatic level 203 Compass survey 168, 177, 178

Auxiliary 151, 239 Compass surveying iii, 166

Azimuthal projection 231, 232 Compound bar graph 51, 52

Compound line graph 44
Conic projection 231
B Constrictive pyramid 62

Background 113, 318 Contouring 214

Back sight (BS) 200 Correlation 7

Bar graph 48 Covid-19 3

Baseline 123, 154, 165, 241 Cumulative 20, 44, 45, 76, 106, 183
Cylindrical projection 230

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 333
D Flowline map 94
Focus group discussion 135, 139
Database 338 Frequency 13, 15, 17, 20, 22, 25, 26, 48, 102
Data collection 114, 133
Dependent variables 6, 7
Descriptive research 109, 110 G
Differential levelling 206, 219
Geodetic land survey 143
Direction indicator 227
Geo-technologies 307
Discrete 4, 7, 10
Global navigation satellite systems 144
Dispersion 24
Grid North 169, 268
Diurnal variation 182
Grid references 228
Divergent bar graphs 53
Ground-based 316
Divergent line graph 45, 66
Ground beacon station 190
Divergent line graphs 53
Ground close up photograph 309, 310
Divided rectangle 73
Ground horizontal photograph 309
Divided semicircles 70
Ground oblique photograph 310
Drone 312
Ground photographs 308, 315
Dumpy level 202, 203
Grouped bar graph 50, 51
Grouped data 4

E Group line graphs 41

Elements 124, 321

Empirical 106 H
Empiricism 107
Height of instrument (HI) 200
EXCELL 97
Horizontal line 176, 201, 219
Experimental research 110
Hot spot 308
Exploratory research 110
Household survey 133, 139
Hypothesis 121, 138
F
I
Fideism 107
Field iii, vi, 105, 112, 150, 151, 152, 156, 170, Igneous rocks 291
178, 190, 208 Images 305, 315

334 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Imaging system 321 M
Independent variables 6, 7
Individual data 4 Magnetic bearing 181, 185, 269, 276, 277

Instrument station 200 Magnetic declination 180, 181

Intermediate sight (IS) 201 Magnetic dip 183

Intersection 195, 265, 266 Magnetic North 268, 269, 271, 272, 273, 274

Interview 136, 139 Main station 165

Irregular variation 182 Main survey lines 151

Isogonic lines 181 Main survey stations 150

Isoline map 91 Map scale iii, 227, 234, 241, 243, 245, 246,
247, 249, 251, 252, 295, 335
Margin 226
K Marginal information 226

Knowledge acquisition 107, 108 Mean 2, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 24, 29, 31, 36,
37, 86, 201, 219, 263, 264, 265
Mean deviation 29, 31, 36, 37
L Medium scale 225, 234, 235
Methodology 115
Land survey 141
Midpoint 27
Large scale 234, 235, 330
Mode 21, 22, 23
Legend 226
Level line 201
Level surface 201, 219 N
Linear scale 236, 237, 238, 240, 242
Line graphs 38 Negative relationship 9

Line of collimation (LC) 201 Non probability sampling 131

Literature review 115, 116, 120, 121 Notebook 150

Local attraction 173 Numerical data 5

Lodestone 166 Numerical variables 6, 7

Logical 106
Longitudinal research 109, 123

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 335
O Profile levelling 206, 207, 217, 219
Projection 230, 231
Objectivity 106 Proportional circles 81
Oblique 157, 314, 315 Proportional cubes 83
Oblique aerial photographs 314, 315 Proportional diagrams 81
Observation method 137 Proportional sphere 84
Offset rods 149, 150 Proportional squares 82, 83
Offsets 155 Purposive sampling technique 132
Outliers 18 Pyramids 57

P Q
Panchromatic 338 Qualitative research 108
Pattern 317 Quantitative research 108
Pegs 149 Questionnaire 138
Permanent adjustment 208 Quota sampling technique 131
Perpendicular 155
Phenomena 91
Photogrammetric 307 R
Photographic scale 333
Radar 338
Photographs 305, 306, 307, 308, 315
Radiation 192, 199, 216
Pie charts 68
Radiometer 338
Plane table iii, 186, 187, 192, 194, 195, 196
Range 26, 27, 28, 36, 104
Plane table survey iii, 186, 192, 194, 195, 196
Rationalism 107
Plotting 159, 178
Reconnaissance 143
Plotting offsets 159
Repeated symbols 78, 80
Positive relationship 8
Replicable 106
Primary data 5, 6, 133
Research design 122
Prismatic compass 167, 170, 173
Research objectives 113, 119
Probability sampling 126
Research proposal iii, 112

336 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6
 Research questions 113 Statistics 1, 2, 3, 96, 97, 98, 99, 339, 340
Research report 115 Stratification 128
Resection 177, 196, 266, 267 Structured questionnaire 133
Rigorous 107 Subsidiary survey station 151
Subsistence 329
Surveyed maps 225
S
Surveyor band 146

Sample 11, 12, 117, 124, 134, 136, 338 Surveyors 145

Sampling frame 125 Surveyor’s compass 167

Sampling techniques 126 Symmetrical 24

Satellite images 315, 320, 324 Systematic 106, 127, 128

Satellite sensors 319, 321 Systematic sampling technique 127, 128

Scanning 321
Scope 113
T
Secondary data 5, 6, 133
Secular variation 182 Target population 124
Shadow 308, 318 Target staff 205
Sheet number 228 Telescopic alidade 188
Simple bar graph 49, 66 Texture 317
Simple random sampling technique 126, 127 The engineer’s 203
Sketch maps 225 Theodolite 142, 147, 205, 206
Slugging pivot 173 Theory driven 106
Small scale 225, 234, 235, 292, 330 Tilting level 203
Snowball sampling technique 132 Title 113, 226
Spirit levels 188 Tone 317
Standard deviation 31, 32, 35, 36, 37 Topographical maps 224, 225, 226
Statement scale 236, 237, 238, 240, 241 Total station 142, 145, 146, 205, 206
Stationary pyramids 61 Transect walk 138
Statistical graphs 38 Transit 142, 242
Statistical maps 87, 225, 340 Traverse 172, 175, 185, 195

Student’s Book Form 5 & 6 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools 337
Tripod stand 186, 187, 203, 204
Trough compass 188
True North 169, 268, 269, 271, 272, 273, 274, 277

Variable 91, 338

Variance 35, 36, 37
Vertical aerial photographs 313, 315, 333
Vertical control 201
Vertical datum 201
Vertical line 201, 219

Wavelength 338
Wind roses 84

338 Practical Geography For Advanced Secondary Schools Student’s Book Form 5 & 6