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Physical Properties of Soils

Technical Report · February 2017

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.24150.24648

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 Physical Properties of Soils

By
Prof. A. Balasubramanian
Centre for Advanced Studies in Earth Science,
University of Mysore,

Objectives:

A soil is composed primarily of minerals which are derived from parent material like rocks. Most of
the mineral particles present in soils are composed of sand, silt, or clay. There are many
characteristics that differentiate one soil from another. The study of the chemical and physical
properties of soil helps in managing resources while working with a particular kind of soil. Not all
soils have similar properties. To work with soils, we need to understand the properties of soils. The
objective of this lesson is to understand the physical properties of soils, which are mainly playing the
dominant role in soil classification and types. It is also necessary to know about the significant role
played by different physical properties in soils for various purposes, right from agriculture to
engineering constructions.

1. Introduction:

Soil properties can broadly be divided into two major categories as physical and chemical properties.
Soils are characterised by several physical properties.
The important ones are:
(1) Soil separates and texture,
(2) Structure of soil,
(3) Weight and soil density,
(4) Porosity of soil,
(5) Permeability of soil,
(6) Soil colour,
(7) Temperature of soil, and
(8) Soil Plasticity, Compressibility and Erodibility.

2. Soil Separates:

The major part of soils is the mineral components(soil mineralogy). Mineral fraction of soil consists
of particles of various sizes. According to their size, soil particles are grouped into the following
types:
Coarse particles or gravels( more than 2 mm diameters)
Coarse sands( 2 to 0.2 mm dia)
Fine sands(0.2 to 0.02 mm dia)
Silts(0.02 to 0.002 mm dia)
Clays( below 0.002mm dia)

The particle sizes of above groups are suggested by International Society of Soil Science.
In India, this International system of particle classification is commonly followed.
The particle types are generally called ‘soil separates’ or ‘soil fractions’.
The amount of soil separates is determined by a process known as mechanical analysis.
In this process, soil sample is crushed and screened through a 2 mm round hole sieve.
The screened soil is then homogeneously dispersed in water and allowed to settle.
In suspension, particles of largest dimensions will settle first and those of smaller dimensions will
settle afterwards.

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Individual soil separates are identified on the basis of their respective diameter ranges.
Soil separates (sand, silt and clay) differ not only in their sizes but also in their bearing on some of the
important factors affecting plant growth, such as, soil aeration, workability, movement and
availability of water and nutrients.

3. Characteristics of soil separates :

Sand: Any loose and friable mineral particles ranging from 2.203 to 0.02 mm diameter are called as
sands.
Sand particles can be seen by unaided eye. These particles, although inactive, constitute the
framework of the soil.
They play less important role in physicochemical activities.
When coated with clay, these sand particles play an active role in chemical reactions.
Sands increase the size of pore spaces between soil particles and thus, facilitate the movement of air
and water in the soil.

Silt:
The soil mineral particles ranging from 0.02 to 0.002 mm diameter are called as silts. This is an
intermediate size between sand and clay. Silt, when wet, feels plastic but in dry state feels like flour
or talcum powder. Coarse silt shows little physicochemical activities but finer grades play important
role in some chemical processes. Silty soil has got larger exposed surface area than the sandy soil.
Silty soils contain sufficient quantities of nutrients, both organic and inorganic. That is why they are
very fertile masses. Soils rich in silt possess high water holding capacity also.Such soils are good for
agriculture.

Clay:

This is an important soil fraction containing smaller mineral particles that are below .002 mm
diameter.
Clays exhibit plasticity and smoothness when wet and hardness when dry.
Due to their very small sizes, they behave like colloids.
Owing to their smallest size and colloidal nature, the clay particles expose extremely large surface
area.
They take very active part in several physicochemical reactions of the soil.
Clay soils have fine pores, poor drainage and aeration and thus they have highest water holding
capacity.
The clay acts as store house for water and nutrients.
Clays are also having coarser and finer size grades. Some soils are fine, while others are coarse.

Sand-Silt-Clay distribution in soils:

It is a fact that the relative percentage of sand, silt and clay differ from soil to soil.

4. Soil Textures:

The relative percentage of soil separates of a given soil is referred to as soil texture.
Texture of soil for a given horizon is almost a permanent character, because it remains unchanged
over a long period of time.
The relative percentages of soil separates of average samples are almost infinite in possible
combinations.
It is, therefore, necessary to establish limits of variations among soil fractions so as to group them into
textural classes.

Soil texture is the "feel" of the soil when a moist quantity is manipulated between thumb and
forefinger.

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Some soils are sticky, others will not stick together at all, and others feel "doughy" or "spongey".
Some soils can be manipulated like plasticine.
These differences in properties gave rise, in agriculture, to soils being called clays, loams or sands.
Clays stick to your boots, loams are easily moulded but non-sticky, sands are not cohesive at all and
cannot be moulded when moist.
There are 19 grades of texture that can be simplified into six major groups:
Sands, Sandy Loams, Loams, Clay Loams, Light Clays and Medium to Heavy Clays.
These texture differences are the result of fineness or coarseness of particles in the soil.
Sand, silt and clay percentages are related together in a triangular graph.
The graph shows groupings of soils and the name that is given to that grouping.
So, silty soils always have more than 25 % of silt sized particles (organic material makes soils feel
silky and therefore more silty).
The loams all have less than 40 % clay sized particles.
When moist soil is manipulated in the hand, sands, loams and clays feel very different.

5. The effect of particle size

The relative size of particles is important.

For example, the finest sand particles are 10 times the diameter of the largest clay particles.
The surface area of a spherical particle 0.02 mm diameter is 100 times greater than a spherical particle
of 0.002 mm diameter.
Clays have an even greater surface area than spherical particles are they are made up of sheet-like
structures stacked together.
This difference in surface area contributes to the differences in adhesion and cohesion of the texture
groups.
Figure 1. Texture triangle

6. How do sands, loams and clays behave?

Sands because of their large grain size allow faster permeability of water than clays.
The disadvantages of sands are that they hold very little water that would be available to plants and
have no ability to hold onto plant nutrients in the way that clays do.

Loam soils contain sand, silt and clay in such proportions that stickyness and non-adhesiveness are in
balance - so the soils are mouldable but not sticky.
Loams are the "friendliest" soils to cultivate.

Clays can absorb and hold onto large amounts of water because of their sheet structure and large
surface area.
This property causes the swelling and shrinking of clay soils as they wet and dry.
Clays are therefore also important in generating cracks in soil through which roots can easily pass.
Of course, when clays are wet and swollen soil drainage is affected and water cannot pass freely.
The surfaces and edges of the sheet structure of clay particles carry negative and positive charges.
Elements such as Potassium, Calcium and Magnesium are held on these charged surfaces and can be
taken up in solution by plant roots.
Clays therefore play an important role in soil fertility.

7. Influences on soil texture:

Medium and coarse sand=Easily felt

Fine sand=Felt and heard by manipulating the soil close to the ear
Silt=Silky or smooth feeling similar to that of talcum powder
Clay=Stocky, cohesive and plastic
Clay type=Clay mineralogy affects trafficability. Montmorillonite is very fine and encourages
ribboning. Kaolinite is very coarse and will inhibit ribboning

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Organic matter=Cohesion of sandy textures and greasiness of clays
Oxides=Cementation (Al & Fe) masks fine textures
Carbonates=Cohesion in sands and loams, but inhibits ribboning in clays

Organic matter is an important contributor to soil texture and helps to ameliorate stickiness and also
helps sandy soils hang together, making them feel more loamy.

8. The common textural classes, as recognized by USDA:

The common textural classes, as recognized by USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture) are given in
the following table. These classes are recognized on the basis of relative percentage of separates;
sand, silt and clay.

This chart is adapted from fraction system of U.S.D.A.

If the relative percentages of soil separates are known, the soil can be given textural name.
For this purpose, an equilateral triangle graph is used.
The most widely used Equilateral triangles are international equilateral triangle and the one used by
USDA.
These consist of three angles and its area is divided into twelve groups representing twelve different
textural classes.
Each group covers definite range of percentages of sand, silt, and clay.
In the triangles, left side line represents the clay %, right side line represents percentage of silt and
base represents percentage of sand.
Each arm of the triangle is divided into ten divisions representing soil separate’s percentage.
These divisions are further divided into ten small divisions; each small division represents one per
cent of soil separate.
The percentages of sand, silt, and clay obtained after mechanical analysis of the given soil are read on
the equilateral triangle.
In using the diagram as indicated the percentages of silt and clay should be located on silt and clay
lines respectively.
The line in case of silt is then projected inward parallel to clay side of the triangle and in case of clay
it should be projected parallel to the sand side.
The three lines; one representing sand percentage, other representing silt percentage and the third clay
percentage meet at a point in the triangle.
The compartment in which the point falls indicates textural name for the given soil sample.
The knowledge of soil texture is of great help in the classification of soil and in determination of
degree of weathering of rock.

9. Structure of Soil:
Sand, silt and clay are found in aggregated form.
The arrangement of these soil particles on certain defined patterns is called as soil structure.
The natural aggregates of soil particles are clod peds whereas an artificially formed soil mass is called
clod.
Ped differs from fragment because the latter refers to the broken ped.
Ped differs from concretion in the sense that the latter is formed in the soil by precipitation of salts
dissolved in percolating water.
Soil structure also reveals the colour, texture and chemical composition of soil aggregates.
Soil structure is influenced by air moisture, organic matter, micro-organisms and root growth.
When many particles or peds are aggregated into cluster, a compound particle is formed.

10. Describing Soil Structure

Soil structure is described under the following three categories: as type, size and grade.

A. Type:

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This indicates the shapes or forms and arrangement of peds. Peds may be of various shapes, such as
granular, crumb, angular blocky, sub angular blocky, platy and prismatic. Different types of peds and
their properties:
B. Size Class:
These are as follows:
(i) Very fine or very thin
(ii) Fine or thin
(iii) Medium
(iv) Coarse or thick
(v) Very coarse or very thick
C. Grade:
This indicates the degree of distinctness of peds.

Soil structure is described under the following four categories:

(i) Structure less:

Peds not distinct, i.e., cement or sand like condition.

(ii) Weak:
Peds distinct and rarely durable.

(iii) Moderate:
Peds moderately well developed, fairly durable and distinct.
(iv) Strong:
Peds well developed, quite durable and distinct.

11. Soil Density and Soil Weight:

Density of soil is the mass per unit volume.

It is expressed in terms of gm per cubic centimeter.
Average density of the soil is 2.65 gms per cubic centimeter.
Density of soil varies greatly depending upon the degree of weathering.

For this reason soil density is expressed in two generally accepted forms:
(i) Particle density or true density; and
(ii) Bulk density.

(i) Particle density:

Density of solid portion of soil is called particle density.
It is sum total of densities of individual organic and inorganic particles.
Average particle density of organic soil varies from 1.2 to 1.7 gms per ml. and that of inorganic
fraction varies from 2.6 to 2 78 gms/ ml.
Particle density may be calculated as: weight of solids / volume of soils.
Particle density divided by density of water gives the specific gravity or relative weight number.
Specific gravity of soil particles = Particle density /density of water.

(ii) Bulk density or apparent density:

Dry weight of unit volume of soil inclusive of pore spaces is called bulk density. It is expressed in
terms of gm per ml or lbs per cubic foot. It is lesser than the particle density of the soil.
Bulk density of soil may be calculated as: weight of soil/ volume of soil.
Bulk density of the soil divided by density of water gives volume weight or apparent specific gravity
of soil.
Bulk density of soil changes with the change in total pore space present in the soil and it gives a good
estimate of the porosity of soil.
Average density of soil in bulk is 1 5 gm/ml.

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Organic soils have low bulk density as compared to mineral soils. Soil weight varies in relation to
textural classes. Average weight of loam or sandy soil is 80—110 pounds/cubic foot but that of clay
ranges between 70 and 100 pounds/cubic foot.

12. Porosity of Soil:

The spaces occupied by air and water between particles in a given volume of soil are called as pore
spaces.
The percentage of soil volume occupied by pore space or by the interstitial spaces is called as the
porosity of the soil. It depends upon the texture, structure, compactness and organic content of the
soil.
Porosity of the soil increases with the increase in the percentage of organic matter in the soil.
Porosity of soil also decreases as the soil particles become much smaller in their dimension because of
decrease in pore spaces. It also decreases with depth of the soil. The pore spaces are responsible for
better plant growth because they contain enough air and moisture.
Percentage of solids in soils can be determined by comparing bulk density and particle density and
multiplying by hundred. Depending upon the size pore spaces fall into two categories.

These are:(1) Micro-pore spaces (capillary pore spaces)

(2) Macro-pore spapes (non-capillary pore spaces)
Capillary pore spaces can hold more water and restrict the free movement of water and air in soil to a
considerable extent, whereas macro-pore spaces have little water holding capacity and allow free
movement of moisture and air in the soil under normal conditions.

13. Permeability of Soil:

The characteristic of soil that determines the movement of water through pore spaces is referred to as
soil permeability. Soil permeability, because it is directly dependent on the pore size, will be higher
for the soil with large number of macro-pore spaces than that for compact soil with a large number of
micro-pore spaces (capillary spaces). Permeability of soil also varies with moisture status and usually
decreases with the gradual desiccation of soil. In the arid regions, groundwater moves upwardly
through capillary action and bring sodium, potassium and calcium salts with it in dissolved state on
the surface of soil. The water evaporates and inorganic salts precipitate on the surface of the soil.
As a result of this, the soil becomes less permeable and the productive capacity of soil is reduced.

14. Soil Colour:

Soils exhibit a variety of colours.

Soil colour may be inherited from the parental material (Le., lithochromic) or sometimes it may be
due to soil forming processes {acquired or genetic colour).
The variations in the soil colour are due to organic substances, iron compounds, silica, lime and other
inorganic compounds.

The organic substances impart black or dark greyish-black colour to the soil. Iron compounds are
responsible for brown, red and yellow colours of soils.
Iron oxides in combination with organic substances impart brown colour which is most common soil
colour.

Silica, lime and some other inorganic compounds give light white and grey tinges to the soil.
Soil color is typically described using some form of color reference chart, such as the Munsell Color
Chart. Using the Munsell system, color is described in reference to the color’s “hue”, “value”, and
“chroma”.

Hue describes where in the color spectrum the soil color exists, which for soils includes the colors
yellow, red, blue, green, and gray. Value describes the lightness of the color. Chroma indicates the
strength of the color.

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The variations in the soil colour are due to organic substances, iron compounds, silica, lime and other
inorganic compounds.
The organic substances impart black or dark greyish-black colour to the soil. Iron compounds are
responsible for brown, red and yellow colours of soils.
Iron oxides in combination with organic substances impart brown colour which is most common soil
colour.
In well aerated soils, oxidized or ferric (Fe+3) iron compounds are responsible for the brown, yellow,
and red colors you see in the soil.
When iron is reduced to the ferrous (Fe+2) form, it becomes mobile, and can be removed from certain
areas of the soil.

When the iron is removed, a gray color remains, or the reduced iron color persists in shades of green
or blue.

Silica, lime and some other inorganic compounds give light white and grey tinges to the soil.
Soil colour influences greatly the soil temperature.
The dark coloured soils absorb heat mort readily than light coloured soils.
The black cotton soil absorbs 86% of the total solar radiations falling on the soil surface as against
40% by the grey alluvial soil.
Soil colour is used as an important criterion for description and classification of soil.
Many soils are named after their prominent colours, such as black cotton soil, red-yellow latosol, grey
hydromorphic soils and so on.

15. Soil Temperature:

The chief sources of soil heat are solar radiations and heat generated in the decomposition of dead
organic matters in the soil and heat formed in the interior of earth. The soil temperature greatly affects
the physico-chemical and biological processes of the soil.
Temperature of soil depends upon the temperature of atmospheric air and on moisture content. It is
controlled by climate, colour of soil, slope, and altitude of the land and also by vegetational cover of
the soil.
The average annual temperature of soil is generally higher than that of its surrounding atmosphere.
Surface temperature of soil shows considerable fluctuations but soil temperature below certain depth
remains more or less constant and is not affected by diurnal or regional temperature changes.

16. Soil plasticity :

Soil plasticity is a property that enables the moist soil to change shape when some force is applied
over it and to retain this shape even after the removal of the force from it. The plasticity of soil
depends on the cohesion and adhesion of soil materials. Cohesion refers to the attraction of substances
of like characteristics, such as, that of one water molecule for another. Adhesion refers to the
attraction of substances of unlike characteristics.
Soil consistency depends on the texture and amount of inorganic and organic colloids, structure and
moisture contents of soil.

17. Compressibility:

It refers to the tendency of soil to consolidate or decrease in volume. The compressibility is partly a
function of elastic nature of soil particles and is directly related to settlement of structures. With the
decrease in the moisture contents soils gradually tend to become less sticky and less plastic and finally
they become hard and coherent. Plastic soils have great cohesion force. It is only because of cohesion
property the moist clay soils frequently develop cracks when they become dried.
Coarse materials such as gravels and sands have low compressibility and the settlement is
considerably less in these materials as compared to highly compressible fine grained organic soils.

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 18. Erodibility:

It refers to the ease with which soil materials can be removed by wind or water. Easily eroded
materials include unprotected silt, sand and other loosely consolidated materials, Cohesive soils (with
more than 20% clay) and naturally cemented soils are not easily removed from its place by wind or
water and, therefore, have a low erosion factor.

Conclusion:

Soils contain a lot of mineral and organic constituents. Soil types are described according to these
main constituents. A soil with a lot of sand is called as a sandy soil; soil with a lot of clay is called as
a clay soil; and soil with a lot of organic material is called as an organic soil. Along with soil
structure , the texture of soil is also important to determine the water-holding capacity, water
movement, and the amount and movement of soil air in a given soil. All of these physical properties
are very important to the health and type of plants and other organisms that can exist in a particular
soil. The physical properties of soils is a major aspect of study in soil science, civil engineering and
agricultural engineering.

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