Received 10 July 2024, accepted 29 July 2024, date of publication 2 August 2024, date of current version 28 August 2024.

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3437780

Intelligent Fault Detection, Compensation, and

Power Management in Microgrids:
A Synchrophasor-Enhanced
Approach Using Fuzzy
Logic Controllers
and RTDS
M. DHINU LAL AND RAMESH VARADARAJAN , (Member, IEEE)
School of Electrical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore 632014, India
Corresponding author: Ramesh Varadarajan ([email protected])
This work was supported by the Vellore Institute of Technology.

ABSTRACT Microgrids are a viable approach for improving energy resiliency and sustainability. Current
microgrid systems frequently suffer from inadequate fault identification and compensation techniques,
resulting in operational inefficiencies and grid instability. Conventional control strategies may not effectively
manage changing environmental conditions and variations in load, requiring a more adaptable and intelligent
approach. The paper presents a sophisticated method that combines Fuzzy Logic Controllers (FLCs) with
Synchrophasor Technology (ST) to tackle these challenges. This work aims to develop and execute a
thorough solution for microgrids’ fault identification, compensation, and power management. The paper
proposed a MATLAB/Simulink model that includes a Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) system with an FLC-based
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT), a Diesel Generator (DG), a Battery Energy Storage System
(BESS) with an FLC-based Battery Management System (BMS), a Voltage Source Inverter (VSI), and a
Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) with a FLC. Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) equipped with ST
are used to monitor and identify the anomalies in the system. The analysis of the simulation data provides
evidence of the efficacy of the suggested approach. The SPV system demonstrates strong performance in
producing voltage and current, successfully adjusting to different irradiance levels. The MPPT algorithm
based on FLC guarantees the highest power efficiency. Additionally, the BESS and UPFC, controlled by
FLCs, enhance grid stability and power quality. By integrating with synchrophasor-enabled PMUs, the
microgrid may achieve accurate fault detection, and thus, the operator can take corrective actions to guarantee
dependable operation even under challenging circumstances. Furthermore, the reliability and efficiency of
the proposed system were confirmed using a Real-Time Digital Simulator (RTDS) using RSCAD with
PMUs in real-world environments. By employing hardware-based PMUs, the system can accurately monitor
grid interactions in real-time, enabling prompt detection of disruptions and proactive deployment of control
measures. The RTDS results showcased the system’s ability to maintain grid stability and efficiently manage
faults, as evidenced by the precise current and voltage magnitudes measurements and their phase angles,
frequency, and Rate of Change of Frequency (ROCOF) during fault scenarios.

INDEX TERMS Solar photovoltaic, synchrophasor technology, phasor measurement units, real-time digital
simulator.
I. INTRODUCTION
The associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and In recent years, the power sector has undergone significant
approving it for publication was Vitor Monteiro . restructuring due to the advancement of Renewable Energy
2024 The Authors. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License.
VOLUME 12, 2024 For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ 115465
 M. Dhinu Lal, R. Varadarajan: Intelligent Fault Detection, Compensation, and Power Management in Microgrids

Sources (RES), storage systems for energy, and enhanced to assess the resilience of the power control mechanism under
control technology. The development of integrated power various operational circumstances and disruptions, including
systems (PS) may be traced back to the increasing worldwide variations in solar radiation, imbalances in load distribution,
focus on sustainable energy solutions and the environmen- and load disturbances.
tal impacts of traditional energy generation. Although Solar The researchers in [6] developed a Fuzzy Logic Controller
Photovoltaic (SPV) systems were imagined in the mid-20th (FLC) MPPT technique that relies on SPV’s I-V and P-V
century when scientists started thinking about converting characteristics. A new integrated parameter called ‘Ea’ was
sunlight to electricity, the engineering principles of refin- established to improve the accuracy and performance of
ing renewable energy extraction and usage grew in the MPPT under various environmental and operating situations.
1970s, involving the oil crisis and the attention to alternative This parameter is derived from the I-V characteristic. This
sources [1]. Subsequently, the technology has undergone sig- system maintained maximum peak power during low envi-
nificant advancements in material and production efficiency, ronmental conditions, where traditional algorithms exhibit
rendering it one of its most widely adopted applications of poor tracking performance. It can also track the operating
energy from renewable sources. point as the source current region quickly travels from fully
The incorporation of SPV systems into microgrids is activated to partially activated during high and low irra-
emerging as a recent trend, influencing the viability of off- diance transients. Nevertheless, the FL-MPPT algorithm’s
grid decentralization. In the last few years, apparent growth effectiveness was not showcased when subjected to diverse
in microgrids- small-scale energy systems that act inde- environmental factors, including varying temperatures, irra-
pendently or are integrated into the primary grid can be diation levels, and shading effects. No comparisons were
observed [2]. Such growth is facilitated by the increase in made with other MPPT algorithms to determine its supe-
distributed energy resources, such as SPV systems, driven riority in tracking efficiency and robustness. Another work
by the need for a more robust and flexible power infrastruc- in [7] presents a new non-isolated high step-up multi-port
ture. Integrating Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) converter design in a standalone SPV-BESS-enabled PS. This
approaches is essential to achieve optimal SPV system power work justifies multiport converters over single-input con-
output. The aim of the proposed study in [3] is to perform verters, resulting in simplified circuits, better efficiency, and
a comprehensive examination of 40 historical and current reduced cost. The suggested multi-port converter achieves
MPPT methods for SPV systems. The approaches are struc- higher voltage gain, which boosts the SPV panel voltage
tured and systematized, allowing the reader to select the and improves energy storage and use. Furthermore, the pro-
type of action most suitable for solving a particular problem. posed multi-port converter offers a significant increase in
The paper is designed to facilitate the classification of var- voltage and a minimal Normalised Peak Inverse Voltage
ious MPPT methods, offering a comparative table that will (NPIV) among semiconductor devices. Ultimately, it enables
allow researchers dealing with SPV systems to understand the MPPT technique to be applied to each SPV input source.
the assortment and select the method suitable for a specific A laboratory prototype with a power output of 240 W has
task force. The rapid development of SPV technology, Bat- been developed to showcase the practicality of the suggested
tery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) and power electronics multi-port converter. However, this work does not address
have contributed substantially to the overall development of the suitable control scheme or the poor performance under
integrated systems. Over the past few years, the research varying operating conditions and different types of renewable
and development in the power industry has been focused on source energy and BESS.
the integration of renewable energy sources, such as SPV Battery Management Systems (BMS) are significant for
systems, with BESS and advanced control systems to deal optimising Smart Energy Storage Systems (SESS) for energy
with the intermittent and variable nature of RE generation and from renewable sources. SESS is also critical for integrat-
improve the PS performance [4]. ing renewable energy sources and peak decrease. A review
The study in [5] introduces a two-step SPV technology of the BMS Strategies in renewable energy systems criti-
incorporating battery storage. The DC-DC boost converter cally discusses the core aspects of the planned application
connects the solar array to the main Voltage Source Con- and the optimisation techniques used by [8]. The examina-
verter’s (VSCs) DC link. Conversely, the secondary Voltage tion categorises optimisation methodologies based on three
Source Converter (VSC) is linked with a bidirectional con- areas. The types include directed search-based techniques,
verter incorporating BESS. The power from the SPV array is probabilistic techniques, and rule-based strategies. The work
controlled using an MPPT method that employs a Perturb and notes that the directed search-based methods are appro-
Observe (P&O) approach. The IEEE-519 standards ensure priate for solving optimisations on the financial objective,
that the load voltage’s Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) while the control strategies are used to resolve technical
remains within the specified limits. The system performed objective optimisations. BMS acts include state-of-charge
excellently in static and dynamic scenarios, including han- estimates, cell balancing, and thermal management. Pre-
dling solar insolation and load imbalance, ensuring efficient cise simulation and modelling of BMS are significant for
supply and power management. Nevertheless, the study failed increasing performance and promoting battery longevity.

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Hybrid methodologies across various optimisation strategies voltage profile and its stability is proposed. In particular,
are expected to drive the future formulation of operation the authors analyze the use of the BESS with the SPV
plans. generation system, considering the busbar, which has the
The researchers in [9] propose an approach for resolv- minimum voltage value in the system arranged. The usage of
ing the optimal distribution and functioning of electricity FACTS technologies is investigated as well. The IEEE 37-bus
generation from RES and BESS utilising the FL interface. distribution test feeder is modelled and modified for study
The algorithm under consideration prioritises the efficient purposes. The research findings emphasised the significance
distribution and control of energy resources, using hourly of strategically positioning the BESS and FACTS devices
data for one year. The suggested model depends upon the in the microgrid to maximise their positive influence on
calculations of steady-state power flow and is intended for voltage stability. The work shows meticulous analysis and
utilisation during the design phase to implement various RES planning are essential for optimising microgrid performance.
and BESSs. The system has been set up on a test distribution In short, the results indicate that incorporating sophisticated
system consisting of 37 nodes, resulting in an observed reduc- energy transmission and storage technology can significantly
tion of annual energy loss by 80% compared to the baseline improve the durability and effectiveness of contemporary
scenario where no renewable source-based power is present. power networks, especially as dispersed generation and RES
The findings of the testing phase, which involve various load continue to grow. However, the findings may not be appli-
curves, demonstrate that the optimally calibrated FLC can cable in the realistic microgrid, as it is difficult to examine
effectively adapt and sustain its effectiveness regardless of all the variables that affect the microgrid’s performance.
how the input data deviate from those utilised during the opti- The analysis solely focuses on the impact of BESS, SPV
misation stage. Additionally, the performance of the approach production, and FACTS devices on voltage stability and
is evaluated using data that was not employed throughout the profile. It does not delve into other potential effects on
optimisation process to assess the generalizability as well as microgrid effectiveness, such as power quality and system
the robustness of the study. Nevertheless, the authors fail to reliability.
address their method’s computing demands or time complex- The authors of [15] developed a supervisory controller that
ity, a crucial aspect to consider when contemplating practical uses Fuzzy Logic (FL) to control the power of an isolated
implementation. AC microgrid comprising RES, BESS, and loads. The FLC
A microgrid Diesel Generator (DG) system identified regulates the AC-bus frequency below its rating to curtail
in [10] is preferred in terms of Wind Energy Conversion the power generation of the SPV system or to match the
Systems (WECS) because weather conditions do not affect power generation of the auxiliary unit. It ensures that the
production reliability. A DG is added to the microgrid to battery’s power and energy stay within the defined limits,
increase system reliability, especially in regions with unre- preserving the steady flow of power. The efficiency of the
liable grid connections. The WECS requires only wind FLC is demonstrated through the presentation of simulations
availability, which is unreliable for low and high wind condi- and experimental findings. The MATLAB simulation model
tions. The DGs are available on demand to provide electricity showed that the FLC efficiently regulates power flow. It max-
when needed. It operates effectively at different loading levels imises PV power when the bus frequency is equal to or below
compared to WECS. When used with an SPV system and the standard frequency. Additionally, it reduces power output
BESS, the DG is better in hybrid system reliability due to when the frequency exceeds the standard value. The results
simple control [11]. DGs demonstrate more efficacy when also indicated that the proposed method reduces auxiliary
employed with the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) unit operation time, lowering operational costs while meeting
for power flow regulation and grid reliability enhancement, load and battery demands. The experimental validation con-
in contrast to the WECS, which necessitates supplementary firmed the real-time simulation results that the FLC regulated
control measures for UPFC integration [12]. frequency between 49.5Hz and 50.5Hz. This regulation was
Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) devices are achieved by automatically adapting to the feedback received
energy-based devices used in electrical PS to improve the from the two FLC subsystems.
controllability and stability of the grid. Utilising FACTS Nevertheless, the paper fails to thoroughly examine the
devices in a microgrid offers several benefits, including better FLC’s performance under different operating conditions and
voltage regulation, reduced power quality, improved depen- disturbances in microgrid systems. Moreover, the work fails
dence on the grid, and more efficient use of Distributed to report any possible challenges or limitations arising when
Energy Resources (DERs) [13]. FACTS devices enable PS using the proposed controller in an actual microgrid system,
characteristics to be regulated efficiently and precisely, pro- such as communication time delays, hardware restrictions,
moting the seamless integration of RES and, as a result, or limited models of renewable sources. The experimental
microgrid efficiency, which also influences the robustness findings presented in the research are constrained to a par-
and adaptability of microgrid operations under different oper- ticular microgrid setup that may not accurately reflect the
ating scenarios. According to [14], an approach to assessing controller’s performance in diverse scenarios or with varying
the impact of BESS and FACTS technologies in the microgrid forms of RES.

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The suggestion in [16] addresses the amalgamation of RES TABLE 1. Comparison of UPFC, SVC, STATCOM and TCSC in grid-connected
systems.
in the power systems and the challenges power engineers
face in mitigating power quality issues. This study majorly
analyses the applicability of FACTS controllers within the
transmission and distribution systems. FACTS devices are
crucial in enhancing voltage quality regulation, power quality
shaping, power factor enhancement, system stability, and
active power achievement while working as filters that reduce
harmonics. However, this work focuses more on the FACTS
controllers in a microgrid and smart grid setup, neglecting
other potential applications or research areas at length. The
paper lacks a more detailed analysis of certain test case stud-
ies or real-life applications of FACTS controllers in microgrid
and smart grid systems.
Research reported in [17] also discusses a distinct work
regarding microgrids’ modelling and load behaviour. The
work articulates that having an induction motor load related
to an air conditioning system may cause dynamic voltage
instabilities in microgrid systems. This research examines the
analysis of dynamic voltage stability of microgrid systems
during functional isolation by contingencies and the improve-
ment achieved using FACTS devices like Distribution Static
Compensators (DSTATCOM) and Static Var Compensators
(SVC). The findings indicate that DSTATCOM outperforms
SVC in improving dynamic voltage stability, reducing the
time it takes for voltage to recover after a defect, and ulti-
mately enhancing the operational durability of microgrids.
The study examined the dynamic voltage stability of micro-
grid systems when they are operationally isolated owing
to contingencies, and the two microgrid test systems with
distinct topological characteristics were also carried out to
evaluate the suggested technique. However, it does not thor-
oughly research the impacts of the different load types on
the designed dynamic voltage stability of the microgrid. The
implementation of the developed approach is experimentally in generating datasets for FACTS device placement. This
limited to only two microgrid evaluation systems with dif- literature does not consider how different uncertainties and
ferent topological properties. As a result, it may not reflect changes in PS affect the efficiency of FACTS devices
the global population of microgrid systems found under optimized.
real-world conditions. The proposed works mentioned in [19] and [20] introduce
The study presented in [18] provides a comprehensive the utilisation of a UPFC in conjunction with an FLC. Both
analysis of current optimisation methods for determining works seem to focus more on grid systems’ stability and
the optimal positioning of installing FACTS in PS net- dependability. The primary challenges faced by PS are erad-
works. In review, analysis of the classification of optimisation icating faults and maintaining power quality. Introducing a
approaches is reported in four prevalent categories: classi- three-phase fault into the microgrid assists in driving a faster
cal, metaheuristic, analytic, and mixed or hybrid approaches. reaction of the PS system in the occurrence of unfavourable
For various optimisation problems, classical optimisation conditions. To alleviate power quality issues, a FLC-based
is used most frequently; however, metaheuristic methods UPFC is used as FACTS device, to illustrate how advanced
have received considerable attention owing to their effi- control systems optimises interruption levels and ensures
cacy in solving nonconvex constraints. Analytic methods steady power provision. The literature presents Table 1, which
focus on approaches and gradients, among which sensi- jointly demonstrates the possible advantages of using UPFC
tivity analysis and optimisation are most prevalent. Mixed as the FACTS device over other devices in the proposed
approaches produce better solutions by combining a variety work [12], [16], [21], [22], and [23].
of optimisation methods. Furthermore, the review provides a Incorporating Synchrophasor Technology (ST) utilising
comparative analysis of the chosen methods’ performances; Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) into the PS signi-
however, there is no thorough study of each optimisation fies an innovative approach for monitoring and quan-
technique technology’s distinctive challenges and constraints tifying fluctuations in the grid. Synchrophasors offer

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real-time data on electrical quantities, allowing for TABLE 2. Advantages of PMU over SCADA.
accurate management and optimisation of the power
system, in contrast to the typical Supervisory Con-
trol and Data Acquisition System (SCADA) measuring
approaches.
The work proposed in [24] highlights the benefits of
SPV systems for grid-connected microgrids, including their
effectiveness, cost-effectiveness, and system size advantages.
The study examines the use of PMUs in distributed gen-
erating systems for real-time grid monitoring and control.
The goal is to enhance operational precision in power sys-
tems with many SPV units connected to the grid. The study
evaluates PMU implementation for monitoring grid current
and voltage during faults, proving its suitability for RES
and the efficiency of the proposed control mechanism. The
article introduces a synchronised control technique for an
SPV system evaluated at various solar irradiation levels.
The investigation reveals that the system works well under
fault conditions. The PMU at the PCC in the electrical grid
accurately detected failures, including L-G faults, with 0.2 to
0.8 seconds precision. The PMU properly monitored and
analysed the power output of the SPV system and BESS
while linked to the grid, ensuring reliable performance and
stability during faults. The PMU charts showed a reduc- of control systems and guarantees their efficacy in prac-
tion in grid voltage from 180 V to 125 V during faults. tical scenarios. The integration of synchrophasor-enabled
The grid current was also monitored to pinpoint faults and PMUs yields a sophisticated and flexible microgrid system
ensure system stability. The empirical results validated the that possesses the ability to effectively react to dynamic
model for renewable energy sources, showed the strength fluctuations and disruptions which is proposed in this
and dependability of the suggested control technique, and work.
showed that PMUs ensure reliable microgrid monitoring The comprehensive literature review reveals a lack of
and management. The study’s conclusions are primarily thorough examination and comparison of various methodolo-
based on MATLAB/Simulink simulations. This simulation gies for achieving optimal power management in microgrids
may not fully capture the complexities and variability of across various operational circumstances, including fluctu-
real-world situations, and the findings may be limited in ating solar power insolation levels, load deficiencies, and
generalizability. environmental conditions. The literature frequently presents
Table 2 [25], [26], [27] examine the possible benefits novel technologies and controllers without conducting com-
of PMU compared to SCADA. ST improves the ability to prehensive performance evaluations across various contexts.
observe and understand the microgrid, which helps make The utilisation of various traditional controllers in the micro-
informed decisions and manage the system effectively. Syn- grid, as stated in the literature, presents several drawbacks
chrophasors can deliver accurate and coordinated measure- like suboptimal performance in managing the non-linear and
ments of current and voltage phasors and the Rate of Change dynamic characteristics of microgrid components, limited
of Frequency (ROCOF) within the microgrid. This capability flexibility to fluctuating operating conditions, and increased
allows for the real-time monitoring and management of the complexity in tuning as well as coordinating different control
system [25]. One significant use is for fault detection, wherein strategies.
PMUs enable the swift identification of defects inside the Furthermore, the review fails to comprehensively eval-
microgrid through their high-speed and synchronised mea- uate the PS in real-time or use RTDS to withstand and
surements, which allows prompt response techniques, such adapt to different operating conditions. One notable defi-
as migrating the microgrid or isolating defective components, ciency in the existing literature is the limited exploration of
to guarantee less interruption and enhanced system depend- various applications and areas of inquiry on FACTS con-
ability [28]. Furthermore, using real-time time-stamped data trollers inside microgrid and smart grid environments. The
from PMUs is crucial to make well-informed judgements and review could not detect any study of the potential impact
effectively dynamically modify control parameters. In addi- of uncertainties and variations in PS characteristics on the
tion, incorporating PMU data into a Real-Time Digital effectiveness of the optimised FACTS devices, hence neglect-
Simulation (RTDS) improves the precision of the micro- ing a crucial issue. The works based on ST in conjunction
grid model. It enables the simulation of realistic scenarios, with PMUs for monitoring and measuring the PS grid are
which eventually facilitates the advancement and evaluation also limited and yet to be explored. These gaps in the

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FIGURE 1. Functional block of proposed system.

existing body of literature underscore the necessity for con- These RESs, innovative control systems, and power quality
ducting more extensive and varied studies to enhance the enhancement practices will make the entire power infras-
comprehension and use of intelligent power management in tructure more reliable, efficient, and sustainable. Moreover,
microgrids. this work intends to enhance the development and prac-
The primary approach of the proposed system is achieved tical feasibility of integrating new systems by developing
by integrating an SPV system, an FLC-based MPPT system, ST utilizing PMU in RTDS. Fig 1. shows the proposed
the BMS with FLC, and a DG under consideration in the system. The proposed work aims to achieve the following
same microgrid in which PMUs are installed. Therefore, objectives.
the proposed work offers an effective fault detection, com- • Design and develop a MATLAB/Simulink model
pensation, and power management solution in modern PS. that integrates a microgrid with an SPV system,

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incorporating variable irradiance and employing an liberate electrons to move when exposed to sunlight. The PV
FLC-based MPPT approach. activity begins with the interaction between solar radiation
• Design, model, and integrate a DG to ensure seamless and the semiconductor material. The resultant effect of the
integration and coordination with the grid and a BESS interaction is the liberation of electrons from their atomic
with FLC-controlled BMS to optimize the charging and orbits [29]. Fig. 2 shows the circuit diagram of an SPV cell.
discharging cycles. The SPV cell operates by creating electricity from the liber-
• Design and implement a Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) ated electrons’ motion. The structure of the semiconductor
and its controller, which can be utilized in microgrids for material allows the creation of a voltage potential across the
efficient power conversion. cell when an external circuit is connected. Electron movement
• Design and implement a UPFC with FLC, enhancing the is from the negative terminal to the positive terminal, where
microgrid’s power quality and grid stability. the current is generated by the electron movement that is DC
• Analysis of internal fault detection, compensation, in nature and usable as an output [30].
and power management in microgrids by installing The Shockley equation, which denotes the diode
synchrophasor-enabled PMUs from the performance behaviour, is expressed as follows:
plots obtained from MATLAB/Simulink.  V +IR
S

• Validate and verify the performance by performing the I = Iph − I0 e nVt − 1 (1)
synchrophasor-enabled PMUs in microgrids in RTDS
using RSCAD and comparing the proposed method with where I is the diode current, Iph is the photo-generated cur-
existing literature. rent, I0 is the diode reverse saturation current, V and RS are
The paper is organised as follows: Section II provides a the diode voltage and series resistance, n is the ideality factor,
detailed explanation of the methodology and modelling of Vt is the thermal voltage and can be expressed as,
the SPV system along with a boost converter, an MPPT con- kT
troller that utilizes FLC, a BESS with DC-DC bidirectional Vt = (2)
q
converter, VSI as well as its controller, FLC-based BMS, DG,
where k is the Boltzmann constant, T and q are the tempera-
and AC power grid, UPFC with FLC controller, three-phase
ture in Kelvin and electron charge, respectively.
load and fault, PMUs, and their installation. In session III, the
The solar cell output power can be given by,
results obtained from the simulation in MATLAB/Simulink
are analysed and examined. In Session IV, an analysis of Pout = V ∗ I (3)
simulation results is presented. In Session V, the validation
The SPV system efficiency becomes the ratio of the output
process of the proposed system is done using the RTDS
power to the incident power and can expressed as,
tool by applying RSCAD, and an analysis of the result is
conducted. Session VI focuses on the work’s novelty by Pout
%η = ∗ 100 (4)
comparing the results obtained from the proposed method Pincident
with those of the existing literature. Session VII encom- The incident power can be given as,
passes the discussion of the conclusion along with future
Pincident = G ∗ A (5)
work.
where the variable G represents the amount of solar irradia-
II. METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN tion, while A denotes the cell area.
The design as well as modelling of the SPV system along
with a boost converter, an MPPT controller that utilizes FLC,
a BESS with DC-DC bidirectional converter, VSI as well
as its controller, FLC-based BMS, DG, and AC power grid,
UPFC with FLC controller, three-phase load with fault, and
PMUs as well as their installation is conducted in this session
from the functional block of the proposed system as depicted
in Fig. 1.

A. MODELING OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

The design and modelling of an SPV system reflect the
overall approach of harvesting solar energy for electric-
FIGURE 2. Circuit diagram of an SPV cell.
ity generation. The implementation of SPV in the system
involves the application of SPV cells that assist in trans- Because of First Solar FS-272’s excellent performance, it is
forming solar radiation into electrical energy. A solar cell is preferred in the proposed work. First Solar FS-272 incor-
the building block of an SPV system that converts sunlight porates state-of-the-art thin-film solar modules that exhibit
into electrical energy through the photovoltaic process. Solar outstanding performance when exposed to different envi-
cells are often made of semiconductors, mainly silicon, which ronmental conditions. The thin film technology employed

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TABLE 3. Design parameters of the SPV system.

FIGURE 4. Proposed FLC designer for MPPT-based SPV.

inductor current through the diode and enabling the charging

of the output capacitor.
Consequently, the resulting voltage will exceed the input
voltage in this mode. The gate pulse supplied to the MOSFET
switch is delivered via a Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
generator. The PWM generator is regulated by a controller
based on FL, which will be elucidated in the upcoming
session. The equations utilised explicitly for the design of a
DC-DC boost converter are provided below.
The voltage across the inductor during on-state can be
expressed as,
VLon = Vin − Vout (6)
The voltage across the inductor during off-state is also
given as,
FIGURE 3. Circuit diagram of proposed DC-DC boost converter.
VLoff = −Vout (7)
in these modules enhances energy generation, even under The duty cycle is the duration during which the switch
low light intensity, thus making the FS-272 a viable option is in the on-state. It is calculated by dividing the difference
where the weather is unpredictable, or sunshine is irradiant. between the input and output voltages by the input voltage.
The irradiance is set at various intensities for performance The duty cycle is mathematically represented as:
determination. A summary of the design specifications for the
proposed First Solar FS-272 is given in Table 3. Vin − Vout
D= (8)
Vin
B. MODELING OF DC-DC BOOST CONVERTER
The DC-DC boost converter is a power electronic block C. MODELING OF MPPT CONTROLLER BASED ON FLC
developed to raise the voltage of the DC power current Utilising MPPT to enhance the efficiency of SPV systems
from an SPV system. The device consists of an isolated is a significant achievement. The present work proposed the
switch MOSFET, diode, inductor, output capacitance, and employment of FLC, an intelligent control technique based
resistance, as shown in Fig. 3. The boost converter func- on linguistic variables and human-centred logic, thus aiding
tions by periodically establishing and severing the connection in better decision-making [33]. The integration of MPPT
between the inductor and the input voltage, hence leading to tracking with FLC predominantly affects the performance
an augmented output voltage [31]. of SPV systems. The MPPT algorithm changes the point of
A switch operation can be carried out in two primary operation of the SPV panels level dynamically to optimize
modes: the on-state, characterised by a closed switch, and power generation, considering external variations such as
the off-state, characterised by an open switch [32]. When temperature changes and shading impacts. FLC is designed
the switch M1 is in the On-state, it is closed, enabling the to solve the same problem by using fuzzy rules to understand
current flow via the inductor from the input voltage. During and respond to complex, non-linear relationships within the
this period, the diode is in a state of reverse bias and does not system, thereby improving its flexibility. FLC can deal with
exhibit conduction. Consequently, the energy is effectively uncertainty and impreciseness associated with real-world sit-
stored within the inductor. During the off-state of switch M1, uations and inaccurate data, making it suitable for practical
the switch is in a closed state, thereby severing the direct link applications. FLC also permits the ability to respond rapidly
between the input voltage and the inductor. Subsequently, the to solar irradiance and temperature changes. The FLC objec-
diode undergoes forward biassing, facilitating the passage of tive is to increase the power generation of an SPV system.

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TABLE 4. Fuzzy rule table for proposed FLC-based MPPT for SPV systems.

FIGURE 5. Membership function plot for input voltage.

FIGURE 8. BESS circuit diagram featuring an FLC-based BMS and a

bidirectional converter.

FIGURE 6. Membership function plot for input current.

about the uncertainties and inaccuracies present in real-world
situations. The PWM is used along with FLC to help the
DC-DC converter accurately control the duty cycle of the
MOSFET switches. The PWM is a technique extensively
used in power electronics to stabilize the mean output voltage.
The adjustment of the duty cycle is contingent upon the output
of the FLC, which guarantees the efficient operation of the
converter and its ability to follow the MPP of the SPV system
accurately.
The case under consideration depicts the plot of the mem-
bership function for all three fuzzy sets of the input voltage,
as shown in Fig. 5. The sets and their names in linguistic terms
of input voltage as Low Voltage (LV), Medium Voltage (MV),
as well as High Voltage (HV). Similarly, input current fuzzy
sets are defined, as shown in Fig. 6, as Low Current (LC),
FIGURE 7. Membership function plot for output duty cycle.
Medium Current (MC), and High Current (HC). The fuzzy
sets of the output variable duty cycle are defined as shown
It reaches this target by continuously adjusting the duty cycle in Fig. 7 and are described in linguistic terms as Low Duty
of the boost converter. The FLC receives the current and (LD), Medium Duty (MD), as well as High Duty (HD).
voltage measurements from the SPV as inputs and generates The fuzzy rule table in Table 4 represents the membership
the duty cycle as the output. The FLC algorithm applies the functions and rules within a Mamdani fuzzy system.
duty cycle to control the DC-DC boost converter since the
duty cycle is utilized to control the converter [34]. D. MODELING OF BATTERY ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS
The designed FL process is given in Fig. 4. A set of (BESS)
linguistic rules based on expert advice and experience is In the proposed study, integrating Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion)
used to build the FLC. The following paths explain the rela- batteries with the BESS is critical to ensuring microgrid
tionship between the input variables, voltage and current, operations become more reliable and efficient. The BESS’s
and the output variable, the duty cycle. The membership primary energy storage element is the Li-Ion battery, which
functions of the linguistic variables reveal essential properties has high energy density per unit weight, extended cycle

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life, and excellent charge/discharge characteristics. Integrat- The variable Vdc (t) represents the voltage that is applied
ing BESS to RES, especially in SPV systems, is crucial for across the DC bus (boosted solar PV) at a given time t. The
offsetting due to their intermittent nature [35]. The DC-DC variables Icharging (t) and Idischarging (t) denote the charging
bidirectional converter is the system’s component that allows current and discharging current, respectively, at time t.
the Li-ion battery to charge and discharge. The bidirectional The selection of BESS design parameters is illustrated in
converter facilitates battery charging during the high solar Table 5.
energy-producing periods, where the excess energy generated
is stored for use during low-producing ones. TABLE 5. Design parameters of bess.
Additionally, during periods where the summed-up SPV
system output and DG power are inadequate to fulfil the
load demand, the BESS releases energy that was previously
stored to fill the difference to enable the microgrid to provide
an unabated and reliable power supply to the grid [36]. The
operation of the BESS can be mathematically represented by
the following equations, which dictate the system’s battery
charging and discharging processes. Fig. 8 shows the pro-
posed BESS with a DC-DC bidirectional converter and FLC.
The battery voltage and current expression are given by,
Vbat = ncells ∗ Vcell (9) E. MODELING OF DC-DC BIDIRECTIONAL CONVERTER
where, Vbat is the voltage of the battery, ncells is the number FOR BESS
of cells connected in series, and Vcell is the voltage of a single In microgrid systems incorporating RES, the DC-DC bidirec-
cell. tional converter facilitates batteries’ charging and discharging
Vbat processes [37]. Fig. 8 displays the bidirectional converter
Ibat = (10) that has been suggested. The bidirectional converter transfers
Rbat
electrical power across the DC bus and the BESS, allow-
where, Ibat is the current flowing through the battery and Rbat ing for charging during periods of excess energy, such as
is the internal resistance of the battery. peak solar generation, and discharging when the demand
The charge/discharge efficiency of the proposed BESS can surpasses the generation capacity. An intelligent component
be mathematically represented as, is introduced into the system by incorporating an FLC into
Output Energy PWM control, enabling adaptive modifications in response
η= (11) to changing circumstances. The bidirectional converter func-
Input Energy
tions in two primary modes: buck mode, which facilitates
The calculation of the State of Charge (SoC) for a Li-ion step-down conversion when charging, and boost mode, which
battery can be expressed as, enables step-up conversion during discharging. The bidirec-
1Q(t) tional converter controls the voltage and current provided to
SoC (t) = SoC (t − 1) + (12) the battery by the SPV and/or DG during the charging mode.
Qmax
The proposed FLC analyses input data, including battery
Here SoC (t) is the current state of charge at time t,
SoC, grid voltage, and load demand, to dynamically modify
SoC (t − 1) is the previous state of charge, 1Q(t) is the
the PWM signals, thereby optimising the charging process
change in charge at time t, and Qmax is the maximum capacity
to enhance efficiency and battery health. The bidirectional
of the battery.
converter facilitates the conversion of stored energy from
The energy stored in a battery is given as,
the battery back into the DC bus during discharging. This
Z t Z t
conversion supports the microgrid, particularly during low
EStored (t) = Pcharging (τ ) dτ − Pdischarging (τ ) dτ
0 0 renewable energy or high demand. The FLC is responsible
(13) for modifying the PWM signals following input parame-
ters to achieve optimal power delivery while simultaneously
Here EStored (t) is the amount of energy stored in the battery at upholding system reliability and stability [38]. In the design
time t, Pcharging (τ ) represents the power used for charging at of a bidirectional converter, the expressions employed are as
time τ , and Pdischarging (τ ) is the power used for discharging follows.
at time τ . The voltage conversion ratio determines the relationship
The charging and discharging power equations are given between the voltages at the input and output of the converter.
by, It is provided by:
Pcharging (t) = Vdc (t) ∗ Icharging (t) (14) Vout
M= (16)
Pdischarging (t) = Vdc (t) ∗ Idischarging (t) (15) Vin

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TABLE 6. Design parameters of DC-DC bidirectional converter.

FIGURE 10. Membership function plot for input error.

TABLE 7. Fuzzy rule table for FLC-based BMS.

FIGURE 9. Proposed FLC designer for BMS.

The average output voltage of the converter can be deter-

mined by the duty cycle of the PWM signal and is given by,
Ton
D= (17)
Ttotal
Here Ton is the ON-time and Ttotal is the total switching
period.
The inductor current ripple (1IL ) which is to consider for
inductor sizing and converter efficiency and is given by,
Vin (1-D) Tsw
1IL = (18)
L FIGURE 11. Block diagram of VSI and its controller.

Here Tsw is the switching period, and L is the inductance. TABLE 8. Design parameters for VSI.
The output capacitor ripple current (1Ic ) affects the output
voltage ripple as well as the capacitor sizing and is expressed
as,
Vout (1-D) Tsw
1Ic = (19)
E ∗L
Here, E represents the output capacitor’s equivalent series
resistance. rules to process them, and produces suitable outputs. In this
The average output voltage of a bidirectional converter can scenario, the input to the FLC is the error signal obtained
be calculated using, from the power output of the DC-DC boost converter that
Vavg = Vin ∗ D (20) is part of an SPV system. Here, the error signal signifies
departures from the intended power production, potentially
Table 6 presents the selected parameters for the design of arising from solar irradiance fluctuations or load variations.
the proposed bidirectional converter. The FLC generates the control signals for battery charging
and discharging operations. By examining the fault signal
F. MODELING OF FLC-BASED BMS and using predetermined FL rules, the FLC can ascertain
The proposed study focuses on developing and implement- the suitable measures to uphold the ideal functioning of the
ing a BMS that incorporates an FLC within the context of battery. When the SPV system produces excess power, the
a microgrid. The central component is an intelligent-based FLC directs the BMS to retrieve the extra energy and store it
controller based on FL, created with the Sugeno block. The in the battery for future use. On the other hand, in instances
suitability of the Sugeno FLC for this particular application of increased demand or diminished solar power, the FLC
originates from its capacity to effectively manage non-linear instructs the BMS to release the battery, thereby supplying
systems and handle the inherent uncertainties present in additional power to the microgrid [40].
microgrid scenarios [39]. Fig. 9 displays the FLC designer The membership function plot, namely error, which is the
of the proposed BMS. The FLC receives inputs, applies FL input depicted in Fig. 10 of the proposed system, is classified

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into two distinct linguistic variables: Low Error (LE) and A particular sign convention is utilised, wherein a positive
High Error (HE). The linguistic variables here indicate the current signifies power creation (inverter mode) or power
extent of disparity between the intended and observed power absorption (inductive mode), accompanied by appropriate
outputs. The FLC’s outputs are classified into two linguistic active (P) and reactive (Q) power values. The output of the
variables on battery operation: Battery Charging (BC) and current regulator is Vd Vq_conv , representing the voltage com-
Battery Discharging (BD). The linguistic variables utilised ponents necessary to inject the intended current into the grid.
for charging and discharging are denoted as ‘mf1’ and ‘mf3’. After the PLL, the Vd Vq_conv signal and the angular frequency
Table 7 displays a fuzzy rule table that demonstrates the signal are then sent to a reference generator. This generator
decision-making process of the FLC, which shows a hier- calculates the necessary voltage reference components to
archical arrangement wherein each row represents a distinct achieve the desired grid synchronisation and power injection.
amalgamation of input linguistic variables (LE and HE), The reference voltage component signal is transmitted over
while each column represents a particular amalgamation of a unit delay with a sampling interval of 5∗ e-5 seconds to
output linguistic variables (BC and BD). attain accurate timing and synchronisation. Afterwards, the
delayed signal is inputted into a PWM generator. The PWM
G. MODELING OF VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER (VSI) AND generator utilises a 3-phase bridge with six pulses to produce
ITS CONTROLLER the necessary gate pulses for controlling the switching of the
The VSI plays a crucial role in converting the DC power VSI. The design characteristics and specifications of the VSI
produced by the SPV and BESS into AC electricity for controller can be found in Table 9.
the grid-connected microgrid. The VSI converts the DC
voltage obtained from these sources into a regulated AC TABLE 9. Design parameters for VSI controller.
voltage, guaranteeing that it is compatible with the micro-
grid’s network. The proposed work utilises a VSI that
employs power electronic switching MOSFET to provide
an adjustable-frequency AC output from a constant DC
input [41]. The conversion process is accomplished via
a sequence of switching operations regulated by a PWM
approach. Fig. 11 displays a VSI and its corresponding con-
troller. The design parameters and the VSI specifications are
provided in Table 8.
The VSI central controller gets multiple crucial inputs:
• The measured DC voltage Vdc_meas (440 V) across
the VSI, ensuring consistent functioning within the H. MODELING OF DIESEL GENERATOR
specified voltage range. DG is an essential element of diverse power systems, offering
• The grid current (Iabc_prim ) and the grid voltage dependable backup power during grid instability or serving as
(Vabc_prim ), which offers vital data regarding the current the main power supply in isolated regions. DG plays a pivotal
and voltage conditions of the grid and aids in the syn- function with several other sustainable energy sources and
chronisation of the grid and the injection of electricity. power management technologies [42]. The proposed DG sys-
To initiate the control process, the Vabc_prim and Iabc_prim tem is powered by a 30 KVA, 3-phase synchronous generator.
undergo processing through a Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) to The diesel engine governor is responsible for managing the
acquire Vd Vq_prim and Id Iq_prim . These signals correspond to generator’s rotational speed by controlling the diesel engine’s
the voltage and current components of the grid in a rotating speed. The governor consistently maintains a steady speed
reference frame synchronised with the grid’s frequency along despite changes in load conditions, guaranteeing a stable
with its phase. Afterwards, the Vd Vq_prim and Id Iq_prim that output voltage and frequency. The speed control system has
were obtained are inputted to a current regulator. The present feedback systems to regulate fuel delivery in response to
regulator employs a PI controller with feedforward control to deviations from the desired speed setpoint.
accurately control the current injected into the grid. In addi- Excitation control is a crucial element in the operation of
tion, a reference value named (I d Iq_ref ) is given as input to synchronous generators. Excitation pertains to the level of
the current regulator to control the desired current levels. The magnetic field intensity in the rotor, which directly impacts
Id Iq_ref is generated using a regulator. The regulator, which the voltage produced by the generator. Within the frame-
takes Vdc as its input, ensures that the DC link voltage remains work of a DG system, the excitation system is responsible
at the appropriate level (440V) by employing a PI controller. for guaranteeing that the generator generates the necessary
The Id_ref , which is the output of the regulator, is a component voltage levels in various operational scenarios [43]. In this
of the Id Iq_ref . The Id_ref component is included in the Id Iq_ref case, an automatic voltage regulator is used to modify the
input as well. The current regulator effectively controls the excitation current in response to variations in load and the
active and reactive power flow by utilising the Id Iq_ref as well system’s needs. The equations employed for the design of a
as the measured current components. DG are as follows:

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TABLE 10. Design parameters of a diesel generator. TABLE 11. Design parameters for a power grid, 3-phase load and fault.

The mathematical representation of the diesel engine

governor is expressed as,
Pref = Pload + Ploss (21)
Here Pref is the reference power, Pload is the actual output
power and Ploss is the power loss, respectively.
The expression for excitation system is given by,
 
Vref = K Vref setpoint − Vterminal (22)
Here, Vref is the reference voltage for excitation, K is the
excitation controller gain, Vref setpoint is the setpoint voltage,
and Vterminal is the terminal voltage, respectively.
The efficiency of a diesel generator is determined by,
Output power
η= (23)
Input power
The design parameters are shown in Table 10.

I. MODELING OF AC POWER GRID, THREE-PHASE LOAD

AND FAULT
The proposed work aims to develop a thorough depiction of
the AC power grid within the framework of a microgrid. This
proposed methodology involves designing the power grid
model, which includes many components such as a 3-phase
source, transformers, and transmission lines. Moreover, it is
essential to represent the three-phase load precisely, which
is connected to the grid, to replicate its performance accu-
rately under different operating situations. The model must
include fault scenarios, such as short circuits and anomalies,
to assess the system’s performance in unfavourable condi-
tions. This modelling stage establishes the basis for analysing
the microgrid’s fault identification, compensation, and power
FIGURE 12. Circuit diagram of UPFC with FLC-based voltage regulator.
management strategies. The design parameters are presented
in Table 11.
Compensator (STATCOM), while Converter 2 operates as a
J. MODELING OF UPFC WITH FLC CONTROLLER Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) [44]. These
The UPFC is an integral component of the FACTS that components are interconnected using a DC link capacitor.
performs a crucial role in enhancing the reliability and man- The suggested UPFC with an FLC-based voltage regulator
agement of PS by effectively managing the flow of power, is depicted in Fig. 12.
voltage, and impedance. The integration of two primary com- Converter 1, which functions as a STATCOM, utilises
ponents, namely Converter 1 and Converter 2, is observed PWM techniques with the assistance of a PWM generator
in this study. Converter 1 functions as a Static Synchronous to regulate the injected reactive power within the system.

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TABLE 12. Design parameters of UPFC.

FIGURE 13. Proposed FLC designer for voltage regulator of UPFC.

FIGURE 14. Membership function plot for input grid voltage.

This feature enables the flexible modification of voltage

magnitude and the corresponding phase angle, effectively
controlling the grid voltage while providing reactive power
assistance as required. The gate pulses for Converter 1 are
generated by the PWM generator, which guarantees pre-
cise control of the STATCOM’s output voltage [45]. The
STATCOM’s output voltage is determined by,
VSTATCOM = Vgrid + jXcomp ISTATCOM (24)
FIGURE 15. Membership function plot for input load voltage.
Here, Vgrid is the grid voltage, Xcomp is the compensa-
tion reactance and ISTATCOM is the current injected by the
STATCOM. maintain the voltage within specific limitations. The manip-
Converter 2, operating as an SSSC, is employed to control ulation of power flow between the converters allows voltage
the magnitude of the voltage at the load terminal and alleviate to be regulated across the DC link capacitor. This is accom-
voltage fluctuations resulting from changes in the load and plished by controlling the output voltages of the converters.
the grid. The gate pulses utilised in the SSSC switches are The voltage across the DC link capacitor is given by,
produced by an additional PWM generator that can be regu- Z
1
lated by a voltage regulator based on an FLC. The regulator VDC = (PSTATCOM − PSSSC ) dt (26)
receives grid and load voltage as inputs and modifies the C
SSSC switching to uphold the appropriate voltage levels [45]. Here C is the capacitance of the DC link capacitor, PSTATCOM
The formula for the output voltage of an SSSC is as follows: is the power flow through STATCOM and PSSSC is the power
flow through SSSC.
VSSSC = Vload + jXline ISSSC (25)
Table 12 provides the design parameters of UPFC.
Here, Vload is the load voltage, Xline is the line reactance and The voltage regulation can be achieved by utilising an FLC
ISSSC is the current injected by the SSSC. employing the Mamdani block. Fig. 13 displays the system,
In the UPFC system, the DC link capacitor functions as the which has been designed using the Mamdani model. In this
energy storage component, guaranteeing seamless operation configuration, the inputs consist of the grid voltage and the
and supplying the required energy to the converters. To ensure load voltage, while the output corresponds to the duty cycle
the appropriate functioning of the converters, it is crucial to of the UPFC. The objective of the FLC is to regulate the duty

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FIGURE 16. Membership function plot for output duty cycle.

TABLE 13. Fuzzy rule table for proposed FLC-based UPFC.

FIGURE 17. Standard block diagram of PMU.

TABLE 14. Design parameters of PMUs.

cycle dynamically by utilising the grid’s measurements and

load voltages to achieve optimal voltage control. The FLC
is modelled by selecting parameters for both the input and Fig. 17 depicts a standard block diagram of a PMU in a grid-
output variables. connected system.
The factors responsible for determining the input grid Potential Transformers (PTs) and Current Transformers
voltage are the Grid Voltage Minimum (Gmin ), Grid Voltage (CTs) are utilised to acquire voltage and current data. These
Medium (Gmed ), and Grid Voltage Maximum (Gmax ). Fig. 14 devices aim to reduce the elevated voltage and current lev-
displays a graph of the membership function for the input. els within the microgrid to easily manageable levels for
Fig. 15 displays the second membership function plot for measuring purposes. The CTs and PTs measurements are
the input load voltage, which encompasses parameters such subsequently inputted into an analog-to-digital converter that
as Load Voltage Minimum (Lmin ), Load Voltage Medium converts the signals into digital format for subsequent anal-
(Lmed ), and Load Voltage Maximum (Lmax ). ysis. An anti-aliasing filter prevents aliasing and provides a
Fig. 16 displays the membership function visualisation of precise digital representation of the analogue signals. This
the output variable, duty cycle, which is defined by three filter effectively eliminates high-frequency components that
parameters: Minimum Duty Cycle (Dmin ), Medium Duty exceed the Nyquist frequency to mitigate distortions in dig-
Cycle (Dmed ), and Maximum Duty Cycle (Dmax ). The FLC ital signals. A phase-locked oscillator produces steady clock
functions by establishing a collection of fuzzy rules that signals to achieve synchronisation and timing inside the sys-
dictate its decision-making procedure. Table 13 presents the tem. It guarantees synchronisation across all components,
fuzzy rule table. preserving consistency in the measurements acquired from
various places inside the microgrid. In the microgrid, the GPS
K. MODELING OF SYNCHROPHASORS receiver receives signals emitted by GPS satellites, enabling
ST’s accuracy relies on using PMUs to precisely measure accurate measurement synchronisation. The synchronisation
the magnitudes and phase angles of current, voltage, and the allows for precise estimation of the phasor and simplifies
ROCOF at various locations within the electrical grid. The the process of monitoring and controlling the microgrid in
PMUs can sample data at high frequencies, generally reach- real time. The phasor estimators are utilised to calculate
ing several kilohertz, allowing for the microgrid’s real-time phasor values by processing synchronised voltage and current
monitoring and management. GPS satellites are vital in PMU measurements. Subsequently, the phasor readings are com-
as they offer accurate timing data for synchronising measure- municated to a Phasor Data Collector/Concentrator (PDC)
ments throughout the microgrid. The synchronisation of pha- to facilitate centralised processing and analysis. Ultimately,
sor measurements and anomaly detection is paramount [25]. a modem enables the transmission of data and control orders

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FIGURE 18. Performance analysis plot for SPV system. (a) Variable solar irradiance, (b) Solar PV voltage, (c) Solar PV current and (d) Solar PV Power.

FIGURE 19. FLC-based MPPT design plots. (a) Fuzzy rule viewer, (b) Fuzzy surface viewer.

among the PDC and external systems [46]. Overall, using ST, angles, and frequency. This enables the detection of abnor-
the proposed system facilitates the incorporation of control malities and faults at a more precise level, hence ensuring the
algorithms, such as FLCs, to detect faults, provide compensa- system’s stability. Table 14 displays the selected parameters
tion, and manage electricity inside the microgrid intelligently. for the design of PMUs.
The proposed study employs four PMUs: the first PMU
in the AC power grid bus, the second PMU in the DG bus, III. SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
the third PMU in the SPV-BMS-inverter bus, and the fourth The primary objective of the proposed system is to
PMU in the load side bus. The PMUs are utilised to correctly enhance fault detection, compensation, and power man-
monitor and measure voltages’ magnitudes, currents, phase agement in microgrids using proposed FLCs and ST,

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FIGURE 20. FLC-based MPPT output plots. (a) FLC-based MPPT DC-DC boost converter voltage, (b) FLC-based MPPT DC-DC boost converter current,
(c) MPPT boost converter power using FLC.

FIGURE 21. FLC-based BESS-BMS design plots. (a) Fuzzy rule viewer, (b) Surface viewer.

employing PMUs. The microgrid simulation is conducted quality of the grid, both during stable and defective condi-
using MATLAB/Simulink version R2023a, employing a halt tions. Ultimately, the system’s performance is monitored, and
time of 0.5 seconds. The system under consideration com- anomaly detections are seen through integrated PMUs inside
prises an SPV system equipped with FLC-based MPPT. the system. The subsequent sessions will delve into the exam-
Furthermore, the system incorporates a BESS with a BMS ination of various plots acquired and their corresponding
managed by FLC to enhance its efficiency. In the event observations.
of grid instability, the system is equipped with a DG as a
backup power source. Additionally, it can function as the A. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF THE SPV SYSTEM PLOTS
primary source of electricity in remote areas, hence play- Fig. 18 (a) illustrates the design of the SPV system for a
ing a crucial role in power management within the planned First Solar FS-272 model, incorporating variable irradiance
microgrid. An anomaly occurs during the time frame of 0.1 to levels of 200, 500, 1000, 500, and 200 kW/m2. The volt-
0.3 seconds, and its impact on the system is then examined. age plot, as depicted in Fig. 18 (b), is also acquired. The
A UPFC is incorporated into the system to enhance the power plot demonstrates that the proposed SPV model can create

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FIGURE 22. FLC-based DC-DC bidirectional output plots. (a) Voltage across bidirectional converter, (b) Current through bidirectional
converter, (c) Power of bidirectional converter.

voltage by utilising changing irradiance, resulting in a peak the role of the FLC in regulating the duty cycle of the pro-
voltage of 1700 V at a time interval of 0.3 seconds. The plot posed boost converter. This adjustment ensures the output
demonstrates the fluctuating voltage performance in response voltage remains ideal, facilitating maximum power trans-
to different irradiation levels. The fluctuation of SPV current fer. Consequently, the voltage output demonstrates variations
is depicted in Fig. 18 (c). It is evident from the image that within a specific range, effectively monitoring the MPP of the
the SPV also produces a fluctuating current in response to proposed SPV array.
changes in irradiation. The proposed SPV system’s power The output current of the boost converter is indicative of
plot is computed and examined, revealing a peak power of the MPPT operation in response to different environmental
72 kW, as depicted in Fig. 18 (d). The power curve demon- and load situations, as depicted in Fig. 20 (b). The input
strates that the proposed SPV can provide adequate power for from SPV, such as temperature and irradiance, is continuously
a large microgrid system. monitored by the FLC. Subsequently, the controller modifies
the operational settings of the converter to enhance the ability
to collect electric power from the solar panels. Considering
B. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF FLC-BASED DC-DC variations in solar irradiance, load demand, and converter
BOOST CONVERTER PLOTS efficiency, the output current exhibits fluctuations, ensuring
The FLC plays a crucial role in the MPPT of the DC-DC boost the maintenance of an ideal operating point for power gener-
converter-based SPV system. As an intelligent controller, the ation.
FLC efficiently regulates the power generated by the SPV Fig. 20 (c) illustrates the significant impact of the power
system and utilises fuzzy rules to track the MPP accurately. output of the boost converter in the grid-connected SPV
Fig. 19 (a) displays the rule viewer of FLC-based MPPT. system on the overall performance of the MPPT control
Fig. 19 (b) also presents a corresponding surface view plot. method. The FLC optimises power conversion efficiency
The boost converter is incorporated into the system to by dynamically altering the operating point of the con-
increase the SPV system’s voltage, even under fluctuat- verter, hence maximising the power generated from the solar
ing irradiance. The FLC-based MPPT plots are depicted in panels. The power output displays minor fluctuations in
Fig. 20. The MPPT voltage is shown in Fig. 20 (a), illustrating response to variations in irradiance levels, load demand, and

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FIGURE 23. Battery performance plots. (a) Battery voltage plot, (b) Battery current plot and (c) Battery % SoC plot.

converter efficiency. However, it consistently maintains close However, the FLC promptly addresses these disruptions and
to the MPP under most operating settings. Implementing this guarantees stability. The FLC can manage the system even
dynamic power output management mechanism guarantees when there is a defect and effectively preserve stability. The
optimal solar energy utilisation while preserving stability proposed FLC system’s stability and efficacy are ensured by
within the grid-connected system. the power curve of the bidirectional converter depicted in
Fig. 22 (c). During the fault phase, it is evident that the voltage
across the converter undergoes transient spikes or falls, the
C. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF BESS AND FLC-BASED current passing through it may display abrupt fluctuations,
BMS PLOTS and the power entering or exiting the battery may depart from
The MATLAB/Simulink results for a DC-DC bidirectional the intended setpoint.
converter and BESS based on the FLC offer significant It is observed from the plots that under typical circum-
insights into their performance when subjected to fault sce- stances, the BESS efficiently stores and releases energy under
narios. Fig. 21 displays the output of the FLC rule viewer the specific demands of the system, so ensuring that its
and surface viewer. Fig. 22 illustrates the performance of the SoC remains within the desired thresholds. Nevertheless,
DC-DC bidirectional converter based on FLC. Under normal if a malfunction arises during the designated timeframe, the
conditions, the FLC efficiently controls the voltage across efficiency of the BESS will be compromised.
the bidirectional converter, sustains the intended current Fig. 23 displays the performance curve of the FLC-based
through it, and regulates the power charging or discharging BMS. Failure can have several effects on the BESS, such as
of the BESS. Nevertheless, the overall performance could be abrupt variations in voltage or excessive current, which might
impacted if a fault occurs within the designated timeframe of strain the battery cells, thereby impacting their durability and
0.1 to 0.3 seconds. Fig. 22 (a) and (b) depict the voltage and operational efficiency. Additionally, the problem can poten-
current in the bidirectional converter, respectively. The anal- tially interfere with the charging and discharging procedure,
ysis of the plots reveals that the occurrence of faults within resulting in deviations in the SoC from the intended level.
this specific interval has the potential to cause disruptions in The FLC plays a crucial function in regulating the BESS
the system, showing abrupt variations in voltage and current. during fault circumstances. Based on the analysis of the

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FIGURE 24. Performance analysis plots of VSI. (a) Voltage across VSI, (b) Current through VSI, (c) Active power of VSI, (d) Reactive power
of VSI.

FIGURE 25. Diesel generator plots. (a) Mechanical rotor speed of diesel generator, (b) Mechanical power of diesel generator, (c) Terminal
voltage of diesel generator.

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FIGURE 26. DG output plots. (a) Voltage across DG, (b) Current through DG, (c) Active power of DG, (d) Reactive power of DG.

FIGURE 27. AC power grid plots. (a) AC grid voltages, (b) AC grid currents, (c) AC grid power.

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FIGURE 28. Performance analysis of FLC-UPFC plots. (a) FLC surface view of UPFC, (b)FLC fuzzy rule-based output, (c) Current before UPFC,
(d) Compensated current after UPFC.

voltage and current graphs depicted in Fig. 23 (a) and (b), range. Fig. 24 (c) illustrates the active power of the VSI,
it is evident that the battery may be efficiently regulated which is efficiently regulated except instances during fault
during the charging and discharging processes. Furthermore, occurrences. The analysis of the reactive power of VSI is
the SoC is efficiently controlled within the range of 99.2% to depicted in Fig. 2 (d), illustrating a similar method. The plot
100%, as depicted in Fig. 23 (c). Hence, the findings demon- demonstrates a strong performance in the conversion of solar
strate that the suggested FLC-based intelligent controller can as well as battery energy into AC power for integration into
accurately detect faults and effectively compensate for BESS, the grid. The plots indicate that, despite grid faults leading
BMS, and bidirectional converter performance. As a result, to voltage dips and current fluctuations, the controller and
the system’s stability is also enhanced. UPFC effectively uphold stability and regulate the VSI out-
put within acceptable thresholds for most of the operational
period.
D. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF VSI PLOTS
The VSI transforms the output from the SPV system and
BESS into AC power, enabling its transmission to the grid. E. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF DIESEL GENERATOR
The performance graphs of VSI with a fault period from 0.1 to PLOTS
03 seconds in the proposed work are depicted in Fig. 24. The DG plays a crucial role in various PS, providing reliable
Fig. 24 (a) illustrates the three-phase voltage acquired from backup power in grid instability. A 30-KVA synchronous
the voltage source converter. The plot demonstrates that the generator fuels the DG system under consideration. The fre-
three phases consistently generate around 400 V for the whole quency of the AC voltage generated is influenced by the
duration, except the fault period. The VSI voltage is impacted mechanical rotor speed of DG, as depicted in Fig. 25 (a),
by a grid fault, resulting in a voltage dip in the plot. The VSI expressed in pu, which is typically modified to align with
controller and the proposed UPFC can effectively regulate the grid’s frequency or comply with system requirements.
the inverter voltage within a defined range, even during a The primary function of the DG governor is to regulate the
problematic time. The current through the VSI is depicted rotational velocity of the generator through the regulation of
in Fig. 24 (b). The recorded current is constant, except for a the DG’s speed.
defective period characterised by spikes. Both the controller Fig. 25 (b) illustrates the mechanical power production pu
and UPFC successfully regulated the current to a significant of the DG. During the initial phase of the narrative, spanning

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FIGURE 29. Performance evaluation plots for grid PMU. (a) Magnitude of AC grid current, (b) Phase angle of AC grid current, (c) Frequency of AC
grid current, (d) Magnitude of AC grid voltage, (e) Phase angle of AC grid voltage, (f) Frequency of AC grid voltage.

from 0 seconds to around 0.03 seconds, the mechanical power mechanical power is observed, reaching a value of 1.1 pu. The
of the generator remains in a condition of halt or idle oper- sudden surge in power generation may suggest the effective
ation. At 0.03 seconds, a rapid surge in mechanical power reintegration of the DG into the microgrid after the fault
occurs, culminating in a value of 1 pu and persisting until has been resolved. The generator effectively responds to the
0.1 seconds. The rapid increase in power output indicates system’s restored demand and stabilises grid frequency and
that the DG is effectively and promptly meeting the load voltage levels. Fig. 25 (c) illustrates the terminal voltage in
demand. The fault scenario occurs within the time interval pu, revealing a consistent terminal voltage, except for the fault
of 0.1 to 0.3 seconds, resulting in a subsequent decrease in period ranging from 0.1 to 0.3 seconds.
power that endures for up to 0.16 seconds. This timeframe Fig. 26 illustrates the voltage across the DG linked to
is most likely required for protective relays to separate the the grid bus. Fig. 26 (a) depicts the voltage of the DG,
DG from the microgrid because of the fault, guaranteeing with particular emphasis on the fault region. The voltage
the system’s stability and avoiding possible harm. After this remains nearly constant at approximately 400 V, except for
period of downtime caused by a failure, the DG undergoes the fault region between 0.1 and 0.3 seconds. Fig. 26 (b)
another surge in mechanical power at 0.16 seconds. The illustrates the fluctuation of current originating from the DG.
observed increase in power may indicate the DG’s attempt to Fig. 26 (c) and (d) display both the active and reactive power.
restore synchronisation with the microgrid or mitigate load It is evident from the plots that the DG efficiently generates
fluctuations following the resolution of the incident. power.
Nevertheless, it rapidly reverts to 0 pu at 0.21 seconds,
indicating that the power grid may not be adequately prepared F. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF AC POWER GRID PLOTS
to accommodate the DG’s output or necessitate additional Fig. 27 exhibits the AC power grid charts. Fig. 27 (a) illus-
stabilisation measures. The extended duration of power depri- trates the grid voltages, which show stability at 400 V, except
vation, lasting up to 0.41 seconds, may suggest the ongoing the 3-phase L-G fault occurring within the time interval of
detachment of the generator from the microgrid, potentially 0.1 seconds to 0.3 seconds. The grid current depicted in
as a component of post-fault restoration or synchronisa- Fig. 27 (b) exhibits an increase in current during the L-G fault
tion protocols. At 0.41 seconds, a significant increase in period. Fig. 27 (c) displays the power output of the AC power

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FIGURE 30. Performance evaluation plots for diesel generator bus PMU. (a) Magnitude of DG current, (b) Phase angle of DG current,
(c) Frequency of DG current, (d) Magnitude of DG voltage, (e) Phase angle of DG voltage, (f) Frequency of DG voltage.

grid. It is evident from the plot that the system is producing pattern, except for the L-G fault, which manifests within the
efficient power and capable of meeting the load needs, except time interval of 0.1 to 0.3 seconds. By effectively monitoring
for the fluctuations observed during the fault period. the PMU data, the defect can be accurately diagnosed, and
appropriate corrective steps can be taken. The voltage and
G. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF FLC-BASED UPFC PLOTS current phase angles function effectively, except for anoma-
Fig. 28 can be used to assess the efficacy of the proposed lies, as depicted in Figs.29 (b) and (e). The utilisation of
FLC-based UPFC. The surface view and fuzzy rule viewer PMUs for phase angle detection in microgrids is of utmost
output of the proposed FLC-based UPFC are depicted in importance in monitoring and regulating the grid’s stability
Figs.28 (a) and (b). The current swell caused by the L-G fault and dependability. PMUs accurately synchronise the voltage
phase preceding UPFC is illustrated in Fig. 28 (c). Fig. 28 (d) and current phasors at different places in the grid. PMUs
demonstrates that the suggested UPFC efficiently compen- accurately identify deviations from the optimum operating
sates for the current during the fault period (0.1-0.3 sec), parameters throughout the fault period (0.1 – 0.3 seconds)
resulting in effective power management and compensation that cause instability by analysing the phase angles of these
in the microgrid utilising the proposed intelligent technique. phasors. Operators can utilise this real-time monitoring fea-
Consequently, the system’s total power quality is enhanced. ture to proactively address the defect by modifying power
flows, operating protective relays, or performing corrective
H. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF PMU PLOTS operations. This ensures grid stability and prevents the occur-
The work utilises four PMUs, with the initial PMU positioned rence of cascade failures. Moreover, the phase angle data
in the AC power grid bus, the second PMU in the DG bus, obtained from PMUs is utilised for extensive monitoring,
the third PMU in the SPV-BMS-inverter bus, and the fourth control, and safety purposes, enabling improved coordination
PMU in the load side bus. PMUs are employed to monitor among various grid components, and enhancing the overall
and measure voltages, currents, phase angles, and frequencies resilience and reliability of the system. Figs. 29 (c) and (f)
accurately, which facilitates the identification of anomalies depict the grid voltage and current frequency, respectively.
and deficiencies at a higher accuracy level, guaranteeing the The plots demonstrate effective monitoring of frequencies,
system’s stability. including observing frequency changes during fault periods
The PMU implemented in the power grid is depicted in and successfully tracking frequency restoration.
Fig. 29. Based on the analysis of Figs. 29 (a) and (d), it is The plots obtained from the PMU installed in the DG bus
evident that the voltages and currents exhibit a consistent are depicted in Fig. 30. Like the scenario in Fig. 29, the

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FIGURE 31. Performance evaluation plots for inverter bus PMU. (a) Magnitude of inverter current, (b) Phase angle of inverter current,
(c) Frequency of inverter current, (d) Magnitude of inverter voltage, (e) Phase angle of inverter voltage, (f) Frequency of inverter.

PMU proficiently assesses and monitors the magnitudes of • The proposed FLC in SPV-based boost converter effi-
voltage and current in the DG and their phase angles and ciently controls the MPPT operation, guaranteeing
frequencies. Observations are made on deviations within the optimal power efficiency of the SPV system. The man-
0.1 – 0.3 seconds fault period. The plots acquired in the PMU agement of voltage and current fluctuations is conducted
inserted in the inverter bus are depicted in Fig. 31. The PMU within acceptable parameters, ensuring the maintenance
can also accurately measure and monitor the voltage, current, of optimal power generation in the face of environmental
phase angles, and frequency variations of the inverter. Fig. 32 and load fluctuations. The power output consistently
displays the PMU graphs acquired from the load bus. The remains near the MPP, augmenting the overall efficiency
system’s efficacy is successfully assessed and monitored in of energy conversion.
both stable and faulty conditions through a PMU. • The suggested FLC enables effective regulation of the
bidirectional converter and BESS, guaranteeing consis-
IV. ANALYSIS OF SIMULATION RESULTS
tent performance in regular and faulty circumstances.
The analysis is conducted using the plots derived from the FLC immediately mitigates voltage and current vari-
simulation results. ations during disturbances, ensuring system stability.
The battery’s SoC is efficiently regulated to maintain
• The SPV system exhibits effective voltage and cur- desirable thresholds, facilitating optimal charging and
rent generation following fluctuating irradiance levels, discharging.
thereby highlighting its capacity to adjust to alterations • The VSI effectively converts the outputs of SPV and
in the surrounding environment. The direct correlation BESS into AC electricity for integration into the grid.
between current and voltage fluctuations and irradiation The VSI controller and UPFC effectively regulate volt-
changes underscores the system’s responsiveness. The age and current, maintaining grid stability even in grid
power curve demonstrates the adequacy of power gener- disturbances. The stability of active and reactive power
ation in microgrid applications, guaranteeing a sufficient production is crucial in facilitating efficient power
energy supply. supply to the grid.

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FIGURE 32. Performance evaluation plots for load bus PMU. (a) Magnitude of load current, (b) Phase angle of load current, (c) Frequency of load
current, (d) Magnitude of load voltage, (e) Phase angle of load voltage, (f) Frequency of load voltage.

FIGURE 33. RTDS for WAMS using hardware PMU. FIGURE 34. Single-line diagram of proposed microgrid for RTDS.

• The DG system installed to the grid efficiently addresses current, voltage, and power production. However, there
grid instability by providing backup power during fail- are variations in current flow in fault occurrences, while
ures. The mechanical power generation corresponds to the total power generation remains optimal.
the load requirements, demonstrating the dependability • The utilisation of FLC-based UPFC mitigates current
of DG. The voltage and current of the AC power grid stay fluctuations that occur during fault periods, facilitat-
constant, except during fault periods, which suggests ing efficient power management and maintaining grid
that the system is functioning effectively. Under typical stability. UPFC’s sophisticated adjustment technique
circumstances, the AC power grid demonstrates stable improves the overall power quality of the system.

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TABLE 15. Design paramters of RTDS using RSCAD. TABLE 15. (Continued.) Design paramters of RTDS using RSCAD.

FIGURE 35. PMU layout of the proposed microgrid using RSCAD.

The effective tracking of currents, voltages, phase

angles, and frequencies can achieve the proactive control
of faults and enhance grid resilience.
So, it is evident from the results that the combination of
intelligent-based FLCs, PMUs, and effective control meth-
ods successfully improves fault detection, compensation, and
power management in microgrids. This ensures the sys-
tem operates reliably and consistently, even in challenging
conditions.

V. RTDS VALIDATION USING RSCAD

To verify the accuracy of the work performed in this study
using MATLAB/Simulink, the identical system is simulated
• PMUs offer precise monitoring and the measurement of using RSCAD and subjected to RTDS. The resulting plots
diverse grid characteristics, enabling the identification are assessed by including a PMU in the system. Using ST
of faults and implementation of corrective measures. in the RTDS of Wide Area Monitoring Systems (WAMS)

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FIGURE 36. RTDS output plots of the proposed microgrid a) PCC voltages and PCC breaker currents during fault, b) Current plots of battery, SPV system,
diesel generator and Grid Current.

FIGURE 37. Magnitude of voltages and phase angles of phases A, B and C measured in PMU using RTDS.

has emerged as an innovative method for improving grid system management because of its wide-ranging applica-
monitoring and control capabilities. WAMS utilises PMUs tions, which encompass wide-area monitoring and control,
to include them in PS. This integration allows for collecting oscillation detection, dynamic stability assessment, and post-
real-time, high-resolution information regarding grid condi- event analysis. There are two types of RTDS for WAMS:
tions. This data empowers operators to make prompt and one that utilises software PMUs while the other that utilises
well-informed decisions to ensure stability, enhance depend- hardware PMUs.
ability, and optimise grid performance. The utilisation of this Fig. 33 depicts the RTDS for WAMS, which inte-
technology presents numerous benefits, such as heightened grates hardware-based PMUs to improve the precision
situational awareness, more significant fault detection, local- and dependability of measurements, which is the method-
ization capabilities, improved power system visualisation, ology proposed in this work. The system incorporates
and facilitation of advanced control and safeguarding tech- satellite-based time synchronization, GPS clock and an RTDS
niques. WAMS plays a vital role in contemporary power platform equipped with a GTWIF Card/NovaCor processor.

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FIGURE 38. Frequency, ROCOF and fraction-of-second count plots measured in PMU using RTDS.

In this arrangement, PMUs directly assess synchrophasors, measured at a peak value of 392.8 V. From the PCC breaker
circumventing the necessity for software emulation. Before current plot, it is evident that a significant increase in current,
data capture, the GTAO and amplifier modules guarantee reaching a value of 3.92896∗ E-9 kA, occurs during the fault
precise signal conditioning and amplification. Data transmis- period. The installed PMU efficiently monitors and measures
sion to the PDC is facilitated through ethernet connections, the fault in real-time.
following the IEEE C37.118 standards. The control sta- Fig. 36 (b) depicts the currents of the battery, SPV sys-
tion is responsible for processing, analysing, and visualising tem, and grid when the SPV, BESS, and DG are activated,
real-time synchrophasor data to enhance grid monitoring and providing power to the grid to fulfil the load demands. The
control activities. Using hardware PMUs in this configuration battery current is accumulated and measured at a peak-peak
provides enhanced measurement accuracy, facilitating more value of 0.61974 kA, whereas the SPV current is measured at
detailed grid analysis and more dependable decision-making a peak-peak value of 0.48563 kA and the DG current with a
in crucial operating situations. The suggested study employs peak-peak value of 0.7425 kA. The PMU efficiently monitors
this RTDS configuration and conducts the simulation using the grid current during a fault state in real-time and measures
RSCAD. it as 391.52682 kA during the fault duration.
Fig. 34 depicts the single-line diagram of the microgrid The IEEE C37.118 standard guarantees the interoperability
for RTDS with the identical components selected in the and dependability of data transmission for the microgrid.
MATLAB/Simulink software. An SPV system, in addition In addition, the PMU that relies on hardware can promptly
to a BESS and a DG, is implemented and linked to the and precisely identify defects, hence facilitating prompt com-
load bus. A grid bus is linked to the load bus. A three- pensation and management measures. After a fault occurs,
phase fault is created between the load bus and the grid both current and voltage are regulated, demonstrating the effi-
bus. To ensure efficient monitoring and measurement of the ciency of the fault-compensating mechanisms. During faults,
system’s parameters, anomaly detection and performance, the SPV and BESS systems will decrease output, while the
a PMU is incorporated into the system to leverage the ST. DG increases its power output to compensate for the shortfall.
Fig. 35 shows the system layout after the PMU is connected The PMU offers accurate measurements of voltage mag-
to the proposed microgrid. The selected parameters for the nitudes and associated phase angles for the three phases,
system design in RTDS using RSCAD are provided below in as depicted in Fig. 37. The values provided are real-time
Table 15. information that allows for immediate monitoring and control
Fig. 36 displays the plots generated by the RTDS, including and is essential for detecting faults and managing electricity
a hardware-based PMU. Fig. 36 (a) shows the voltage at the in the microgrids being suggested. In a balanced three-phase
Point of Common Coupling (PCC) and the current flowing system, the voltage magnitude should be uniform and have
through the PCC breaker during an L-G fault. This fault lasts equal magnitudes, along with a 120-degree phase shift. Any
for 0.10 seconds in real-time. The PCC voltage plot indicates variation indicates the presence of possible problems, such as
that the three phases, A, B, and C, steadily increase and are phase abnormalities or faults. The PMU efficiently measures

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TABLE 16. Comparison of proposed work with previously published Fig. 38 displays the frequency, ROCOF, and fraction-of-
works in literature.
second plot acquired from the PMU, which are crucial for
evaluating the microgrid’s stability. Fig. 38 (a) demonstrates
that the frequency remains consistently at a nominal value
of 50 Hz, while the ROCOF plot confirms its efficacy. High
ROCOF values indicate rapid and abrupt fluctuations in fre-
quency, commonly linked to faults or sudden variations in
load. However, in this case, the ROCOF is maintained at zero
for the entire duration.
Fig. 38 (b) displays the plot of the count of fractions of
a second acquired from PMU observations in a microgrid.
These measurements utilise the exact time-stamping ability
of ST using PMU, enabling accurate synchronisation and
coordination of events throughout the microgrid. The level
of detail is essential for identifying and examining temporary
occurrences with high time precision, such as malfunctions
or abrupt shifts in load. Through thorough analysis, the pre-
cise timing and order of events can be obtained, leading
to improved identification of faults, isolation of issues, and
enhanced system stability, all in real-time. This level of speci-
ficity facilitates improved decision-making and optimisation
of microgrid effectiveness, ultimately enhancing dependabil-
ity and efficiency.
Testing the proposed system utilising RTDS and RSCAD,
in addition to hardware-based PMUs, showcases the system’s
capacity to identify and rectify defects accurately. An in-
depth examination of the plots yields crucial observations on
the microgrid’s effectiveness and stability, guaranteeing the
suggested system’s dependable functioning.

VI. NOVELTY ASSESSMENT OF THE PROPOSED SYSTEM

WITH EXISTING SYSTEMS
The uniqueness of the proposed system can be assessed by
comparing it to previously published studies cited in the
literature. The comparison is conducted in Table 16.

VII. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

The authors suggested an intelligent-based fault detection,
compensation, and power management approach for micro-
grids employing FLCs and PMUs. The system showcased
resilience in adjusting to variable environmental conditions
and load fluctuations by incorporating SPV systems, DG,
BESS, VSI and UPFC with the help of proposed FL-based
controllers. The examination of the SPV system demon-
strated its ability to effectively produce current and voltage
following different irradiance levels, guaranteeing a steady
power supply inside the microgrid. Furthermore, the control
strategies adopted using FLCs in MPPT-based SPV systems,
BMS and UPFC effectively regulated power generation and
storage, ensuring optimal performance in normal and fault
conditions. Also, ST-utilising PMUs, installed in the buses
on the grid side, DG, inverter, and load, enable accurate mea-
the magnitudes of phases A, B, and C from Fig. 37 (a) and surement, monitoring, and detection of anomalies occurring
plots the appropriate phase angles in Fig. 37 (b). Given the during fault periods. Therefore, the suggested system guaran-
stable output of the PCC voltage in Fig. 36 (a), the magnitudes tees reliable and consistent operation, even under challenging
and phases associated with it likewise exhibit stability. circumstances.

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Moreover, the suggested system’s dependability and effec- PTs – Potential Transformers.
tiveness were verified by utilising RTDS with PMUs in PWM – Pulse Width Modulation.
real-world settings. By utilising hardware-based PMUs, the RES – Renewable Energy Sources.
system can precisely monitor grid interactions in real-time, ROCOF – Rate of Change of Frequency.
allowing for the timely identification of disruptions and RTDS – Real-Time Digital Simulator.
proactive implementation of control measures. The RTDS SCADA – Supervisory Control and Data
simulations demonstrated the system’s capacity to uphold Acquisition System.
grid stability and effectively handle faults, as indicated by SESS – Smart Energy Storage System.
the accurate voltage and current magnitudes, their phase SoC – State of Charge.
angles, frequency, and ROCOF in fault scenarios. Finally, SPV – Solar Photovoltaic.
the novelty of the suggested system is analysed by compar- SSSC – Static Synchronous Series Compensator.
ing the results obtained with those of the existing literature. ST – Synchrophasor Technology.
In short, integrating intelligent FLCs, PMUs, and advanced STATCOM – Static Compensator.
control techniques has shown substantial enhancements in SVC – Static Var Compensators.
microgrids’ fault identification, compensation, and power THD – Total Harmonic Distortion.
management, guaranteeing dependable and consistent oper- UPFC – Unified Power Flow Controller.
ation, even in challenging situations. The following future VSC – Voltage Source Converter.
endeavours can expand upon the research conducted. VSI – Voltage Source Inverter.
• Improved fault identification and compensation can WAMS – Wide Area Monitoring Systems.
be accomplished by implementing sophisticated WECS – Wind Energy Conversion System.
fault/anomaly detection algorithms utilising modern
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oscillation power system based on PMU technology,’’ in Proc. Int. Conf. M. DHINU LAL received the bachelor’s degree
Electr. Eng. (ICEE), Sep. 2020, pp. 1–6. in electrical and electronics engineering from the
[27] A. T. Mathew and M. N. Aravind, ‘‘PMU based disturbance analysis and University of Kerala, in 2009, and the master’s
fault localization of a large grid using wavelets and list processing,’’ in degree in power systems engineering from Anna
Proc. IEEE Region 10 Conf. (TENCON), Nov. 2016, pp. 879–883. University, Chennai, in 2012. He is currently pur-
[28] A. Waqar, Z. Khurshid, J. Ahmad, M. Aamir, M. Yaqoob, and I. Alam, suing the Ph.D. degree in power systems with
‘‘Modeling and simulation of phasor measurement unit (PMU) for early VIT University, focusing on machine learning
fault detection in interconnected two-area network,’’ in Proc. 1st Int. Conf. techniques to address power system issues. His
Power, Energy Smart Grid (ICPESG), Apr. 2018, pp. 1–6. research interests include machine learning, fuzzy
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grid connected photovoltaic system,’’ J. Cleaner Prod., vol. 447, Apr. 2024,
measurements, and electro magnetics.
Art. no. 141294.
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empirical analysis of a cascaded hybrid MPPT controller for grid tied solar
photovoltaic systems under partial shaded conditions,’’ Meas., Sensors,
vol. 31, Feb. 2024, Art. no. 100961. RAMESH VARADARAJAN (Member, IEEE)
[31] B. Vijayakumar, K. S. Rajesh, A. V. P. Kumar, and Y. Ramanjaneyulu, received the bachelor’s degree in mechanical engi-
‘‘Optimizing battery charging with a photovoltaic-driven DC–DC boost neering from the Birla Institute of Technology
converter system,’’ Migration Lett., vol. 21, no. S7, pp. 803–818, 2024. and Science (BITS), Pilani, in 1983, the A.M.I.E.
[32] K. Nisha and R. Beniwal, ‘‘Comparison of efficiency of various DC–DC
degree in electrical engineering from the Institute
converters connected to solar photovoltaic module,’’ Environ. Sci. Pollut.
of Engineers, India, in 1992, the master’s degree
Res., vol. 30, no. 30, pp. 75720–75734, May 2023.
[33] S. S. Raghuwanshi and V. Khare, ‘‘FLC based MPPT controller for optimal
in power systems engineering from the Thiagarajar
tracking photovoltaic system,’’ in Proc. Int. Conf. Inf., Commun., Instrum. College of Engineering (TCE), Madurai Kamaraj
Control (ICICIC), Aug. 2017, pp. 1–6. University, in 1994, and the Ph.D. degree from VIT
[34] C. Pavithra, S. Vidhyareni, M. Vijayadharshini, K. B. Akshaya, University, Vellore, India, in 2011. He is currently
and N. Varsha, ‘‘Comparison of solar P&O and FLC-based MPPT a Professor with the School of Electrical Engineering, VIT University. His
controllers & analysis under dynamic conditions,’’ EAI Endorsed current interests include machine learning, artificial intelligence, and power
Trans. Energy Web, vol. 11, pp. 1–6, Jan. 2024. [Online]. Available: systems.
https://publications.eai.eu/index.php/ew/article/view/4988

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