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DYNAMIC WELL TESTING IN PETROLEUM
EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT
 DYNAMIC WELL
TESTING IN
PETROLEUM
EXPLORATION AND
DEVELOPMENT
SECOND EDITION
HUINONG ZHUANG
YONGXIN HAN
HEDONG SUN
XIAOHUA LIU
Elsevier
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The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
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© 2020 Petroleum Industry Press. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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Notices
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understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
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any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods
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 Preface

Since 2013, when the first edition of this examples, such as the deep grain shoal car-
book was published by Elsevier, we have been bonate gas reservoir represented by the
working on dynamic description research of Longwangmiao gas reservoir in the Moxi
some large and medium sized gas fields in block of the Anyue gas field of the Sichuan
China. In the past decade, additional break- Basin (by Xiaohua Liu); the deep and
throughs were made in gas exploration and ultradeep fractured tight sandstone gas res-
development within the country. Deep, low ervoirs represented by the Keshen gas field
permeability to tight, complex carbonate and in the Tarim Basin; the ultradeep fractured
volcanic reservoirs emerged gradually to vuggy complex carbonate gas reservoirs
become the new reserves contributors, but represented by the Tazhong No. 1 gas field
their development was more challenging. (by Hedong Sun), and the volcanic gas reser-
In this circumstance, the role of the gas reser- voirs represented by the Xushen gas field in
voir dynamic description became increasingly the Songliao Basin (by Yongxin Han). More-
prominent. While participating in the pre- over, some defects in the first edition have
liminary appraisal, development planning, been corrected and all maps/figures were
and subsequent dynamic research for these redrawn.
complex gas reservoirs, we extended the dy- We appreciate Wen Cao, Lianchao Jia,
namic description technique to various litho- Ruilan Luo, and all other colleagues for their
logic gas reservoirs. Thus this technique was assistance in writing and proofreading this
made more applicable and practicable. It can book. We also appreciate Elsevier and Petro-
help ensure the scientific, predictable, and leum Industry Press for their contributions to
economic development of gas fields. this publication.
On this basis, some critical parts in the This book is a summary and refinement of
first edition have been revised. The book the authors’ research. It reflects the integra-
covers almost all types of unusual lithologic tion, advances, and upgrading of gas reser-
gas fields discovered in China in the past voir engineering theory and field practice.
30 years. In Chapter 8, the dynamic descrip- We hope this publication can contribute to
tion is further illustrated with some the development of complex gas reservoirs.

vii
 About the author

Technology. Since 1990 he has served at the

Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration
and Development (RIPED) of PetroChina,
has been concerned with the exploration
and development of several large or
medium scale gas fields in China, and has
carried out dynamic performance research.
He has devoted himself to performance anal-
ysis and well testing for about 60 years.

Huinong Zhuang, professorate senior en-

gineer, graduated from Peking University in
1962. After graduation he took part in re-
search on the development program of the
Daqing Oil Field in its early stages, and after
1965 he served in the Shengli Oil Field, where
his interest was in oil/gas well testing. In the
1980s he took charge of and successfully op-
erated interference tests and pulse tests in
carbonate reservoirs; during this period he
invented the interpretation type curves for Yongxin Han is a Senior Reservoir Engi-
interference well tests in double porosity res- neer of the Research Institute of Petroleum
ervoirs and applied these types of curves in Exploration and Development (RIPED) of
the field. He managed research on downhole PetroChina and Deputy Director of the De-
differential pressure gauges and applied partment of Gas Field Development, and
these gauges in data acquisition in the field, a member of the Society of Petroleum
and consequently won the invention award Engineers (SPE). Since he graduated from
from the China National Science and Tech- Daqing Petroleum Institute in 1989, he has
nology Committee and was present at the worked for RIPED, specializing in pressure
First International Meeting on Petroleum En- transient analysis, production data analysis,
gineering in Beijing in 1982; his paper was and dynamic gas reservoir description.
published in the Journal of Petroleum He has participated in the exploration and

ix
x About the author

development of several large or medium experience with a focus on well test and pro-
scale gas fields in China and completed duction data analysis. He has published over
more than 1000 gas well interval dynamic 50 papers in peer reviewed journals and SPE
performance studies over the past 30 years. conferences. He is an author of three books
He holds a BS degree in reservoir engineer- published by Elsevier.
ing from Daqing Petroleum Institute of
China, and MS and PhD degrees in reservoir
engineering from China University of
Geosciences (Beijing). He has copublished
6 books and over 30 papers in peer reviewed
journals and conference presentations on
well testing and gas reservoir evaluation
and development.

Xiaohua Liu, PhD, is senior reservoir

engineer with the Research Institute of Petro-
leum Exploration and Development (RIPED)
of PetroChina. She has 25 years of work
experience in natural gas field development
research and has been involved in some of
Hedong Sun, PhD, Society of Petroleum China’s major gas field development pro-
Engineers (SPE) member and professorate grams and reservoir engineering. Her focus
senior engineer, earned his PhD from Xi’an is combining well short term prefracture
Jiaotong University in 2004. Since 2004, pressure buildup with long term perfor-
he has been a research engineer in the mance and geology to propose production
Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration optimization. She has coauthored 3 books
and Development (RIPED) of PetroChina. and over 25 papers in peer reviewed journals
Hedong has 23 years of reservoir engineering and conference presentations.
 C H A P T E R

1
Introduction

O U T L I N E

1.1 The purpose of this book 1 1.3 Keys of well test analysis 14
1.1.1 Well test: A kind of system 1.3.1 Direct and inverse problems
engineering 3 in well test research 14
1.1.2 Well test: Multilateral 1.3.2 How to understand direct
cooperation 3 problems 16
1.1.3 Writing approaches of this 1.3.3 Describing gas reservoirs with
book 4 well test analysis: Resolving
inverse problem 18
1.2 Role of well test in gas field
1.3.4 Computer aided well test
exploration and development 4
analysis 22
1.2.1 Role of well test in
exploration 6 1.4 Characteristics of modern well
1.2.2 Role of well test in test technology 23
predevelopment 9 1.4.1 One of the three key technologies
1.2.3 Role of well test in of reservoir characterizations 23
development 13 1.4.2 Methods of gas reservoir
dynamic description 25

1.1 The purpose of this book

The modern well test has been around since the beginning of the 1980s. In China, during
the implementation of reform and opening up policies, modern well test methods, inter-
pretation software, and advanced test instruments, tools, and equipment were introduced

Dynamic Well Testing in Petroleum Exploration and Development 1 # 2020 Petroleum Industry Press.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819162-0.00001-0 Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 1. Introduction

almost simultaneously. Looking back at the advances made since the early 1980s, it is very
exciting to see that new developed knowledge and techniques have been applied success-
fully in the discovery, development preparation, and development operation of many major
gas fields in China. However, it should also be noted that application of the modern well test
sometimes and in some places is still not good enough and needs to be improved further.
The well test today is very different from that of three or four decades ago. Just as in all
other fields, due to the application of computers and advances in science and technology,
engineers today seldom make calculations manually; well test analysts and reservoir engi-
neers no longer frequently look up complicated formulas in well test books and perform
tedious computations with calculators; the results can be obtained easily by simply selecting
some menu items of software.
But does this mean that well test work has become much easier? The answer is no; on the
contrary, as research activities go further, the well test does not become easier, but faces
greater challenges.
First of all, well test analysis is required to provide not only simple parameters such as res-
ervoir permeability, but also more detailed information about reservoirs, such as their types and
boundary conditions, and ultimately to deliver a “dynamic model” of gas wells and gas reser-
voirs—that is, a dynamic model reflecting the conditions of the gas well and the gas reservoir
truly and correctly, which can be used in gas field evaluation and performance forecasting.
In China, there are many reservoir types, so well test analysis becomes much more difficult.
As far as the reservoir type is concerned, there are sandstone porous reservoirs, fissured res-
ervoirs and fractured vuggy in carbonate rocks, biothermal massive limestone reservoirs, and
irregularly distributed block shaped reservoirs in volcanic rocks; as far as the planar structure
of a reservoir is concerned, there are well extended, uniformly distributed large area forma-
tions, fault dissected reservoirs with complicated boundaries, and banded lithologic reser-
voirs formed by fluvial facies sedimentation; as far as the fluid type is concerned, there
are common dry gas reservoirs, condensate gas reservoirs, and gas cap gas reservoirs with
oil rings and edge water or bottom water; and as far as reservoir pressure is concerned, there
are gas reservoirs with normal pressure coefficients, extremely thick gas reservoirs with super
high pressure, and underpressured gas reservoirs. As indicated, these reservoirs are richly
varied, which has undoubtedly brought about new challenges to well test analysts and res-
ervoir engineers.
Moreover, the quality of pressure data nowadays is no longer as it was in the early 1980s.
At that time, pressure data were acquired by mechanical pressure gauges and the number of
pressure data points read out from a pressure chart would be about 100 or even fewer than
that. The results interpreted from such pressure data are not only simple, but also will not
be controversial. Today, however, the number of data points acquired by electronic pressure
gauges is usually as many as 10,000, or even 1,000,000; they consist not only of the pressure
buildup interval but also the pressure “whole history,” including all flow and shut in
intervals during the testing. Even very slight differences, if any, between the well test inter-
pretation model obtained from analysis and the actual conditions, that is, the tested reservoir
and the tested well, will be shown at once in the verification process during interpretation so
that no careless error is allowed.
 1.1 The purpose of this book 3

1.1.1 Well test: A kind of system engineering

Therefore, we can say that the well test today no longer merely means several formulas and
simple calculations, but rather is a kind of systems engineering that includes several parts as
follows:
1. Timely proposing of appropriate test projects by those persons in charge of exploration and
development.
2. Creating an optimized well test design.
3. Acquiring accurate pressure and flow rate data onsite.
4. Interpreting acquired pressure data by well test interpretation software and integrating
geological data and test technique; performing reservoir parameters evaluation.
5. Providing dynamic descriptions of gas wells and gas reservoirs by integrating the pressure
and production history data acquired during production tests of gas wells.
6. Creating new well test models when necessary and adding them into well test
interpretation software for future application.

1.1.2 Well test: Multilateral cooperation

The work listed previously should be carried out by different departments; each of them is
associated with others, and each one affects the final results:
1. Only when leaders of the competent authorities have thoroughly recognized the important
role of well test data in describing gas reservoir characterization and guiding development
of the gas field can they arrange test projects in a timely manner and provide financial
support for such projects to be executed.
2. Only by conducting optimized designs can we get better results with less effort and acquire
pressure data that can explain and resolve our problems.
3. The acquisition of pressure data is usually done by service companies. The test crew of the
service company, although working pursuant to the contract, should recognize what good
data are and how to meet design requirements. The well test supervisor must check data
before acceptance according to the design requirements, to ensure the success of data
acquisition.
4. Data analysis will ultimately demonstrate the application value of the test results. In this
book, such analysis is summarized as a “dynamic reservoir description,” which means
using dynamic data acquired in gas wells, such as pressure and flow rate, as the main basis
to evaluate the gas production potential of gas wells, while at the same time providing a
description of geological conditions within the gas drainage area that affect gas
deliverability and its stability, including reservoir structures, reservoir parameters,
boundary distribution, and dynamic reserves controlled by this individual well, thereby
guiding deliverability planning and development plan design for the gas field. This is
usually accomplished through collaboration between performance analysts and reservoir
engineers. Furthermore, only when such analysis results have been approved by the
competent authorities can they play their due roles.
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4 1. Introduction

As part of the study of gas reservoirs from different perspectives or different individual
positions, the purpose of this book is to explain how to jointly comprehend well test data
and understand gas reservoirs for their proper development.
1.1.3 Writing approaches of this book
The approaches adopted in writing this book are as follows:
1. The application of well test methods aims not only at gas wells but also at gas reservoirs.
Analyzing well test data should have the gas field or the gas reservoir in mind: it is in fact
the goal that the author strives for.
2. Establish a graphical analysis method. The basis of the graphical analysis method is
utilizing fundamental flow theories. Create a set of model graphs of the pressure curve and
establish organic connections between flow characteristics in reservoirs and well test curve
characteristics so that interpreters can take a “quick look,” that is, to understand reservoir
conditions quickly and conveniently from measured well test curves.
3. Analysis of many field examples is another important feature of this book. This book
introduces field examples of well test analysis applications not only to gas well studies but
also to gas field studies; not only successful cases are examined but also some failed ones,
from which some lessons are drawn, experiences summarized, and ultimately successes
achieved through such continuous experiences.
4. Although some basic formulas are introduced in one chapter, this book will neither explain
how to apply them in calculation nor derive them. This book is written for those who
understand these formulas and shows how to make interpretations using well test
interpretation software. This book will help readers grasp the correct interpretation and
analysis methods, especially the research methods for gas fields. Regarding the derivation
and application of these formulas, some very good monographs are available for reference
( Jiang and Chen, 1985; Liu, 2008).
Therefore, this book is a good reference for well test analysis applications. Readers are
herein expected, with the help of this book, to comprehend the essence of well test analysis,
to acquire and apply well test data properly, and then to contribute a reliable description to
the development of gas fields. It is the purpose of this book to help readers understand the
well test comprehensively, make use of the well test properly, and establish and confirm
dynamic models of gas fields correctly with the powerful means of the well test.

1.2 Role of well test in gas field exploration and development

The well test is indispensable in the exploration and development of gas fields. During the
entire process, starting from when the first discovery well in a new gas province is drilled, to
verification of reserves of the gas field, and to the whole history of its development and pro-
duction, the well test plays very important roles in many aspects, such as confirming the ex-
istence of gas zones, measuring the deliverability of gas wells, calculating the parameters of
the reservoir, designing the development plan of the gas field, and providing performance
analysis during development. In fact, none of these tasks mentioned can be done without
a well test. Table 1.1 indicates in detail the roles of a well test during the different exploration
and development stages.
TABLE 1.1 Role of well test in exploration and development of gas fieldsa

conductivity of hydraulic

controlled by individual
gas well in gas reservoir
conditions in reservoir

factor during producing

permeability by transient
Confirm absolute open-

Verify dynamic reserves

Infer dynamic reserves
Find out gas bearing

impermeable boundaries
completion quality by

Identify distribution of
Test analysis contents

Evalute drilling and

parameters of double

Identify connectivity
Measure formation

Provide turbulence
Length and flow
deliverability test

porosity reservoirs
flow potential by

Estimate reservoir

Determine related

between wells by

of gas reservoirs
of the reservoir

interference test
of gas wells
skin factor

fracture

in reservoir
pressure

well test
Implementation items

DST during drilling process of

★ ★ ☆ ★ ★
exploration phase

exploration wells
Completion gas well test
Gas field

of exploration wells ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ☆
DST and completion gas well test
of detailed prospecting wells ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ☆ ☆
Reserves estimation of gas bearing
area
⯀ ⯀ ⯀ ⯀ ⯀ ⯀ ⯀
Deliverability test and other
Developmental preparation

transient well tests of development ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ☆ ☆ ☆

appraisal wells
Stimulation treatments such as
acidizing and/or fracturing ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ☆ ★ ☆
phase

Production test and extended test of

development appraisal wells ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★
Reserves verification of gas field ⯀ ⯀ ⯀ ⯀ ⯀ ⯀ ⯀ ⯀ ⯀
Numerical simulation of gas field
and making development plan
⯀ ⯀ ⯀ ⯀ ⯀ ⯀ ⯀ ⯀ ⯀ ⯀ ⯀
development

★ ★ ★ ★ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ☆ ★
Gas field

Dynamic monitoring of gas field

phase

Completion gas well test

of adjustment wells ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ☆ ★
★ — Items that must be implemented;
a
☆ — Items that may be implemented;
⯀ — Parameters that must be used; ⯀ — Parameters that may be used.
6 1. Introduction

1.2.1 Role of well test in exploration

1.2.1.1 Drill stem test of exploration wells
After discovering a potential structure in a new prospect exploration area, the first explo-
ration wells are drilled. During drilling, the show of gas and oil (SG&O) may be discovered by
gas logging or logging while drilling. At this moment, it is not certain whether the SG&O re-
ally means that those hydrocarbon zones are the zones with commercial oil/gas flow. In order
to be certain, a drill stem test (DST) needs to be run. If the zones have quite high productivity
during the DST, a further test for measuring their pressures and flow rates and a transient test
for estimating their permeability and skin factor should be done.
High gas productivity of an exploration well foretells the birth of a new gas field, and flow
rate and pressure data acquired in a DST are the direct evidence of the birth (Table 1.1).
1.2.1.2 Exploration well completing test
Further verification of the scale and gas deliverability of the gas field is generally carried
out by well completing tests. These tests are usually run zone by zone when an exploration
well has penetrated the target beds and well completion with casing or other modes has been
done. At this moment, the borehole wall of the well is solid, the test conditions are fairly ma-
ture, and there is enough time for testing so that various parameters of the reservoir can be
estimated more accurately. Different flow rates can be selected for the deliverability test so
that the initial absolute open flow potential (AOFP) qAOF of the well can be calculated.
For some low permeability reservoirs, such as gas reservoirs in Carboniferous and Permian
systems in the Ordos Basin, a commercial flow rate is not obtained by just the ordinal perfo-
ration completion, and it is necessary to recomplete the well by undertaking strong stimula-
tion treatments such as acidizing and/or fracturing. In this situation, reestimating the skin
factor and fracturing index is very important (Table 1.1).
Sometimes the expected gas production rate of a tested well or a tested reservoir cannot be
obtained during the test after perforation; this may mean that the gas saturation is very low or
there is no gas at all in the reservoir, but it is also possible that the permeability of the reservoir
is so low and/or that the reservoir near the wellbore was damaged so seriously that the gas
cannot flow from the reservoir to the wellbore. Distinguishing the real reasons for low pro-
duction rates is extremely important for evaluation of the reservoir.
Skin factor is an important parameter indicating if a gas producing well has been damaged.
Importance should be attached and much attention must be paid to every tested zone in
which a transient pressure test can be run, especially to those zones with high permeability
and low pressure, penetrated with dense drilling fluid and a long soak time, because those
zones are probably damaged so seriously that their productivities are reduced too much. In
this case, acidizing should be done to remove or reduce the damage; if the permeability of the
tested zone is known from the well test to be very low, say less than 0.1 md, fracturing may be
necessary to improve its productivity.
Whether the tested zone needs to be stimulated, and the effects of the stimulation treat-
ment, are both identified by the well test.

1.2.1.3 Reserves estimation

Once data on production rate, reservoir pressure, and permeability of an exploration well
have confirmed the birth of a gas field, estimation of reserves of the field should be commenced.
 1.2 Role of well test in gas field exploration and development 7
Several issues worth noting in reserves estimation
Volumetric methods are commonly used now for calculating reserves based on static data
provided by geophysical prospecting, logging, and core analysis. Then the analogy method is
applied to estimate the recoverable reserves by using a given recovery factor.
However, it has been discovered from practice in recent years that there is a serious risk in
estimating reserves depending only on static data; the following problems, at the least, need
to be noted:
1. Reserves calculated by the volumetric method are erroneous for fissured reservoirs with
group and/or series distributed fissures.
Fissured reservoirs with group and/or series distributed fractures herein mean the an-
cient buried hill typed fissured reservoirs with heterogeneously distributed fractures; their
special character is that the oil or gas is stored in the fissure system with areal and group
and/or series distributed fractures. Also, some local regions of the system have very high
permeability, and the matrix rock is very tight: that is, in well test terms, a double media
with very high storativity ratio ω, whose value can be as high as 0.3–0.5.
This kind of reservoir can be best identified by the shape of the well test curves:
• The shape of pressure buildup curves, especially of a pressure derivative curve, is often
very strange or unusual: it often has no obvious radial flow portion; it goes up and down
steeply and so shows sharp fluctuations, and then approaches a trend of abrupt updip at
a later time.
• The pressure drawdown curve declines rapidly, and the bottom hole pressure cannot
build up to its original value after shutting in.
• In most of this kind of gas well, the water content ratio rises quickly after water
breakthrough; the pressure buildup curve will become more complicated early on if
there is condensate oil in the reservoir.
2. Estimation of recoverable reserves in lithologic gas reservoirs formed by fluvial facies
deposition.
In the 1990s, many studies in the world showed that the recovery efficiency of some
low permeability gas reservoirs formed by fluvial facies deposition is quite low. Further
studies discovered that the existence of lithologic boundaries hinders the improvement
of the recovery efficiency under the conditions of a normal well pattern (Junkin et al.,
1995). It is possible to improve the recovery efficiency of this kind of reservoir by drilling
infill wells.
3. Integral reservoir characteristics shown by pressure distribution.
If all gas wells in a gas field are located in an integral connected reservoir, when mea-
suring their initial reservoir pressures and converting them from the measured depths into
corresponding elevation depths, the relation of the initial pressures of these gas wells with
the depths will be consistent with the pressure gradient measured in any single gas well in
the reservoir. The overall characteristics of the gas field can be determined by such a simple
principle.
If a gas field is an integral reservoir, the calculation of reserves is typically fairly simple;
if not, the causes therein must be found and analyzed, combined carefully with its geologic
characteristics and reflected in reserves estimation. Sometimes, the poor accuracy of tested
pressure data brings difficulty to analysis and identification, or even makes the research
insignificant. Therefore, paying more attention to this study and acquiring raw test data
8 1. Introduction

properly are undoubtedly the basis for all evaluation work. However, if the formations in
the same horizon drilled by an exploration well are indeed not in the same pressure system,
reserves estimation must be evaluated further.

Role of well test method in reserves estimation

During the exploration stage, well test data cannot be used directly in reserves calculation,
but can supplement or correct it to a certain extent, including:
1. Providing deliverability as a basis of reserves calculation.
The evaluated original gas in place of gas reservoirs means reserves, under the condi-
tion that the flow rates of the gas wells meet the commercial flow standard. Whether the
wells meet this standard or not must be evaluated by a well test. Sometimes the zones
near the borehole have been damaged seriously during drilling and/or completion;
therefore, the value of skin factor S of this type of well is very high and the flow rate
is rather low, even very low. However, it met the commercial gas flow standard after
stimulation treatment for eliminating the damage. Also, whether a gas well has been
damaged and how much its absolute open flow potential is after stimulation must both
be determined by the well test.
2. Providing characteristic coefficient of stabilized production for double porosity reservoirs.
Geologic studies very often regard all carbonate reservoirs containing fractures as “dou-
ble porosity” but do not distinguish such a double porosity reservoir from homogeneous
sandstones in reserves analysis. This special term of double porosity was suggested by
Barenblatt et al. (1960) when he was studying the mathematical model of well tests for fis-
sured reservoirs, and a flow model graph was also given by him. Barenblatt proposed two
parameters: storativity ratio ω and interporosity flow coefficient λ, to describe flow char-
acteristics of this kind of reservoir. The storativity ratio ω means the ratio of hydrocarbon
stored in fissures to that stored in the whole reservoir, that is, in both fissures and the ma-
trix of it. The greater the ω, the more hydrocarbon stored in fissures. Because the hydro-
carbon in fissures can flow very easily into the well and be produced, it is therefore the
fissures that bring a high flow rate at the beginning of production. However, if the ω value
is high, as time elapses a little further, due to little hydrocarbon being supplemented from
the matrix, the deliverability will drop sharply; however, if the ω value is very low, for ex-
ample, ω ¼ 0.01 or even lower, which means more hydrocarbon is stored in the matrix, the
deliverability of the reservoirs will be very stabilized.
Another parameter, the interporosity flow coefficient λ, is also very important. It means
the flow conductivity of hydrocarbon from the matrix to the fissures. If the λ value is fairly
high, when the pressure in fissures decreases due to the fluid that flows into the well, the
fluid in the matrix will be supplemented into the fissures promptly so that the well will
maintain stable production. However, if the λ value is very low, even if quite a lot of hy-
drocarbon does exist in the matrix, the matrix still cannot feed the fissures sufficiently for a
very long time, even as long as several years after an extremely sharp drop of fissure pres-
sure. For this reason, such reserves have no commercial value at all.
Therefore, for reservoirs with double porosity characteristics, the parameters ω and λ
calculated from the well test are really very important indices for diagnosis of the stabilized
production characteristics of the reserves; ω and λ can be determined only by the well test.
 1.2 Role of well test in gas field exploration and development 9
Moreover, determination of these two parameters imposes very stringent requirements on
well testing conditions, as discussed further in Chapter 5.
There are a large number of fissured carbonate reservoirs in China. Some oil/gas wells
have very high deliverability in the very beginning. Encouraged by this phenomenon, field
management personnel may think that they have found a “gold mine.” However, they may
fail to analyze the roles of parameters ω and λ properly. For example, some wells start
flowing at a rate of 100,000 m3 of natural gas per day, but they last only a few days and
then are depleted. This is indeed a bitter lesson to be learned.
3. Providing information about planar distribution of the reservoir for reserves estimation.
If reservoirs of a gas field extend continuously on a horizontal plane, only the outer
boundary must be demarcated in reserves estimation, resulting in more room for maneu-
vering in placing development wells. When the well spacing is quite large in the early ex-
ploration stage, an effective thickness distribution map can only be drawn by the method of
interpolation with a few thickness values of drilled wells, but this map cannot reflect the
true distribution characteristics of the reservoir. However, well test data, especially long-
term well test data, can authentically reflect the change of extension of the reservoir. For
example, the area and shape of a block oil/gas field in which the tested well is located can
be confirmed by well test analysis; the distance of the gas water contact to the tested well
located in a gas field with edge water can also be estimated by well test analysis. Take the JB
gas field as an example: the conclusion that its Ordovician reservoirs are widespread but
extremely heterogeneously was obtained from the analysis of pressure buildups and inter-
ference tests between wells run during short term production tests; these results provided
powerful evidence of the planar distribution characteristics of the reservoirs, thus freeing
the managers’ minds of apprehensions about the reserves ultimately passing examination
and approval by the National Reserve Committee of China. This example is discussed in
detail later on in this book.
4. Providing original reservoir pressure data for reserves estimation.
In addition to being related to static parameters of reservoirs such as area, thickness,
porosity, and gas saturation, the reserves of a gas reservoir are also proportional to its orig-
inal reservoir pressure; for overpressured gas reservoirs, the influence of the original res-
ervoir pressure is even more prominent. Therefore, the original reservoir pressure must be
determined accurately before beginning reserves estimation of a gas reservoir.
It was required somewhere and sometime that the controlled reserves of an individual
well must be calculated using data from every well test. Such a requirement is improper,
for it has too much oversimplified reserves calculation from well test analysis or too many
overestimated well test methods, and so no useful conclusions can usually be drawn.
When entering into a pseudo steady flow period at a medium late stage of development
of a gas field, many methods can be used to check the reserves. This is discussed further in
more detail later on in this book.

1.2.2 Role of well test in predevelopment

The dependence on well test data at this stage is definitely more serious.
A foreign company, for example, decided to develop a gas field in cooperation with a
Chinese partner. The reserves of this gas field had been examined and verified. The company
10 1. Introduction

insisted on spending a year of time and much manpower and money to conduct dynamic tests
and analysis on more than 10 wells. Initially, the necessity of doing so was suspected, but later it
was proved to be effective. It is just this dynamic performance research that results in what has
become the decisive basis for making development plans.
Many uncompartmentalized gas fields have been discovered in China in recent years—the
number of them is more than the number of those ever discovered before. Performance re-
search during the predevelopment stage is also gradually being put on the agenda. It is there-
fore especially important to focus on performance research based on previous experiences
and lessons learned.

1.2.2.1 Deliverability test of development appraisal wells

Deliverability values of individual wells are taken as the primary basis for making devel-
opment plans. The AOFP is usually used to indicate the deliverability level. The inflow per-
formance relationship (IPR) curve is further required to be plotted from the initial
deliverability analysis.
Just as is discussed in Chapter 3 of this book, several deliverability test methods are used
onsite to determine the AOFP. The deliverability test methods applied in exploration and
predevelopment stages are different: in the exploration stage, some simple methods, for ex-
ample, the single point test method, can be used only for identifying whether the deliverabil-
ity of the gas well has met the commercial gas flow standard, and for setting up the lower limit
of it for reserves estimation in the predevelopment stage, however, the deliverability test is
not only for accurate calculation of deliverability indices and the planar distribution of the
reservoirs in the gas field, but also for finding out the long-term stability characteristics of
the deliverability.
It will be introduced in Chapter 3 of this book that, for some low permeability lithologic gas
reservoirs formed by fluvial facies sedimentation, because the effective drainage area con-
trolled by an individual well is limited and the flow ability of reservoirs is poor, the transient
absolute open flow potential evaluated during the early stage of exploration would be very
different from the commonly referred deliverability under stable production conditions.
Sometimes, such a difference could be 10 times or even larger. Some Chinese and overseas
research results suggest that if the reservoirs are confirmed to be like this, a new development
strategy should be adopted. In addition, those fissured reservoirs with group- and/or series-
distributed fractures in buried hill gas fields obviously cannot be put into production with a
conventionally designed stable production rate.
Therefore, during the predevelopment stage, a systematic and rigorous deliverability test
of development appraisal wells is essential for a gas field, especially for a large uncompart-
mentalized gas field. Test analysis and calculations must not only give conventional initial
AOFP, but also evaluate and provide dynamic deliverability indices during the production
process, and even provide a proper “production rate arrangement over its whole life” by well
test analysis and deliverability prediction conducted by software when necessary (Mattar
et al., 1993).

1.2.2.2 Transient well test of development appraisal wells

Development appraisal wells in large uncompartmentalized gas fields in China are usually
studied by short term production tests today. During the short term production tests, high-
precision electronic pressure gauges are used to measure or monitor the bottom hole pressure
 1.2 Role of well test in gas field exploration and development 11
(flowing pressure and shut in pressure) throughout the entire process. Such tests not only can
determine the deliverability of gas wells, but also can provide shut in pressure buildup curves
and the entire pressure history. Just like what is shown in Table 1.1, much important infor-
mation about a gas reservoir can be obtained from the tests, such as:
1. Information about distribution of gas bearing areas and gas bearing formations in the gas
fields.
2. Initial reservoir pressure pi.
3. Initial absolute open flow potential and dynamic absolute open flow potential of main gas
zones, as well as planar and vertical distribution of the deliverability.
4. Effective permeability of gas zones and the relationship between effective permeability
(from well test analysis) and permeability from logging analysis.
5. Information about damage of gas wells, whether acidizing and/or fracturing stimulation
treatment is needed, and the skin factor after stimulation.
6. For fractured wells, estimation of the effect of the fracturing treatment and calculation of
the length, permeability thickness, and skin factor of the generated fracture.
7. For double porosity reservoirs, when significant double porosity characteristic curves
appear, storativity ratio ω and interporosity flow coefficient λ values are analyzed,
and special properties of the reserves and stabilized production characteristics are
evaluated.
8. Non Darcy flow coefficient during the production of gas wells is provided. In the design
of gas field development plan, non Darcy flow coefficient D must be used whenever
selecting parameters related to the relationship between flow rate and pressure
drawdown. Non Darcy flow is formed due to turbulent flow near the bottom hole, and the
skin due to non Darcy flow is a major part of the pseudo skin. The reasons resulting in
turbulent flow are very complicated. Non Darcy flow coefficient D can only be
determined by the well test, as errors are always generated when it is estimated by
theoretical methods.
9. Information about reservoir boundaries can be obtained if the pressure buildup test lasts
long enough. Also, if information about boundaries is obtained soon after beginning the
test, it indicates the boundaries are near to the tested well.
Well test interpretation software today usually contains well test models comprising
different types of boundary combinations. Furthermore, numerical well test software is
able, by considering the specific geological characteristics of the gas zones, to assemble
the reservoir model with proper shaped boundaries and formation parameter distribu-
tions and to provide related theoretical well test curves. Vivid descriptions of a specific
tested object can be obtained by matching the theoretical well test curves with measured
ones. It is especially worthy to note that such a description comes from the vivid exhibi-
tion of gas zones in the process of production and so reflects the features much closer to
the reality.
10. If conditions allow, the planar and vertical connectivity of layers in the reservoir can be
studied through an interference test between wells or a vertical interference test.
An interference test between wells is very difficult to run in gas fields. This is simply
because the compressibility of natural gas is much greater than that of oil or water. More-
over, the permeability of gas zones is usually very low and the well spacing is large, so
that a successful test often takes a long time. In the JB gas field, for instance, the
12 1. Introduction

interference test between well L5 and other wells lasted 10 months. This test delivered
extremely valuable knowledge: it verified the interwell communication within the gas-
bearing area and also revealed obvious heterogeneity characteristics.
11. In principle, the dynamic reserves of gas wells and the gas bearing area can be predicted
on the basis of these successful well tests.
The “in principle” here refers to the fact that the dynamic reserves predicted by the
results of dynamic tests are only the reserves in the area that have been influenced by
the dynamic tests, but do not contain the reserves outside this area.
If a gas well is located within a closed or nearly closed lithologic block, the reserves
within the block affected by this well can be estimated by analysis of dynamic character-
istics. However, data from this well mean nothing for judgment of another very closely
adjacent region partitioned by the boundary.
If the well is located within part of a continuously distributed reservoir, dynamic
data cannot cut the boundary of the region controlled by any adjacent wells, and
therefore dynamic data can only provide information about the mutual connection of
these wells.

1.2.2.3 Well test of pilot production test wells

If the pilot production test wells have already been connected to the pipeline network and
so can produce continuously for several months, they can provide much richer information
that can be used in the design of development plans. In particular, the dynamic models of the
gas wells can be improved through pressure history verification.
1. During a long term production test, the influence of boundaries around the gas well will be
gradually reflected in the decrease of bottom hole flowing pressure. The dynamic model of
gas wells can be improved by verifying pressure history, adding and/or modifying
boundary influences, adjusting the location and distance of the boundary to the well, and
so on.
2. A perfect modified dynamic model not only verifies and confirms the formation
parameters near the well but also determines the area and dynamic reserves of the area
controlled by the well and so can be used for performance prediction.
3. A perfect modified dynamic model of a gas well in a constant volume block can be used to
calculate the average reservoir pressure during production and the variation of dynamic
deliverability indices.

1.2.2.4 Selection and evaluation of stimulation treatment

Selecting the stimulation treatment measure is a very critical element in the development
plan. However, evaluating whether a gas well needs stimulation treatment and the effective-
ness of such stimulation treatment can only be done by well test analysis. In some foreign
countries, the field owner must, when engaging a service company to implement gas well
stimulation treatment, first provide the parameters of its geology and completion and those
from well test evaluation of the well, so that the stimulation measure can be designed; after
stimulation treatment, in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment, the owner must
also request third parties, such as a well test service company or relevant consulting com-
pany, to appraise the results of the treatment by well test analysis.
 1.2 Role of well test in gas field exploration and development 13
1.2.2.5 Verifying reserves and creating the development plan
Only after completing the performance analysis and research mentioned earlier does the
time for creating the formal development plan really come.
1. The reserves have been verified by performance research, in which parameters provided
by a transient well test were used.
2. Reservoir parameters have been corrected. Permeability k, for example, is not the
permeability from logging interpretation but the effective permeability; skin factor S, non-
Darcy flow coefficient D, double porosity parameters ω and λ, and so on are also the
parameters actually acquired from the formation. In addition, the description of reservoir
boundaries is a particularly very critical condition for numerical simulation.
3. The production test history can be used to match and correct the parameters used for
numerical modeling.
When the requirements mentioned here are all met, a numerical simulation study can be
carried out and a practical and feasible development plan can be made.

1.2.3 Role of well test in development

Conventional well test methods can be used almost throughout the entire development
process of a gas field to provide dynamic monitoring, without any difficulties brought from
swabbing and so on, such as is the case in oil fields.
For a normally producing gas well, however, unless permanent bottom hole pressure
gauges are used, it is obviously inappropriate to perform a well test by operations that run
pressure gauges in the hole and put them out of the hole, while frequently opening and shut
in the well. In fact, because the formation conditions have already been known thoroughly
through early research, retesting the well is required only in the case of anomalous events
happening during production of the gas well.
However, the following tests are absolutely necessary:
1. Regular monitoring of downhole flowing pressure and static pressure for inferring
dynamic deliverability indices of the gas well.
2. For newly drilled adjustment wells, the basic formation parameters must be obtained from
well test analysis and their initial deliverability equation must be established before
putting into production (see Table 1.1).
It is noted through the aforementioned analysis that items listed at the top right corner
in Table 1.1 are blank, meaning that these items are not feasible. More deepening or inten-
sive understanding of the reservoir can only be obtained through well tests, as the gas field
research is being deepened continuously. It is not practical to expect that all these param-
eters can be determined simply through well tests during the early stage of exploration.
For example, it is impossible to determine the exact initial AOFP of an exploration well
simply through short term DST; it is also impossible to do an overall analysis of bound-
aries or to determine the double porosity parameters of reservoirs simply through very
short term well tests in the exploration wells. Even if well test analysts do give those pa-
rameters mentioned previously, such parameters are merely speculative and cannot suf-
fice as a basis for further analysis. However, as more gas wells are put into production
tests or production, and as the flowing of these wells goes on and the radius of influence
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14 1. Introduction

increases, and pressure buildup testing lasting quite a long time is carried out, the research
work will continue to intensify. Some parameters, which could not be obtained previously,
can and should be determined through well test analysis at this time; such parameters in-
clude initial and dynamic deliverability indices; boundary distance Lb and shape; block
sizes A; double porosity parameters ω, λ; double permeability formation parameters κ;
composite formation parameters Mc and ωc; non Darcy flow coefficient D; reservoir con-
nectivity parameters ε and η; and the dynamic reserves of block. With this knowledge, the
gas reservoir dynamic model can be established and used effectively for the performance
analysis of gas zones and gas reservoirs. These are just the phased and comprehensive
characteristics of a well test.

1.3 Keys of well test analysis

Well test research started in the 1930s. By the 1970–80, it evolved into the “modern well
test.” Through advances in theoretical research on flow mechanics and continuous improve-
ments in well test software, the role of the well test in gas field exploration and development
expands and deepens continuously.
What are the key elements of well test research? What has been driving the advances and
development of well test research? How does the well test serve gas field studies? All these
questions are roughly answered in Fig. 1.1.

1.3.1 Direct and inverse problems in well test research

Well test research roughly resolves two types of problems: direct and inverse.

Direct problem Reverse problem

Formations Parameters and results

Identify reservoir type

Geologic classification by pressure history match
Repeat
Well test interpretation interpre
Percolation mechanics
tation
classification
Model analysis
Establish well test model parameter estimation
mathematical model
physical model Plot curves
• Cartesian plot
• Semilog plot
• Log-log plot
Analytic solution
numerical solution
Examine test data
delete anomaly data
Pressure/time plot
• Cartesian plot
• Semilog plot Acquire pressure and
• Log-log plot rate data in gas field

FIG 1.1 Illustration of well test research contents.

 1.3 Keys of well test analysis 15
Direct and inverse problems are defined from the viewpoint of information theory. A
direct problem means describing the performance of a known formation in terms of its gas
production rate and reservoir pressure on the basis of flow mechanics theory, whereas resolv-
ing an inverse problem means, if the variations of gas production rates and bottom hole pres-
sures of one or several wells in a gas reservoir during their flowing and shut in process have
been measured, finding out inversely the static conditions of the gas zones, including the
values of formation parameters, the structure of permeable areas in the reservoir, the planar
distribution of gas zones, and so on.
This book explains the procedure of resolving these problems by well test research with the
hope that readers of this book, especially those interested in participating in well test research,
can correctly “locate” the jobs they are participating in or are interested in and straighten out
the relationship between well test research and geologic research.
Early well test research failed to distinguish different types of formations or believed that
all formations were “homogeneous media” identically. The semilog straight line analysis
methods [Miller-Dyes-Hutchison (MDH) method and Horner method] invented in the
1950s found that flow will enter the radial flow stage that reflects reservoir conditions when
wellbore storage disappears; in this stage, pressure variation shows a straight line on semilog
paper: that is, the coordinates of pressure vs logarithm of time, and an inverse proportion
relationship exists between the slope of the straight line m and the formation permeability k:
0:00121qμB
k¼
mh
This is simply the basis of the “conventional well test interpretation method” that uses the
well test method to determine formation parameters inversely (Miller et al., 1950;
Horner, 1951).
However, measured curves are far more complicated, especially in the case of carbonate
formations, multilayer formations, or formations with complex boundaries; in these cases it is
often very difficult to find out proper straight line portions. Furthermore, straight line sec-
tions alone can hardly describe other characteristic parameters of the reservoir. Therefore,
in the 1970s, the type curve match method was created (Agarwal et al., 1970; Gringarten
et al., 1979; Bourdet and Gringarten, 1980; Earlougher, 1977).
In the early 1980s, Bourdet invented pressure derivative type curves (Bourdet et al., 1983).
On this type of curve, each kind of flow in the formation corresponds to a special character-
istic pattern, while each kind of flow is determined by the special geological conditions of the
specific formation. Therefore, an organic connection is established between the geologic char-
acteristics and the graphical characteristics.
So far, the combination of log-log analysis (i.e., pressure and its derivative type curve
match analysis) and semilog analysis (i.e., conventional analysis method) has formed the
dominant theoretical foundation of modern well test interpretation and has become the dom-
inant analysis method of well test interpretation software. A wide variety of calculation for-
mulas and analysis plots were used before—provided they can be integrated into the modern
well test interpretation model, they can be added into the interpretation software and widely
used. However, as analysts become more dependent on well test analysis software, some
other methods, such as the Y-function method for judging the presence of faults, the Masket
method for calculating formation parameters, and various unique point methods for
conducting interference test analysis, are increasingly losing their chance of being used.
16 1. Introduction

1.3.2 How to understand direct problems

The process of establishing the relationship between characteristics of the formation and
those of well test plots starts from solving the direct problem. The research tasks in resolving
the direct problem can be summarized in several parts, as described in the following sections.

1.3.2.1 Analyzing the formation where the oil/gas well locates and classifying it
geologically
The geologic bodies across China where the gas fields locate are very complicated; their
rough classification is given in Table 1.2. For easy comparison, Table 1.2 also lists typical ex-
amples of gas fields in China. In fact, there are far more types of gas reservoirs than these, and
even many different types may exist simultaneously in one gas field (Wang, 1992).

1.3.2.2 Classifying, simulating, and reproducing formation from the viewpoint of flow
mechanics
It is seen that the generating conditions of various reservoirs are very different; if described
by flow mechanics equations, they must be simplified and classified into some major catego-
ries, and the description must be used only within a certain scope. Sandstone reservoirs, for
example, are usually simplified into a model of an infinitely homogeneous porous medium.

TABLE 1.2 Types and examples of gas producing zones.

Type of gas reservoir Typical examples of gas field in China
Large homogeneous sandstones TN, SB, and YA13-1 gas field
Fault dissected local homogeneous sandstones Fault block gas fields in SL, LH and ZY
oilfields, HTB gas field
Rocks some parts of which are homogeneous sandstones P5 gas field
Carbonate rocks some parts of which are like homogeneous Some areas of south region of JB gas field
Carbonate rocks showing significant heterogeneity Most areas of JB gas field

Fissured carbonate rocks showing significant double porosity L5 Area in center region of JB gas field
characteristics

Extremely thick fluvial facies sedimentary sandstones KL2, DN2, and DB gas field
Thin layer sandstones having lithologic boundaries formed by Carboniferous/permian gas fields in Ordos
fluvial facies sedimentation basin

Condensate gas fields in fault dissected sandstone YH and YTK gas field
Gas caps in sandstone with oil rings and edge or bottom water QL and XLT gas field
Carbonate rocks with group or/and series distributed fractures QMQ, SQ, and CN YAC gas field
Biohermal limestone bodies LJZ, PFW, and SL gas field
Volcanic massifs of eruptive facies XS gas field in DQ oilfield
Offshore shoal, sandbar DF gas field
 1.3 Keys of well test analysis 17
Strictly speaking, the existence of this type of reservoir in nature is impossible. However, the
well testing duration is limited and so the range of pressure influence is also limited; there-
fore, within such limited scopes of time and space, the target being studied can be considered
roughly consistent with an infinitely homogeneous formation.
Based on the knowledge mentioned previously, reservoirs can be further simplified and
classified from the viewpoint of flow mechanics, as shown in the following lists.
Basic medium types
• Homogeneous medium, including sandstones, fissured carbonate rocks showing
homogeneous behavior, etc.
• Double porosity medium, including sandstones and carbonate rocks comprising natural
fissures
• Double permeability medium, mainly means layered sandstones
These media are usually assumed to have laminar two dimensional distribution.
Bottom hole boundary conditions (i.e., inner boundary conditions)
• General completion condition of wellbore storage and skin
• Completion condition of having hydraulic fracture connecting the well hole
• Partially perforated completion conditions
• Completion conditions of horizontal wells or deviating wells
Outer boundary conditions
• Infinitely outer boundary
• Impermeable outer boundaries of single straight line or of some patterns formed by
several impermeable boundaries
• Closed outer boundary: closed small faulted blocks or lithologic traps
• Heterogeneous boundaries formed by variation of lithology or fluid properties
• Semipermeable boundaries, congruent boundaries of river channels formed by fluvial
facies sedimentation in different periods
• Constant pressure boundaries (in oil reservoirs only)
Assumption of fluid properties
• Oil, gas, water, or condensate gas
• Any combination of oil, gas, and water
Any assemblage of any four elements, each one of them having been selected from one
of the four aforementioned conditions, constructs a physical simulation for a certain gas
reservoir and reproduces the behavior of a specific gas field during the research process.

1.3.2.3 Constructing the well test interpretation model and resolving the related
problem
The so called well test interpretation model should contain both a physical model and a
mathematical model.
The lists given in Section 1.3.2.2 are just the descriptions of physical models. At the same
time, these physical models can also be expressed in mathematical forms. For example, the
flow in different types of media can be expressed by different differential equations; different
boundary conditions can also be expressed by different mathematical expressions. These are
the so called mathematical models.
18 1. Introduction

In the 1960s, the physical models mentioned earlier were materialized during the
study of well test problems. Man made sandstone bodies were built and used in the lab-
oratory as a reduced physical micro miniature formation or model. The model was sat-
urated with oil or water, and the flow rate change was implemented by drilling holes in
the model. The pressure change at individual points on the model was measured. Such a
practice, however, not only was very difficult in constructing the model and very costly,
but also could hardly simulate the elastic transient process. Therefore, it was abandoned
long ago.
Establishing the mathematical equations correctly is only the beginning of the process of
resolving direct problems, while solving these equations is really more important.
In the past, basically the analytic method was applied for resolving the equations. Because
these equations, under the hypothesis of Darcy’s law, are mostly partial differential equa-
tions, mathematical manipulation methods such as the Laplace transform must therefore
be used to convert them into ordinary differential equations in the Laplace space for resolving
them and then to invert the solution back into the real space. Moreover, the solution proce-
dure was usually aimed only at some relatively simple boundary conditions, such as circular
and square shapes. Today these equations can still be resolved directly by numerical
methods, but it takes a fairly long time and sometimes model adjustment cannot be completed
immediately.
Theoretical research on the well test has mostly targeted construction of the well test model
and resolved the related mathematical problem as many famous researchers such as van
Everdingen (1949), Agarwal (1970), Earlougher (1977), Gringarten (1979), and Bourdet
(1989) did. It can be summarized as:
Identify typical geologic model ! Construct well test model ðformulate its
mathematical equationsÞ ! Resolve the equations by analytic or numerical
method ! Draw pressure variation curve, that is, make type curves
This is the whole process of resolving direct problems.

1.3.2.4 Expression forms of resolving direct problems in well test

The ultimate expression form of the research results of resolving direct problems in the
well test is type curves: that is, the plot of the relation between pressure and pressure deriv-
ative and time, used for well test analysis. For instance, the type curve for homogeneous res-
ervoirs is as shown in Fig. 1.2.
Different type curves for different formations have been obtained. Both the theoretical
model corresponding to the actual formation and the parameters of the formation can be
obtained through the type curve match. This is the theoretical basis of understanding the for-
mations using the well test method.

1.3.3 Describing gas reservoirs with well test analysis: Resolving inverse problem
The great majority of engineers involved in well testing are trying to resolve the inverse
problems rather than resolving the direct problems discussed earlier. What resolving inverse
problems means is:
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gray mustache.
“Where’s your father? I got your telegram, but couldn’t make out
what you were driving at,” pursued the lawyer.
“Father’s badly hurt. The meeting—is it over yet?” Tom exclaimed,
choking with excitement.
“The meeting? No, it hasn’t started yet. We’re waiting for one of
the important men. This is Mr. Laforce, of the Erie Bank. He says he
had a telegram from you, too.”
“Of course I wired him!” cried Tom. “You must call the meeting
off. We’re not bankrupt. We’re all right now. We’ve got upward of
fifty thousand feet of good black walnut, worth three hundred dollars
a thousand—as good as cash—”
Mr. Laforce gave Tom a keen glance.
“You have, eh? Your wire sounded mysterious. Something in this,
Armstrong?”
“I think it’s worth looking into,” said Mr. Armstrong, laughing.
“If you’ve got all that, I guess the bank can carry you,” continued
the financier. “Of course we don’t want to push Matt Jackson into
bankruptcy. I guess anyway we’d better call the meeting postponed.”
 That meeting was never held. Tom held a long conference with
the lawyer and the banker that evening, going home at last to his
deserted house, to tumble into bed and sleep like one dead till the
middle of the next forenoon. Late that day a telegram arrived from
the north:

Boss waked up and doing good. Doctor says no danger.

Raft safe.
Lynch.

Tom had another long talk over a dinner-table with Armstrong

that evening, finding the lawyer more human than he had ever
considered him before. The next morning he left for the Coboconk
lakes again, accompanied by a representative of the Erie Bank.
They found Mr. Jackson conscious and much recovered, weak
indeed, but eager to be out again. The skull had not been fractured;
he had suffered merely a concussion, and had been half drowned
into the bargain, and when Tom and his companion arrived he
insisted on sitting up and talking business.
The big raft still lay behind its boom in the northern bay, and was
an imposing sight, even after all the damage it had suffered. Nearly
a third of it had broken away in the storm. Some of the cribs had
remained afloat; some had gone ashore; and Lynch had been
energetically picking up everything that could be salvaged. Much of
the walnut had been spilled off the loose cribs, but altogether Lynch
estimated that they still had a good hundred and twenty thousand
feet.
At any rate the sight of the timber so impressed the bank
representative that he willingly agreed to “carry” the business a little
longer. All that remained was to get the timber out. Mr. Jackson had
originally thought of sawing it up at Oakley, but finally decided to
team the logs out from that place and ship it to Toronto, where the
precious wood could be more carefully handled.
They had to wait several days for a north wind to enable the raft
to go down the lake, and during this time, to Tom’s immense
surprise, appeared his cousin Dave. With some embarrassment Dave
explained that the “gold boom” had turned out a disappointment. He
had staked some claims, but there was nothing in them. He looked
over the raft with amazement and some chagrin.
“To think that I spent two years within a mile of all that and never
knew it!” he commented.
“We’ll give you a job as Lynch’s lieutenant—four dollars a day and
board,” Tom suggested, laughing.
Dave declined. He was needed on the farm, but he gladly
accepted the return of the fifteen dollars that Tom had borrowed at
that critical moment in the woods.
The raft went down to Oakley without mishap, a timely rainfall
having swollen the river to a good depth, and it aroused great
excitement at that town. Here they broke it up, and for a long time
the heavy logging teams were busy, slowly hauling the timber out to
the railway.
Two dozen logs or so vanished mysteriously between Oakley and
Toronto, but the rest of the timber was stored safely in Mr. Jackson’s
yards to dry out thoroughly. It was then carefully sawed up. It sold
somewhat slowly but at a high price, and not a scrap of it was
wasted. Altogether, the walnut brought a gross sum of $44,000,
besides several hundred dollars obtained from the rough spruce and
jack-pine of the floats, which was left at Oakley.
Charlie followed the raft down to Oakley and hung about till the
last load was teamed out. Tom looked forward with genuine regret
to saying good-by to this companion who had stood by him through
so many adventures. By way of deadening the farewell, he sent to
Toronto for a magnificent repeating-rifle with a stock of ammunition,
a new canoe, a miscellaneous camp outfit, and a set of traps, and
presented this unexpected wealth to Charlie just before he left.
“If you ever need anything, Charlie,” he said, “if the trapping turns
out bad or you have any trouble, you go to my uncle Phil Jackson.
You know where he lives. He’ll give you anything you want.”
The Ojibway looked over the new outfit, which would make him
the envy of all his tribe, and raised his eyes to Tom’s, full of a deep
glow.
“You good fellow, Tom,” he said. “You come back some time,
mebbe. I watch for you.”
“Sure I’ll come back, Charlie,” Tom promised. “We’ll go trapping
together yet.”
Thus far, however, Tom has not gone back. He reëntered the
university that autumn, with renewed ambition to finish his studies;
and, without altogether neglecting collegiate athletics, he spent most
of his spare time in his father’s office and yards.
The forty-odd thousand dollars was not a fortune, but it carried
the business over a bad time, and was enough to set Mr. Jackson on
his feet again. Though, as he says, the lumber trade is no longer
what it used to be, the Jackson establishment seems to be
prospering. After Tom’s graduation, however, the office stationery
bore the new heading:
MATTHEW JACKSON & SON.
Perhaps the change brought luck.

THE END
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