UNIT -3

INPUT /OUTPUT ORGANIZATION:

Accessing I/O Devices
 I/O Interfaces: These are the communication pathways that connect the input/output devices
to the computer system, such as:

 USB (Universal Serial Bus)

 SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment)

 HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface)

 I/O Controllers: These are the hardware components that manage the data transfer between
the computer system and the input/output devices, such as:

 Keyboard controller

 Disk controller

 Graphics controller

I/O Organization Techniques:

 Programmed I/O: The CPU (Central Processing Unit) directly controls the data transfer between
the computer system and the input/output devices.

 Interrupt-Driven I/O: The CPU is interrupted by the input/output devices when data is ready to
be transferred.

 Direct Memory Access (DMA): A specialized controller transfers data between the computer
system and the input/output devices without CPU intervention.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Different I/O Organization Techniques:

 Programmed I/O: Advantages: simple to implement, low cost. Disadvantages: CPU is tied up
during data transfer, slow data transfer rate.

 Interrupt-Driven I/O: Advantages: faster data transfer rate, CPU can perform other tasks during
data transfer. Disadvantages: more complex to implement, higher cost.

 DMA: Advantages: fastest data transfer rate, CPU is free to perform other tasks during data
transfer. Disadvantages: most complex to implement, highest cost.

Interrupts in Computer Organization: Input/Output Organization

Interrupts are a crucial aspect of input/output (I/O) organization in computer systems. An interrupt is a
signal to the CPU (Central Processing Unit) that an event has occurred and requires immediate
attention. In the context of I/O organization, interrupts are used to notify the CPU that an input/output
device is ready to transfer data.

Types of Interrupts:

 Hardware Interrupts: These are generated by hardware devices, such as keyboards, disk
controllers, and network interface cards.

 Software Interrupts: These are generated by software, such as operating system calls or
application programs.

Interrupt Handling Process:

1. Interrupt Request: The input/output device sends an interrupt request to the CPU.

2. Interrupt Acknowledgment: The CPU acknowledges the interrupt request and saves the current
state of the program.

3. Interrupt Service Routine (ISR): The CPU executes the ISR, which is a specialized program that
handles the interrupt.

4. Data Transfer: The ISR transfers data between the input/output device and the computer
system.

5. Interrupt Completion: The ISR completes the interrupt handling process and restores the
original state of the program.

Advantages of Interrupts:

 Improved System Responsiveness: Interrupts allow the CPU to respond quickly to input/output
events.

 Increased System Efficiency: Interrupts enable the CPU to perform other tasks while waiting for
input/output operations to complete.

 Better Multitasking: Interrupts enable the CPU to handle multiple tasks concurrently.

Disadvantages of Interrupts:

 Increased Complexity: Interrupt handling can be complex and require significant CPU resources.

 Interrupt Overhead: Interrupt handling can introduce overhead, such as context switching and
interrupt handling time.

Interrupt-Driven I/O Techniques:

 Polling: The CPU periodically checks the status of input/output devices to determine if an
interrupt is pending.

 Interrupt-Driven I/O: The CPU is interrupted by input/output devices when data is ready to be
transferred.
Examples of Interrupts:

 Keyboard Interrupt: When a key is pressed on the keyboard, the keyboard controller sends an
interrupt to the CPU.

 Disk Interrupt: When a disk I/O operation is complete, the disk controller sends an interrupt to
the CPU.

Accessing I/O Devices in Computer Organization

Accessing I/O devices is a crucial aspect of computer organization, as it enables the computer system to
interact with the external world. There are several ways to access I/O devices, each with its own
advantages and disadvantages.

Methods of Accessing I/O Devices:

Programmed I/O

In programmed I/O, the CPU (Central Processing Unit) directly controls the data transfer between the
computer system and the I/O device. The CPU executes a sequence of instructions to read or write data
to the I/O device.

Advantages:

 Simple to implement

 Low cost

Disadvantages:

 CPU is tied up during data transfer

 Slow data transfer rate

Interrupt-Driven I/O

In interrupt-driven I/O, the CPU is interrupted by the I/O device when data is ready to be transferred.
The CPU executes an interrupt service routine (ISR) to handle the interrupt and transfer data.

Advantages:

 Faster data transfer rate

 CPU can perform other tasks during data transfer

Disadvantages:

 More complex to implement

 Higher cost
Direct Memory Access (DMA)

In DMA, a specialized controller transfers data between the computer system and the I/O device
without CPU intervention. The DMA controller takes control of the system bus to transfer data.

Advantages:

 Fastest data transfer rate

 CPU is free to perform other tasks during data transfer

Disadvantages:

 Most complex to implement

 Highest cost

I/O Mapped I/O

In I/O mapped I/O, the I/O device is mapped to a specific memory address. The CPU accesses the I/O
device by reading or writing to the corresponding memory address.

Advantages:

 Simple to implement

 Fast data transfer rate

Disadvantages:

 Limited address space

 May require additional hardware

Memory-Mapped I/O

In memory-mapped I/O, the I/O device is mapped to a specific memory address range. The CPU accesses
the I/O device by reading or writing to the corresponding memory address range.

Advantages:

 Simple to implement

 Fast data transfer rate

 Large address space

Disadvantages:

 May require additional hardware

Accessing I/O Devices in Modern Systems:

In modern computer systems, a combination of these methods is often used to access I/O devices. For
example, a system may use programmed I/O for simple devices and interrupt-driven I/O or DMA for
high-speed devices.

Enabling and Disabling Interrupts in Computer Organization

Enabling and disabling interrupts are essential operations in computer organization, as they allow the
CPU to control when interrupts are processed. Interrupts are a crucial aspect of input/output (I/O)
organization, enabling the CPU to respond to events generated by I/O devices.

Enabling Interrupts:

Enabling interrupts allows the CPU to receive and process interrupt requests from I/O devices. When
interrupts are enabled, the CPU sets a flag in the status register, indicating that it is ready to receive
interrupts.

Methods of Enabling Interrupts:

 Instruction-Level Enable: The CPU executes a specific instruction to enable interrupts, such as
the sti instruction in x86 architecture.

 Register-Level Enable: The CPU sets a specific bit in a control register to enable interrupts, such
as the IF flag in the EFLAGS register in x86 architecture.

Disabling Interrupts:

Disabling interrupts prevents the CPU from receiving and processing interrupt requests from I/O
devices. When interrupts are disabled, the CPU clears the flag in the status register, indicating that it is
not ready to receive interrupts.

Methods of Disabling Interrupts:

 Instruction-Level Disable: The CPU executes a specific instruction to disable interrupts, such as
the cli instruction in x86 architecture.

 Register-Level Disable: The CPU clears a specific bit in a control register to disable interrupts,
such as the IF flag in the EFLAGS register in x86 architecture.

When to Enable/Disable Interrupts:

 Enable Interrupts:

 During normal system operation, when the CPU needs to respond to I/O events.

 During interrupt handling, to allow the CPU to process subsequent interrupts.

 Disable Interrupts:

 During critical sections of code, to prevent interrupts from interfering with sensitive
operations.
  During system initialization, to prevent spurious interrupts from occurring.

Consequences of Improper Interrupt Handling:

 Interrupt Starvation: Disabling interrupts for extended periods can lead to interrupt starvation,
where I/O devices are unable to request attention from the CPU.

 System Instability: Enabling interrupts during critical sections of code can lead to system
instability, as interrupts can interfere with sensitive operations.

Best Practices:

 Minimize Interrupt Disable Time: Disable interrupts only when necessary and for the shortest
duration possible.

 Use Interrupt-Driven I/O: Use interrupt-driven I/O to minimize the need for disabling interrupts.

Direct Memory Access (DMA) in Computer Organization

Direct Memory Access (DMA) is a technique used in computer organization to transfer data between
devices and memory without the involvement of the CPU. DMA allows peripherals to access system
memory directly, reducing the CPU's workload and improving system performance.

DMA Controller is a hardware device that allows I/O devices to directly access memory with less
participation of the processor. DMA controller needs the same old circuits of an interface to
communicate with the CPU and Input/Output devices.

What is a DMA Controller?

Direct Memory Access uses hardware for accessing the memory, that hardware is called a DMA
Controller. It has the work of transferring the data between Input Output devices and main memory
with very less interaction with the processor. The direct Memory Access Controller is a control unit,
which has the work of transferring data.

DMA Controller Diagram in Computer Architecture

DMA Controller is a type of control unit that works as an interface for the data bus and the I/O Devices.
As mentioned, DMA Controller has the work of transferring the data without the intervention of the
processors, processors can control the data transfer. DMA Controller also contains an address unit,
which generates the address and selects an I/O device for the transfer of data. Here we are showing the
block diagram of the DMA Controller.
Types of Direct Memory Access (DMA)

There are four popular types of DMA.

 Single-Ended DMA

 Dual-Ended DMA

 Arbitrated-Ended DMA

 Interleaved DMA

Single-Ended DMA: Single-Ended DMA Controllers operate by reading and writing from a single memory
address. They are the simplest DMA.

Dual-Ended DMA: Dual-Ended DMA controllers can read and write from two memory addresses. Dual-
ended DMA is more advanced than single-ended DMA.

Arbitrated-Ended DMA: Arbitrated-Ended DMA works by reading and writing to several memory
addresses. It is more advanced than Dual-Ended DMA.

Interleaved DMA: Interleaved DMA are those DMA that read from one memory address and write from
another memory address.

Working of DMA Controller

The DMA controller registers have three registers as follows.

 Address register – It contains the address to specify the desired location in memory.

 Word count register – It contains the number of words to be transferred.

 Control register – It specifies the transfer mode.

Note: All registers in the DMA appear to the CPU as I/O interface registers. Therefore, the CPU can both
read and write into the DMA registers under program control via the data bus.

The figure below shows the block diagram of the DMA controller. The unit communicates with the CPU
through the data bus and control lines. Through the use of the address bus and allowing the DMA and
RS register to select inputs, the register within the DMA is chosen by the CPU. RD and WR are two-way
inputs. When BG (bus grant) input is 0, the CPU can communicate with DMA registers. When BG (bus
grant) input is 1, the CPU has relinquished the buses and DMA can communicate directly with the
memory.

Explanation: The CPU initializes the DMA by sending the given information through the data bus.

 The starting address of the memory block where the data is available (to read) or where data
are to be stored (to write).

 It also sends word count which is the number of words in the memory block to be read or
written.

 Control to define the mode of transfer such as read or write.

 A control to begin the DMA transfer

Modes of Data Transfer in DMA

There are 3 modes of data transfer in DMA that are described below.

 Burst Mode: In Burst Mode, buses are handed over to the CPU by the DMA if the whole data is
completely transferred, not before that.
  Cycle Stealing Mode: In Cycle Stealing Mode, buses are handed over to the CPU by the DMA
after the transfer of each byte. Continuous request for bus control is generated by this Data
Transfer Mode. It works more easily for higher-priority tasks.

 Transparent Mode: Transparent Mode in DMA does not require any bus in the transfer of the
data as it works when the CPU is executing the transaction.

8237 DMA Controller

8237 DMA Controller is a type of DMA Controller which has a flexible number of channels but generally
works on 4 Input-Output channels. In these present channels, the channel has to be given the highest
priority to be decided by the Priority Encoder. Each channel in the 8237 DMA Controller has to be
programmed separately.

8257 DMA Controller

8257 DMA Controller is a type of DMA Controller, that when a single Intel 8212 I/O device is paired with
it, becomes 4 channel DMA Controller. In 8257 DMA Controller, the highest priority channel is
acknowledged. It contains two 16-bit registers, one is DMA Address Register and the other one is
Terminal Count Register.

Advantages of DMA Controller

 Data Memory Access speeds up memory operations and data transfer.

 CPU is not involved while transferring data.

 DMA requires very few clock cycles while transferring data.

 DMA distributes workload very appropriately.

 DMA helps the CPU in decreasing its load.

Disadvantages of DMA Controller

 Direct Memory Access is a costly operation because of additional operations.

 DMA suffers from Cache-Coherence Problems.

 DMA Controller increases the overall cost of the system.

 DMA Controller increases the complexity of the software.

How DMA Works:

1. DMA Controller: A DMA controller is a specialized chip that manages DMA operations. It is
responsible for arbitrating access to the system bus and controlling data transfer between
devices and memory.

2. DMA Request: A peripheral device, such as a disk drive or network interface, requests a DMA
transfer by sending a signal to the DMA controller.
 3. DMA Controller Arbitration: The DMA controller arbitrates access to the system bus, ensuring
that only one device can access the bus at a time.

4. DMA Transfer: The DMA controller takes control of the system bus and transfers data between
the peripheral device and memory.

5. Interrupt Generation: Once the DMA transfer is complete, the DMA controller generates an
interrupt to notify the CPU that the transfer is complete.

Types of DMA:

Third-Party DMA

In third-party DMA, the DMA controller is a separate entity that manages data transfer between devices
and memory.

Bus Master DMA

In bus master DMA, the peripheral device itself acts as the DMA controller, managing data transfer
between devices and memory.

Chain DMA

In chain DMA, multiple DMA controllers are connected in a chain, allowing multiple devices to access
the system bus simultaneously.

Advantages of DMA:

 Improved System Performance: DMA reduces the CPU's workload, allowing it to focus on other
tasks.

 Increased Throughput: DMA enables high-speed data transfer between devices and memory.

 Reduced CPU Interrupts: DMA reduces the number of interrupts generated, allowing the CPU to
focus on other tasks.

Disadvantages of DMA:

 Increased Complexity: DMA controllers add complexity to the system.

 Higher Cost: DMA controllers are more expensive than traditional I/O interfaces.

 Bus Contention: DMA controllers can contend with the CPU for access to the system bus.

DMA in Modern Systems:

DMA is widely used in modern computer systems, including:

 Disk Drives: DMA is used to transfer data between disk drives and memory.

 Network Interfaces: DMA is used to transfer data between network interfaces and memory.
  Graphics Cards: DMA is used to transfer data between graphics cards and memory.

Bus Arbitration and Buses in Computer Organization

Bus Arbitration:

Bus arbitration is a technique used to manage access to a shared bus in a computer system. It ensures
that only one device can access the bus at a time, preventing data corruption and system crashes.

Types of Bus Arbitration:

Centralized Arbitration

In centralized arbitration, a single arbiter is responsible for managing access to the bus. The arbiter
receives requests from devices and grants access to the bus based on a priority scheme.

Distributed Arbitration

In distributed arbitration, each device on the bus is responsible for managing its own access to the bus.
Devices use a protocol to negotiate access to the bus.

Hybrid Arbitration

In hybrid arbitration, a combination of centralized and distributed arbitration is used. A central arbiter
manages access to the bus, but devices also use a protocol to negotiate access.

Bus Arbitration Techniques:

Fixed Priority

In fixed priority, each device is assigned a fixed priority level. The device with the highest priority is
granted access to the bus.

Dynamic Priority

In dynamic priority, the priority of each device is determined dynamically based on the system's current
state.

Round-Robin

In round-robin, each device is granted access to the bus in a circular sequence.

Token Passing

In token passing, a token is passed between devices, granting the device possessing the token access to
the bus

Buses:
A bus is a communication pathway that allows devices to exchange data. Buses are classified based on
their functionality, size, and speed.

Types of Buses:

Address Bus

The address bus carries memory addresses from the CPU to memory.

Data Bus

The data bus carries data between devices.

Control Bus

The control bus carries control signals, such as read and write signals, between devices.

Bus Characteristics:

Bus Width

The bus width determines the number of bits that can be transmitted simultaneously.

Bus Speed

The bus speed determines the frequency at which data is transmitted.

Bus Protocol

The bus protocol determines the rules and procedures for data transmission.

Examples of Buses:

 PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express)

 USB (Universal Serial Bus)

 SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment)

 PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect)

Synchronous Bus and Asynchronous Bus in Computer Organization

Synchronous Bus:

A synchronous bus is a type of bus that uses a clock signal to synchronize data transfer between devices.
The clock signal ensures that all devices on the bus are operating at the same frequency, allowing for
efficient and reliable data transfer.

Characteristics of Synchronous Bus:

Clock Signal

A clock signal is used to synchronize data transfer between devices.

Fixed Data Transfer Rate

Data is transferred at a fixed rate, determined by the clock frequency.

Synchronized Data Transfer

Data is transferred in a synchronized manner, ensuring that all devices receive data at the same time.

Advantages of Synchronous Bus:

 High-Speed Data Transfer: Synchronous buses support high-speed data transfer rates.

 Low Latency: Synchronous buses have low latency, as data is transferred in a synchronized
manner.

 Simple Implementation: Synchronous buses are relatively simple to implement.

Disadvantages of Synchronous Bus:

 Clock Skew: Clock skew can occur, causing data transfer errors.

 Limited Scalability: Synchronous buses can become bottlenecked as the number of devices
increases.

Examples of Synchronous Bus:

 PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express)

 SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment)

 DDR (Double Data Rate) SDRAM

Asynchronous Bus:

An asynchronous bus is a type of bus that does not use a clock signal to synchronize data transfer
between devices. Instead, devices use handshaking protocols to negotiate data transfer.

Characteristics of Asynchronous Bus:

No Clock Signal

No clock signal is used to synchronize data transfer.

Variable Data Transfer Rate

Data is transferred at a variable rate, determined by the devices involved.

Handshaking Protocols
Handshaking protocols are used to negotiate data transfer between devices.

Advantages of Asynchronous Bus:

 Flexibility: Asynchronous buses are more flexible, as devices can operate at different
frequencies.

 Scalability: Asynchronous buses are more scalable, as devices can be added or removed without
affecting the bus.

 Low Power Consumption: Asynchronous buses consume less power, as devices only transmit
data when necessary.

Disadvantages of Asynchronous Bus:

 Complex Implementation: Asynchronous buses are more complex to implement.

 Higher Latency: Asynchronous buses have higher latency, as devices must negotiate data
transfer.

Examples of Asynchronous Bus:

 USB (Universal Serial Bus)

 Ethernet

 RS-232

Bus Interface Circuits in Computer Organization

Bus interface circuits are electronic circuits that connect devices to a bus, enabling data transfer
between devices. These circuits play a crucial role in computer organization, as they facilitate
communication between devices and ensure reliable data transfer.

Types of Bus Interface Circuits:

Transceivers

Transceivers are bus interface circuits that transmit and receive data between devices. They convert
digital signals to analog signals for transmission and vice versa.

Line Drivers

Line drivers are bus interface circuits that amplify digital signals to ensure reliable transmission over long
distances.

Line Receivers
Line receivers are bus interface circuits that receive and amplify analog signals, converting them back to
digital signals.

Bus Repeaters

Bus repeaters are bus interface circuits that regenerate and retransmit signals, extending the distance
over which data can be transmitted.

Bus Terminators

Bus terminators are bus interface circuits that absorb signals at the end of a bus, preventing signal
reflections and ensuring reliable data transfer.

Functions of Bus Interface Circuits:

Signal Amplification

Bus interface circuits amplify digital signals to ensure reliable transmission over long distances.

Signal Conversion

Bus interface circuits convert digital signals to analog signals for transmission and vice versa.

Signal Regeneration

Bus interface circuits regenerate signals to extend the distance over which data can be transmitted.

Signal Termination

Bus interface circuits absorb signals at the end of a bus, preventing signal reflections and ensuring
reliable data transfer.

Examples of Bus Interface Circuits:

 PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express)

 USB (Universal Serial Bus)

 SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment)

 Ethernet

Design Considerations for Bus Interface Circuits:

Signal Integrity

Bus interface circuits must ensure signal integrity, minimizing signal degradation and distortion.

Power Consumption
Bus interface circuits must consume minimal power to reduce heat generation and increase system
efficiency.

Noise Immunity

Bus interface circuits must be designed to withstand noise and interference, ensuring reliable data
transfer.

Scalability

Bus interface circuits must be designed to accommodate increasing data transfer rates and device
densities.

Parallel Port, Serial Port, and Standard I/O Interfaces in Computer Organization

In computer organization, input/output (I/O) interfaces play a crucial role in facilitating communication
between the computer and external devices. Here's an overview of parallel ports, serial ports, and
standard I/O interfaces: Parallel Port

 A parallel port is a type of interface that allows multiple bits of data to be transmitted
simultaneously over multiple wires.

 It uses a parallel communication protocol, where data is sent in parallel, one byte at a time.

 Parallel ports were commonly used for connecting printers, scanners, and other peripherals to a
computer.

 Characteristics:

 Faster data transfer rates compared to serial ports

 Typically uses a 25-pin or 36-pin connector

 Can transmit 8 bits of data at a time

Serial Port

 A serial port is a type of interface that transmits data one bit at a time over a single wire.

 It uses a serial communication protocol, where data is sent sequentially, one bit at a time.

 Serial ports were commonly used for connecting modems, mice, and other low-speed devices to
a computer.

 Characteristics:

 Slower data transfer rates compared to parallel ports

 Typically uses a 9-pin or 25-pin connector

 Can transmit 1 bit of data at a time

Standard I/O Interfaces

 Standard I/O interfaces are a set of interfaces that provide a common way for devices to
communicate with a computer.

 Examples of standard I/O interfaces include:

 USB (Universal Serial Bus)

 PS/2 (Peripheral Component Interconnect)

 HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface)

 SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment)

 Characteristics:

 Provide a standardized way for devices to communicate with a computer

 Often faster and more reliable than parallel and serial ports

 Can support a wide range of devices and applications

In summary, parallel ports and serial ports are older interfaces that were commonly used for connecting
devices to a computer. While they are still used in some applications, they have largely been replaced by
standard I/O interfaces like USB and SATA, which offer faster and more reliable communication.
  PCI 32 bits have a transport speed of 33 MHz and work at 132 MBps.

 PCI 64 bits have a transport speed of 33 MHz and work at 264 MBps.

 PCI 32 bits have a transport speed of 66 MHz and work at 512 MBps.

 PCI 64 bits have a transport speed of 66 MHz and work at 1 GBps.

Function of PCI:
PCI slots are utilized to install sound cards, Ethernet and remote cards and presently strong state drives
utilizing NVMe innovation to supply SSD drive speeds that are numerous times speedier than SATA SSD
speeds. PCI openings too permit discrete design cards to be included to a computer as well.

PCI openings (and their variations) permit you to include expansion cards to a motherboard. The
extension cards increment the machines capabilities past what the motherboard may create alone, such
as: upgraded illustrations, extended sound, expanded USB and difficult drive controller, and extra
arrange interface options, to title a couple of.

Advantages of PCI :

 You’ll interface a greatest of five components to the PCI and you’ll be able moreover supplant
each of them by settled gadgets on the motherboard.

 You have different PCI buses on the same computer.

 The PCI transport will improve the speed of the exchanges from 33MHz to 133 MHz with a
transfer rate of 1 gigabyte per second.

 The PCI can handle gadgets employing a greatest of 5 volts and the pins utilized can exchange
more than one flag through one stick.

Disadvantages of PCI :

 PCI Graphics Card cannot get to system memory.

 PCI does not support pipeline.

Data transfer and data storage are very important aspects in the world of computing. That evolved
significantly over the years. One of the leading technologies in this field is the Small Computer System
Interface(or SCSI). It provides a high level of versatility and efficiency in data transfer. and also Played an
important role in connecting and managing various peripheral devices. In this article, we will learn in
detail about the world of SCSI.

What is a Small Computer System Interface(SCSI)?

SCSI (pronounced SKUH-zee and sometimes known colloquially as “skuzy”), short for Computer System
Interface, is a set of American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard electronic interfaces used for
computers. Allows communication with peripheral hardware such as disk drives, tape drives, CD-
ROM drives, printers, and scanners faster and more flexible than previous parallel data transfer
interfaces.

SCSI Host Adapter

A SCSI host adapter is a device used to connect one or more SCSI devices to a computer bus. A SCSI host
adapter is commonly referred to as a SCSI controller, which is not entirely accurate, as any component
that understands the SCSI protocol can be called a controller. In this notion, all SCSI devices have a SCSI
controller integrated, while host adapters are responsible for transferring data between the computer’s
input/output bus and the SCSI bus.

SCSI Devices

SCSI Devices encompass a wide range of peripherals, including hard drives, CD/DVD drives, tape
recording drives, scanners, and printers. These devices are designed to connect to a SCSI machine and
communicate with the host computer through the SCSI host appendage. A SCSI machine is the physical
connection through which SCSI bias are connected to the SCSI host appendage. It can be either internal
or external, depending on the configuration of the computer and the bias.

Small Computer System Interface(SCSI) and Tools

Although not all devices support all levels of SCSI, SCSI standards are generally backward-compatible.
That is, if an older peripheral device is connected to a newer computer with support for a later standard,
the older device will operate at an older and slower data rate. In personal computing, the SCSI interface
has for the most part been replaced by Universal Serial Bus (USB). In the enterprise, SCSI is still used in
server farms for hard drive controllers.

SCSI Components

There are several components are used in SCSI storage systems.

 Initiator: An initiator issues requests for service by SCSI devices and receives responses.
Initiators come in various forms and may be integrated into the server’s system board or exist
within the host bus adapter. iSCSI connectivity typically uses a software-based initiator.

 Target: The SCSI target is typically a physical storage device (although software-based SCSI
targets also exist). The target can be a single hard disk or an entire storage array. It is also
possible for non-storage hardware to act as a SCSI target. Although rare today, it was once
common to connect an optical scanner to a computer via a SCSI bus and act as a SCSI target.

 Service Delivery Subsystem: The mechanism that allows communication between the initiator
and the target; This usually takes the form of cabling.

 Expander: Used only with serial-attached SCSI (SAS) Allows multiple SAS devices to share a
single initiator port.

Serial – Attached SCSI

 SAS products are compatible with devices that use earlier SCSI technologies. The Serial Storage
Architecture (SSA) standard can be used when SCSI performance is not sufficient, such as iSCSI,
which embeds SCSI-3 over TCP/IP (most SCSI-3 specification designations begin with Ultra).
Preserves command sets.

 SAS has become a popular alternative to parallel SCSI in enterprise environments. Both serial
and parallel SCSI are based on the SCSI command set. SAS Parallel offers the following distinct
advantages over SCSI:
 o It supports up to 65,535 devices (through the use of an extender). The latest parallel
SCSI standards allow only 16 devices.

o This eliminates the problems of termination and clock malfunction.

o It is a point-to-point technology. This means that SAS is not subject to the resource
contention issues that are so common with parallel SCSI.

USB was designed to standardize the connection of peripherals like pointing devices, keyboards, digital
images and video cameras. But some devices such as printers, portable media players, disk drives, and
network adaptors to personal computers used USB to communicate and to supply electric power. It is
commonplace to many devices and has largely replaced interfaces such as serial ports and parallel ports.
USB connectors have replaced other types of battery chargers for portable devices with themselves.

What is a Universal Serial Bus(USB)?

Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an industry standard that establishes specifications for connectors, cables,
and protocols for communication, connection, and power supply between personal computers and
their peripheral devices. There have been 3 generations of USB specifications:

 USB 1.x

 USB 2.0

 USB 3.x

The first USB was formulated in the mid-1990s. USB 1.1 was announced in 1995 and released in 1996. It
was too popular and grab the market till about the year 2000. In the duration of USB 1.1 Intel
announced a USB host controller and Philips announced USB audio for isochronous communication with
consumer electronics devices.

In April of 2000, USB 2.0 was announced. USB 2.0 has multiple updates and additions. The USB
Implementer Forum (USB IF) currently maintains the USB standard and it was released in 1996.

USB Connector Types

USB connectors have different shapes and sizes. Most of the USB connectors are the standard USB,
Mini-USB, and Micro-USB, which have two or more variations of connectors. Information on each type
are shown below.
Types of USB

Mini USB

Mini USB is available in three different types A type, B type, and AB type. It is used with computer
peripherals and digital cameras. The most common kind of interface is this one, that is referred to as
mini B. Micro USB and USB-C cables basically take the place of mini USB on the latest devices. It
uses coaxial cable to transmit data and power between two devices. it applies to mobile hard drives,
digital cameras, and MP3 players. One end of a micro USB cable has a much smaller quadrilateral hub,
and the other end has a regular USB hub with a flat head. It can be easily plugged into mobile devices.
Although the tiny USB is mainly designed for, it can also be used to transfer data between computers
having at least one USB port for charging device.

Micro USB

A reduced version of the USB (Universal Serial Bus), the micro-USB. It was created for connecting small
and mobile devices including digital cameras, smartphones, GPS components, MP3 players, and
photo printers and was first announced in 2007 as a replacement for mini USB.

The three different types of Micro-USB are Micro A, Micro B, and Micro USB 3. The connector size for
the type Micro-A and Micro-B is 6.85 x 1.8 mm, while the Micro-A connector has a larger maximum
overmild size. Because it has more pins on the side for twice as many wires than micro B, USB 3 micro is
more comparable to micro B yet has faster speed. Micro USB and normal USB versions are both plug-
and-play and hot-swappable is still widely used with electronic devices.

USB Type-C

A USB Type-C port is a relatively new type of connector that may be found on the majority of
contemporary newer Android smartphones and other USB-connected devices. Data and power are
delivered to computing machines using it. In contrast to traditional USB connections, USB-C cables can
be connected into devices in either direction, including upside down.

USB Transfer Speeds

Since it is an external bus standard, USB 1.0 can accommodate up to 127 peripheral devices and data
transfer rates of 12 Mbps.

The USB 2.0 standard, commonly referred to as high-speed USB, was created in 2001 by Philips, Lucent,
Microsoft, Hewlett-Packard, Intel, NEC, and Compaq. It can support a transfer rate of 60 megabytes per
second or more up to 480 Mbps.

USB 3.0, generally known as SuperSpeed USB 3.0, was made accessible for the first time by Buffalo
Technology in November 2009. The enhanced functionality and speed of USB 3.0 contributed to
advancements in power management, improved bandwidth capacity, and USB 2.0 technology.

Up to 5.0 gigabits per second (Gbps), or 640 megabytes per second, can be supported. After the release
of USB 3.1, its name was changed to USB 3.1 Gen1 for manufacturing considerations. With the release of
their Dell XPS and Inspiron computer series in April 2011, Dell began to roll out USB 3.0 connections.

The most recent version of the USB protocol commonly known as SuperSpeed, that was made available
until July 31, 2013, is USB 3.1. It can support transfer rates of up to 10 Gbps. Recently, USB 3.0 and 3.1
revisions are used by different devices to improve speed and performance.

Advantages of USB

The Universal Serial Bus was designed to simplify and improve the interface between personal
computers and peripheral devices when compared with previously existing standard or ad-hoc
proprietary interfaces.

1. The USB interface is self-configuring. This means that the user need not adjust settings on the
device and interface for speed or data format, or configure interrupts, input/output addresses,
or direct memory access channels.

2. USB connectors are standardized at the host, so any peripheral can use any available receptacle.
USB takes full advantage of the additional processing power that can be economically put into
peripheral devices so that they can manage themselves. USB devices mostly do not have user-
adjustable interface settings.
 3. The USB interface is hot pluggable or plug and plays, meaning devices can be exchanged without
rebooting the host computer. Small devices can be powered directly from the USB interface thus
removing extra power supply cables.

4. The USB interface defines protocols for improving reliability over previous interfaces and
recovery from common errors.

5. Installation of a device relying on the USB standard minimal operator action is required.

Disadvantages of USB

1. USB cables are limited in length.

2. USB has a strict tree topology and master-slave protocol for addressing peripheral devices.
Peripheral devices cannot interact with one another except via the host, and two hosts cannot
communicate over their USB ports directly.

3. Some very high-speed peripheral devices require sustained speeds not available in the USB
standard.

4. For a product developer, the use of USB requires the implementation of a complex protocol and
implies an intelligent controller in the peripheral device.

5. Use of the USB logos on the product requires annual fees and membership in the organization.