Assignment 1
Assignment 1
Diffraction occurs when a wave encounters a series of regularly spaced obstacles that:
(1) are capable of scattering the wave, and (2) have spacing that are comparable in
magnitude to the wavelength.
• Diffraction is a consequence of specific phase relationships established between two
or more waves that have been scattered by the obstacles.
• Consider waves 1 and 2 in Figure a, which have the same wavelength (λ) and are in
phase at point ? − ? ′ .
• Now let us suppose that both waves are scattered in such a way that they traverse
(travel across or through) different paths.
• The path length difference is an integral number of wavelengths.
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X-Ray Diffraction
X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation that have high energies
and short wavelengths from (0.01-10 nm) ( 0.1 -100 Å) -wavelengths on the order of
the atomic spacing for solids (In crystals the typical interatomic spacing ~ 2-3 Å).
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• Let us now examine the necessary conditions for diffraction of x-rays by a periodic
arrangement of atoms.
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References
• Consider the two parallel planes of atoms ? − ? ′ and ? − ? ′ in Figure below which
have the same ℎ, ?, and ? Miller indices and are separated by the interplanar spacing ? ¬
トホ?ᄑ
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• Two rays in this beam, labeled 1 and 2, are scattered by atoms ? and ?. Constructive
interference of the scattered rays 1 ′ and 2 ′ occurs also at an angle ? to the planes
• if the path length difference between 1– ?¬タモ 1 ′ and 2–?¬タモ 2 ′ (i.e., ?ンムト + ?ンムヌ)
is equal to a whole number, ?, of wavelengths that is, the condition for diffraction is: ?ᅫ
ᄏ = ?ンムト + ?ンムヌ … … … (3.20)
•Bragg’s law expression relating the x-ray wavelength and interatomic spacing to the
angle of the diffracted beam. ?ᅫᄏ = 2?¬トホ?ンムル sin ? … … … (3.21)
• If Bragg’s law is not satisfied, then the interference will be nonconstructive so as to
yield a very low-intensity diffracted beam.
• The magnitude of the distance between two adjacent and parallel planes of atoms (i.e.,
the interplanar spacing ?¬トホ?ンムル) is a function of the Miller indices (ℎ, ?, and ?) as
well as the lattice parameter(s).
Diffraction Techniques
diffractometer
• The diffractometer is an instrument used to determine the angles at which diffraction
occurs for powdered specimens; its features are represented schematically in Figure
below:
T is the monochromatic x-ray source S is the sample C is the detector (the intensities of
diffracted beams are detected with a counter labeled C) O is the axis around which the
sample and detector rotate (this axis is perpendicular to the plane of the page).
• The counter is mounted on a movable carriage that may also be rotated about the O
axis; its angular position in terms of 2? is marked on a graduated scale.
• Carriage and specimen are mechanically coupled such that a rotation of the specimen
through ? is accompanied by a 2? rotation of the counter; this ensures that the incident
and reflection angles are maintained equal to one another
• Collimators (a device for producing a parallel beam of rays or radiation)are
incorporated within the beam path to produce a well-defined and focused beam.
• Utilization of a filter provides a near-monochromatic beam.
•As the counter moves at constant angular velocity, a recorder automatically plots the
diffracted beam intensity (monitored by the counter) as a function of 2?
• 2? is termed the diffraction angle, which is measured experimentally.
Applications
For example,
crystallographic orientations of single crystals are possible using x-ray
diffraction (or Laue) photographs.
Diffraction Techniques
X-ray diffractometers are designed for obtaining the ultimate quality
diffraction data, combined with ease of use and flexibility to quickly
switch to different applications.
Our multipurpose diffractometers are all equipped with PreFIX (pre-aligned,
fast interchangeable X-ray) modules, making a change in the optical path
effortless for the user. For this reason, we offer the most applications on a
single diffractometer platform.
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Aeris
Benchtop X-ray diffractometer