PGP COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

NAMAKKAL

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CE3481

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS AND FLUID MACHINERY

LABORATORY

IV SEMESTER

(R-2021)
 INSTITUTE
VISION
 PGP College of Engineering and Technology shall become the centre of academic excellence
in areas of science, engineering and technology and the transmitter of moral values with
focus on the development of rural masses.

MISSION
 Provide our students with an education that combines rigorous academic study and the
excitement of discovery.
 Develop in each student the ability and passion to work wisely, creatively and effectively
for the betterment of rural masses in particular and the world at large.
 Create an environment of intellectual stimulus, scientific inquiry and moral propriety.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHNAICAL ENGINEERING

VISION
 To become a preferred destination for quality and value based education in Mechanical
Engineering, generating employable engineers and successful entrepreneurs who can practice
professional ethics and human values and serve as responsible citizens for the benefit of
society.

MISSION
 To produce employable Mechanical Engineers through a system of learning practice
satisfying the students, teachers and industry.

 To produce engineers and intellectuals possessed with leadership qualities through an

effective utilization of all possible resources upgraded from time to time.

 To facilitate research and development as well as entrepreneurship through professional

training by experts from industry and institutions of national importance.

 To get involved in values enabled professional career so as to look upon India as a most
favoured nation for global investment and thereby benefit the society.
 PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyse complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of
the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modelling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant
to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader
in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and
receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
 PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)
I. Effectuating success in careers by exploring with the design, digital and computational
analysis of engineering systems, experimentation and testing, smart manufacturing, technical
services, and research.
II. Amalgamating effectively with stakeholders to update and improve their core competencies
and abilities to ethically compete in the ever-changing multicultural global enterprise.
III. To encourage multi-disciplinary research and development to foster advanced technology,
and to nurture innovation and entrepreneurship in order to compete successfully in the global
economy.
IV. To globally share and apply technical knowledge to create new opportunities that proactively
advances our society through team efforts and to solve various challenging technical,
environmental and societal problems.
V. To create world class mechanical engineers capable of practice engineering ethically with a
solid vision to become great leaders in academia, industries and society.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

1. Apply the knowledge gained in Mechanical Engineering for design and development and
manufacture of engineering systems.
2. Apply the knowledge acquired to investigate research-oriented problems in mechanical
engineering with due consideration for environmental and social impacts.
3. Use the engineering analysis and data management tools for effective management of
multidisciplinary projects.
 CE3481 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS AND FLUID MACHINERY
LABORATORY LTPC
0042
COURSE OBJECTIVE:
1. To study the mechanical properties of metals, wood and spring by testing in laboratory.
2. To verify the principles studied in fluid mechanics and machinery theory by performing
experiments in laboratory.

UNIT – I STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 30

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Tension test on mild steel rod
2. Torsion test on mild steel rod
3. Hardness test on metal (Rockwell and Brinell Hardness)
4. Compression test on helical spring
5. Deflection test on carriage spring

UNIT – II FLUID MECHANICS AND MACHINES LABORATORY 30

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. (a) Determination of coefficient of discharge of a venturimeter
(b) Determination of friction factor for flow through pipes
2. (a) Determination of metacentric height
(b) Determination of forces due to impact of jet on a fixed plate
3. Characteristics of centrifugal pumps
4. Characteristics of reciprocating pump
5. Characteristics of Pelton wheel turbine
TOTAL: 60 PERIODS
OUTCOMES: On completion of the course, the student is expected to be able to
1. Determine the tensile, torsion and hardness properties of metals by testing
2. Determine the stiffness properties of helical and carriage spring
3. Apply the conservation laws to determine the coefficient of discharge of a venturimeter and
finding the friction factor of given pipe
4. Apply the fluid static and momentum principles to determine the metacentric height and forces
due to impact of jet
5. Determine the performance characteristics of turbine, rotodynamic pump and positive
displacement pump.
 INDEX

Date of the Marks Staff

Sl.no Name of the Exercise Date of Completion Page No.
Exercise Obtained Sign
 INTRODUCTION

Materials which we come across may be classified into elastic, plastic and rigid materials. An elastic
material undergoes a deformation when subjected to an external loading such that the deformation
disappears on the removal of loading. A plastic material undergoes a continuous deformation during the
period of loading and the deformation is permanent and the material does not regain its original dimensions
on the removal of the loading. A rigid material does not undergo any deformation when subjected to an
external loading.
In practice no material is absolutely elastic or plastic or rigid. We attribute these properties when the
deformations are within certain limits. Generally we handle a member in its elastic range. Structural
members are all generally designed so as to remain in the elastic condition under the action of the working
loads.
A material when subjected to an external load system undergoes a deformation. It becomes necessary to
study the deformations in order to determine the conditions under which failure may occur. The ability of a
part or element of a structure to resist failure by virtue of its strength.
The ability to resist deformation is called stiffness. The material will have the ability to offer the necessary
resistance when the deformation is with in a certain limit. A loaded member remains in equilibrium when
the resistance offered by the member against the deformation and the applied load are in equilibrium. When
the member is incapable of offering the necessary resistance against the external forces, the deformation
will continue leading to the failure of the member.
Because of the complexity involved certain simplifying assumptions are made in strength calculations:

1. The material of the body has a solid continuous structure.

2. Within the limits of the part of the body the material is homogeneous and isotropic i.e., it has
identical properties in all directions at all points
3. There are no internal forces in a body prior to loading
4. The effect of the system of forces acting on a body is equal to the sum of the effects of these same forces
applied in succession and in any order. This is the principle of super imposition.
5. At points in a body sufficiently away from the points of application of loads, internal forces are
independent of the manner in which the loads are applied. This is known as Saint Venant Principle.
Theoretical investigations show that points more than 1.5-2 times the greatest linear dimension of
the area of load transmission from the region of loading a distributed load can be replaced by a
concentrated load. Thus the principle enables a distributed load replaced by a point load over a small
area.
 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
AIM: - Study of Universal Testing Machine (U.T.M.)
OBJECT: - To Study the various component parts of the Universal Testing Machine (U.T.M.) & test
procedures of various practical’s to be performed.
APPARATUS: - Universal Testing Machine with all attachment i.e. shears test attachment, bending
attachment, tension grips, compression test attachment etc.
DIAGRAM – UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE:-

THEORY: - The Universal Testing Machine consists of two units.

1) Loading unit, 2) Control panel.
LOADING UNIT:-
It consists of main hydraulic cylinder with robust base inside. The piston which moves up and down. The
chain driven by electric motor which is fitted on left hand side. The screw column maintained in the base
can be rotated using above arrangement of chain. Each column passes through the main nut which is
fitted in the lower cross head. The lower table connected to main piston through a ball & the ball seat is
joined to ensure axial loading. There is a connection between lower table and upper head assembly that
moves up and down with main piston. The measurement of this assembly is carried out by number of
bearings which slides over the columns. The test specimen each fixed in the job is known as ‘Jack Job’.
To fix up the specimen tightly, the movement of jack job is achieved helically by handle.

CONTROL PANEL:-
It consists of oil tank having a hydraulic oil level sight glass for checking the oil level. The pump is
displacement type piston pump having free plungers those ensure for continuation of high pressure. The
pump is fixed to the tank from bottom. The suction & delivery valve are fitted to the pump near tank
Electric motor driven the pump is mounted on four studs which is fitted on the right side of the tank.
There is an arrangement for loosing or tightening of the valve. The four valves on control panel control
the oil stroke in the hydraulic system. The loading system works as described below.

The return valve is close, oil delivered by the pump through the flow control valves to the cylinder & the
piston goes up. Pressure starts developing & either the specimen breaks or the load having maximum
value is controlled with the base dynameters consisting in a cylinder in which the piston reciprocates. The
switches have upper and lower push at the control panel for the downward & upward movement of the
movable head. The on & off switch provided on the control panel & the pilot lamp shows the
transmission of main supply.

METHOD OF TESTING:-
Initial Adjustment: - before testing adjust the pendulum with respect to capacity of the test i.e. 8 Tones; 10
Tones; 20 Tones; 40 Tones etc. For ex: - A specimen of 6 tones capacity gives more accurate result of 10
Tones capacity range instead of 20 Tones capacity range. These ranges of capacity are adjusted on the dial
with the help of range selector knob. Engineering control weights of the pendulum are adjusted
correctly. The ink should be inserted in pen holder of recording paper around the drum & the testing
process is started depending upon the types of test as mentioned below.

TENSION TEST:-
Select the proper job and complete upper and lower check adjustment. Apply some Greece to the tapered
surface of specimen or groove. Then operate the upper cross head grip operation handle & grip the upper
end of test specimen fully in to the groove. Keep the lower left valve in fully close position. Open the
right valve & close it after lower table is slightly lifted. Adjust the lower points to zero with the help of
adjusting knob. This is necessary to remove the dead weight of the lower table. Then lock the jobs in this
position by operating job working handle. Then open the left control valve. The printer on dial gauge at
which the specimen breaks slightly return back & corresponding load is known as breaking load &
maximum load is known as the ultimate load.

COMPRESSION TEST:-
Fix upper and lower pressure plates to the upper stationary head & lower table respectively. Place the
specimen on the lower plate in order to grip. Then adjust zero by lifting the lower table. Then perform
the test in the same manner as described in tension test.

FLEXURAL OR BENDING TEST:-

Keep the bending table on the lower table in such a way that the central position of the bending table is
fixed in the central location value of the lower table. The bending supports are adjusted to required
distance.
Stuffers at the back of the bending table at different positions. Then place the specimen on bending table
& apply the load by bending attachment at the upper stationary head. Then perform the test in the same
manner as described in tension test.

BRINELL HARDNESS TEST:-

Place the specimen on the lower table & lift it up slightly. Adjust the zero fixed value at the bottom side
of the lower cross head. Increase the load slowly ultimate load value is obtained. Then release the load
slowly with left control valve. Get the impression of a suitable value of five to ten millimeter on the
specimen & measure the diameter of the impression correctly by microscope & calculate Brinell
hardness.

SHEAR TEST:-
Place the shear test attachment on the lower table, this attachment consists of cutter. The specimen is
inserted in roles of shear test attachment & lift the lower table so that the zero is adjusted, then applies the
load such that the specimen breaks in two or three pieces. If the specimen breaks in two pieces then it will
be in angle shear, & if it breaks in three pieces then it will be in double shear.

STUDY OF EXTENSOMETER:-
This instrument is an attachment to Universal / Tensile Testing Machines. This measures the elongation
of a test place on load for the set gauge length. The least count of measurement being 0.01 mm, and
maximum elongation measurement up to 3 mm. This elongation measurement helps in finding out the
proof stress at the required percentage elongation.

WORKING OF THE INSTRUMENT:-

The required gauge length (between 30to 120) is set by adjusting the upper knife edges (3) A scale (2) is
provided for this purpose. Hold the specimen in the upper and lower jaws of Tensile / Universal Testing
Machine. Position the extensometer on the specimen, Position upper clamp (4) to press upper knife edges
on the specimen. The extensometer will be now fixed to the specimen by spring pressure. Set zero on
both the dial gauges by zero adjusts screws (7). Start loading the specimen and take the reading of load on
the machine at required elongation or the elongation at required load. Force setter accuracies mean of
both the dial gauge (8) readings should be taken as elongation. It is very important to note & follow the
 practice of removing the extensometer from the specimen before the specimen breaks otherwise the
instrument will be totally damaged. As a safety, while testing the instrument may be kept hanging from a
fixed support by a slightly loose thread.

1. Stress-strain graph Ductile Material

2. Stress-Strain Graphs of Different Materials.

 Curve A shows a brittle material. This material is also strong because there is little strain for a

high stress. The fracture of a brittle material is sudden and catastrophic, with little or no plastic

deformation. Brittle materials crack under tension and the stress increases around the cracks.

Cracks propagate less under compression.

 Curve B is a strong material which is not ductile. Steel wires stretch very little, and break

suddenly. There can be a lot of elastic strain energy in a steel wire under tension and it will

“whiplash” if it breaks. The ends are razor sharp and such a failure is very dangerous indeed.

 Curve C is a ductile material

 Curve D is a plastic material. Notice a very large strain for a small stress. The material will not

go back to its original length

 TENSION TEST ON A MILD STEEL ROD

Ex.No :
Date :
AIM:
To determine tensile strength on a required material (Mild Steel)
OBJECT: To conduct tensile test on a mild steel specimen and determine the following
1. Limit of proportionality 2. Upper yield point 3.Ultimate strength 4. Lower yield point 5.Ultimate strength
6.Fracture Strength 7.Young’s modulus 8.Percentage elongation 9.Percentage reduction in area 10.Duetility
11.Toughness 12.Malleability 13. True-Stress & true-strain values

APPARATUS:
(i) Universal Testing Machine (UTM)
(ii) Mild steel specimens
(iii) Graph paper
(iv) Scale
(v) Vernier Caliper

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the original length and diameter of the specimen. The length may either be length of gauge

section which is marked on the specimen with a preset punch or the total length of the specimen.

2. Insert the specimen into grips of the test machine and attach strain-measuring device to it.

3. Begin the load application and record load versus elongation data.

4. Take readings more frequently as yield point is approached.

5. Measure elongation values with the help of dividers and a ruler.

6. Continue the test till Fracture occurs.

7. By joining the two broken halves of the specimen together, measure the final length and diameter of

specimen.

FORMULA USED:

Percentage of elongation in length=CL/L

Percentage of reduction in area=CA/A

CL = Final Length

CA = Final Area

OBESERVATION:

A) Material: Initial Dimension

1. Length = ---------------

2. Diameter = ----------------
3. Area = ----------------

B) Final Dimensions:
1. Length = ---------------
 2. Diameter = ----------------

S.No Load(N) Original Extensio Load Increase in length

Gauge n (mm) Stress =Area (N/mm2) Strain = ---------
length
Original length
1

3. Area = ----------------
TABLE:

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The specimen should be prepared in proper dimensions.

2. The specimen should be properly to get between the jaws.

3. Take reading carefully.

4. After breaking specimen stop to m/c.

RESULT:

1.Percentage of elongation in Length =

2. Percentage of reduction in Area =

 TORSION TEST ON MILD STEEL RODS
Ex.No :
Date :

AIM:
To Identify the Torsional Strength on given Mild Steel rod specimen.
THEORY
To conduct torsion test on mild steel or cast iron specimen to determine modulus of rigidity.

CONCEPT
For transmitting power through a rotating shaft it is necessary to apply a turning force. The force is
applied tangentially and in the plane of transverse cross section. The torque or twisting moment may be
calculated by multiplying two opposite turning moments. It is said to be in pure torsion and it will
exhibit the tendency of shearing off at every cross section which is perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis.

APPARATUS:
1. A torsion testing machine.
2. Twist meter for measuring angles of twist
3. A steel rule and Vernier Caliper or micrometer.

DIAGRAM
TORSION EQUATION:

Torsion equation is given by below

T/J = τ/R= Gθ/L

G = T L/J θ N/mm2

T= maximum twisting torque (N mm)

J = polar moment of inertia (mm4) = π d4/32 τ = shear stress

(N/mm2) G = modulus of rigidity (N/mm2) θ = angle of twist in

radians

L= length of shaft under torsion (mm)

 Assumptions made for getting torsion equation

1. The material of the shaft is uniform throughout.

2. The shaft, circular in section remain circular after loading.

3. Plane sections of shaft normal to its axis before loading remain plane after the torque
have been applied.
4. The twist along the length of the shaft is uniform throughout.

5. The distance between any two normal-sections remains the same after the application of
 torque.
6. Maximum shear stress induced in the shaft due to application of torque does not exceed
its elastic limit.

PROCEDURE:

1. Select the driving dogs to suit the size of the specimen and clamp it in the machine by adjusting the

length of the specimen by means of a sliding spindle.

2. Measure the diameter at about three places and take the average value.

3. Choose the appropriate range by capacity change lever

4. Set the maximum load pointer to zero.

5. Set the protractor to zero for convenience and clamp it by means of knurled screw.

6. Carry out straining by rotating the hand wheel in either direction.

7. Load the machine in suitable increments.

8. Then load out to failure as to cause equal increments of strain reading.

9. Plot a torque- twist (T- θ) graph.

10. Read off co-ordinates of a convenient point from the straight line portion of the torque twist (T-θ)

graph and calculate the value of G by using relation.

OBESERVATION & TABULATION

Gauge length of the specimen L = ………

Diameter of the specimen d = ……… Polar

moment of inertia J = π d4/32 =........

 Sl. No. Torque, Kg-cm Torque, Angle of twist Modulus Average
G,
N - mm Degrees Radians Rigidity, G N/mm
2

N/mm2

FORMULA USED & CALCULATION:

T/ Ip =Cθ / L

T-Torque

Ip= polar moment of inertia,

4
J= π /32×d

θ =Angle of Twist

C= T θ / IpL

C- Modulus of Rigidity

L= gauge length

GRAPH:
Torque Vs Angle of Twist

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Measure the dimensions of the specimen carefully

2. Measure the Angle of twist accurately for the corresponding value of Torque.

3. The specimen should be properly to get between the jaws.

4. After breaking specimen stop to m/c.
RESULT:

Thus the torsion test on given mild steel specimen is done and the modulus of rigidity is -------N/mm2.
 HARDNESS TEST ON METAL SPECIMEN
Ex.No:
Date :

AIM:
To find the hardness of given material
OBJECTIVE
To conduct hardness test on mild steel, carbon steel, brass and aluminum specimens.
APPARATUS:
 Hardness tester,
 Soft and hard mild steel specimens, brass, aluminum etc.

DIAGRAM:

THEORY
The hardness of a material is resistance to penetration under a localized pressure or resistance to
abrasion. Hardness tests provide an accurate, rapid and economical way of determining the resistance
of materials to deformation. There are three general types of hardness measurements depending upon
the manner in which the test is conducted:

A. Scratch hardness measurement,

 B. Rebound hardness measurement

C. Indention hardness measurement.

In scratch hardness method the material are rated on their ability to scratch one another and it is usually
used by mineralogists only. In rebound hardness measurement, a standard body is usually dropped on
to the material surface and the hardness is measured in terms of the height of its rebound. The general
means of judging the hardness is measuring the resistance of a material to indentation. The indenters
usually a ball cone or pyramid of a material much harder than that being used. Hardened steel, sintered
tungsten carbide or diamond indenters are generally used in indentation tests; a load is applied by
pressing the indenter at right angles to the surface being tested. The hardness of the material depends
on the resistance which it exerts during a small amount of yielding or plastic. The resistance depends
on friction, elasticity, viscosity and the intensity and distribution of plastic strain produced by a given
tool during indentation.
 1.BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
Ex.No:
Date :

AIM:

To find the brinell‟s hardness number of the given metals using brinell‟s hardness testing
machine.

OBJECTIVE
To conduct Brinell hardness test on mild steel, carbon steel, brass and aluminum specimens.
APPARATUS:

 Brinell hardness machine,

 Test specimen.
 Brinell Microscope

THEORY

INDENTATION HARDNESS -A number related to the area or to the depth of the impression made by an

indenter or fixed geometry under a known fixed load. This method consists of indenting the surface of the metal

by a hardened steel ball of specified diameter D mm under a given load F(kgf) and measuring the average

diameter d mm of the impression with the help of Brinell microscope fitted with a scale. The Brinell hardness

HB is defined, as the quotient of the applied force F divided by the spherical area of the impression HB = Test

load in kgf/surface area of indentation.

 Brinell’s hardness number (HB) is given by

HB = Load on ball in kg

Surface area of indentation in sq.mm

2P

πD(d-√ D2-d2)

Where: P=load in kg
D=diameter of indentor in mm
d=average diameter of impression in
mm

PROCEDURE:

 Select the proper diameter of the indentor and load.

 Start the machine by pushing the green button of starter and allow oil to circulate for few
minutes.
 Keep the hand lever in position A.

 Place the specimen securely on the testing table. Turn the hand wheel in clockwise direction,
 so that the specimen will push the indentor and will show a reading on dial gauge. The
movement will continue until the long pointer will stop at „0‟ and small pointer at red dot when
the initial load of 250kg is applied. If little error exists the same can be adjusted by rotating the
outer ring dial gauge.
 Turn the handle from position „A‟ to „B‟ so that the total system is brought into
action.
 When the long pointer of dial gauge reaches a steady position, the load may be released by
taking back the lever to position „A‟.
 Turn back the hand wheel and remove the specimen.

 The diameter of the impression can be found by using optical microscope.

 Read the hardness number from the tables.

TABLE & OBSERVATIONS:

SL.No Material Load Diameter of BHN(kg/mm^2)

impression(mm)

1
2
3
4

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Brielle test should be performed on smooth, flat specimens from which dirt and scale have been
cleaned.
2. The test should not be made on specimens so thin that the impression shows through the metal, nor
should impression be made too close to the edge of a specimen.

RESULT:

The hardness of the metal is found to be

i) Hard steel =
ii) Unhardened Steel =
 1.ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

Ex.No:
Date :

AIM:

To find the Rockwell hardness number of the given metals using Rockwell hardness testing
machine.

OBJECTIVE
To conduct Rockwell hardness test on mild steel, carbon steel, brass and aluminum specimens.
APPARATUS:
 Hardness tester,
 Soft and hard mild steel specimens, brass, aluminum

PROCEDURE:

1. Adjust the weights on the plunger of dash pot according to Rockwell scale as shown in chart.
2. Keep the lever in position A.

3. Place the specimen on testing table.

4. Turn the hand wheel clockwise, on that specimen will push the indentor and the small pointer
moves to the red spot (Do not turn the wheel in a way to cross the red spot). The long pointer
automatically stops at zero on black scare. If there is any resistance, unload and check the weights,
indentor and the gap between inner faces of hanger and Turn the lever from position A to B slowly so
that the total load into brought in to action without any jerks.
5. The long pointer of dial gauge reaches a study position when indentation is complete. Take back the
lever to position A slowly.
6. Read the figure against the long pointer. That is direct reading of the hardness of specimen.
7. Turn back the hand wheel and remove the specimen.

8. Repeat the procedure 3 to 4 times.

\TABLE & OBSERVATIONS:

Material Rockwell Scale Of Weights Placed

Rock Well
S.NO Scale Weight Indentor
1
2
3
4

PRECAUTIONS:

 Select the proper indentor and load to suit the material under the Test.

 Surface to be tested must be sufficiently smooth and free from any defects.

 The surface under the test must be at right angle to the axis of the indentor.

 Diamond indentor has highly polished surface and is Susceptible to damage if not handled

properly.

RESULT:

1. The rock well hardness number for Mild Steel is

2. The rock well hardness number for Copper is

3. The rock well hardness number for Aluminum

4. The rock well hardness number for Brass is _____________

 COMPRESSION TEST ON HELICAL SPRINGS
OPEN & CLOSED COIL HELICAL SPRING
Ex.No:
Date :
AIM:
To Test the properties of given spring

OBJECTIVE:
To determine the stiffness of spring, modulus of rigidity of the spring wire and maximum strain energy
stored.
APPARATUS:
i. Spring testing machine.
ii.A spring
iii.Vernier caliper, Scale.
iv.Micrometer.
THEORY:
This is the test to know strength of a material under compression. Generally compression test is carried out
to know either simple compression characteristics of material or column action of structural members. It
has been observed that for varying height of member, keeping cross-sectional and the load applied
constant, there is an increased tendency towards bending of a member. Member under compression
usually bends along minor axis, i.e, along least lateral dimension. According to column theory slenderness
ratio has more functional value. If this ratio goes on increasing, axial compressive stress goes on
decreasing and member buckles more and more. End conditions at the time of test have a pronounced
effect on compressive strength of materials. Effective length must be taken according to end conditions
assumed, at the time of the test. As the ends of the member is made plain and fit between two jaws of the
machine, fixed end is assumed for calculation of effective length. Effective length is taken as 0.5 L where L
is actual length of a specimen.
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the diameter of the wire of the spring by using the micrometer.
2. Measure the diameter of spring coils by using the Vernier caliper
3. Count the number of turns.
4. Insert the spring in the spring testing machine and load the spring by a suitable weight and note the
corresponding axial deflection in tension or compression.
5. Increase the load and take the corresponding axial deflection readings.
6. Plot a curve between load and deflection. The shape of the curve gives the stiffness of the
spring.

OBESERVATION:
Least count of micrometer = ……mm
Diameter of the spring wire, d =………mm (Mean of three readings)
Least count of Vernier caliper = ……mm
Diameter of the spring coil D = ……mm (mean of three readings)
Number of turns N =

TABULATION
Sl.No Load in N Scale readings(mm) Deflection(mm) Rigidity modulus Stiffness in N/mm
N/mm2
1
2
3
4
5
CALCULATION

(i) Inner diameter of spring di = mm

(ii) Outer diameter of spring do= mm
(iii) Length of the spring L = mm
(iv) Number of turns n = 10
(v) Material of spring =
(vi)Young’s modulus E = 2 ×105

1. Deflection : 64 WR 3 N Sec [cos 2 / N + 2Sin 2 /E] N/mm2

Where,
W=Load applied in Newton
R=Mean radius of spring coil = (D-d) / 2
N= Number of turns
a=Helix angle of spring
N=Modulus of rigidity of spring Material
E=Young’s modulus of the spring material
2. Tan = pitch / 2πR

3. Pitch = (L-d) / n

Where,
d= Diameter of spring wire in mm
L= Length of spring in mm
N= No of turns in spring
4. Stiffness of spring (K) = w / d
Where,
d=Deflection of spring in mm
W=Load applied in Newton’s
5. Maximum Energy Stored = 0.5 x WMax
Where,
WMax = Maximum load applied
Max = Maximum deflection

PRECAUTIONS

1.Place the specimen at center of compression pads,

2. Stop the machine as soon as the specimen fails.
3. Cross sectional area of specimen for compression test should be kept large as compared to the specimen
for tension test: to obtain the proper degree of stability

RESULT

Under compression test on open coil helical spring

1. Rigidity Modulus (N) = N/mm

2. Stiffness of spring (K) = N/mm

3. Maximum energy stored =

 DEFLECTION TEST ON BEAMS

1.BENDING TEST ON CANTILEVER BEAM

Ex.No:
Date :

AIM:

This experiment is to demonstrate the effect of distance at which the load acting from the fixed end on
deflection of the beam.The effects of young‟s modulus of the material of the beam using different
materials bars.The effect of the type of cross section on the deflection because of the effect of moment of
inertia of the beam.
OBJECTIVE
To determine the bending stress of the Cantilever Beam
APPARATUS:
1. Deflection of beam apparatus

2. Pan
3. Weights

4. Beam of different cross-sections and material

THEORY:
A Cantilever is a Beam one end of which is clamped and other end is free. A beam with a length L and is fixed
at one end and the other end is free. Let the moment of inertia of the Beam is „I‟ about it‟s neutral axis and the
Young‟s Modulus be ‟E‟.

1.Moment of inertia about the neutral axis

2

2. Deflection at the end where point load is acting = = 

3. The deflection at the end (Max deflection)  is related to the load „W‟, length „L‟ moment of Inertia „I‟ and
Young‟s Modulus „E‟ through the equation
=
We need to observe and understand following things

 If load is doubled deflection will also be doubled

 If span is doubled deflection increases y 8 times.

 If Young‟s Modulus of material is more, then deflection will be less.

 If Moment of Inertia is increased the deflection will reduced

PROCEDURE:

1. Clamp the Beam horizontally on the clamping support at one end.

2. Measure the length of cantilever L (distance from clamp end to loading point)

3. Fix the dial gauge under the beam at the loading point to Read down-ward moment and set to zero.

4. Hang the loading Pan at the free end of the cantilever.

5. Load the cantilever with different loads (W) and note the dial gauge readings ()

6. Change the length of cantilever for two more different lengths repeat the experiment.

7. Change the position of cantilever and repeat the experiment for the other value of I for rectangular cross-

section.

OBSERVATIONS:
1. Independent Variables:
 Load
 Span
 Moment of Inertia (By choosing different sections)
 Young‟s Modulus (By choosing different Materials)
2. Dependent Variable
  Bending Deflection ()

3. Derived Variable

 Bending Stiffness
TABULATION

Sl Beam Cross Y.M.E 4 Span L Deflection Bending Stiffness

M.I.I.Mm Load
No. Material Section N/mm2 (mm)  in mm N/mm
W in
N

Bending stress f =

GRAPHS:
1. Deflection Vs W, L, I and

2. E Stiffness Vs W, L, I and E

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Beam should be positioned horizontally
2. The length of the cantilever should be measured properly
3. The dial gauge spindle knob should always touch the beam at the bottom of loading point.
4. Loading hanger should be placed at known distance of cantilever length.
5. All the errors should be eliminated while taking readings.
6. Elastic limit of the Bema should not exceed.

RESULT
Bending Stress in Cantilever Beam is -------------------------------
 2.BENDING TEST ON SIMPLY SUPPORT BEAM

Ex.No:
Date :

AIM:
To determined young‟s modulus of elasticity of material of beam simply supported at ends.

OBJECTIVE:
To find the values of bending stresses and young‟s modulus of elasticity of the material of a beam simply
supported at the ends and carrying a concentrated load at the center.
APPARATUS:
i. Deflection of beam apparatus
ii. Pan
iii. Weights

iv. Beam of different cross-sections and material

THEORY:

If a beam is simply supported at the ends and carries a concentrated load at its center, the beam bends

concave upwards. The distance between the original position of the beams and its position after bending at

different points along the length of the beam, being maximum at the center in this case. This difference is

known as „deflection‟ In this particular type of loading the maximum amount of deflection (δ) is given by the

=
 W = Load acting at center, N
L = Length of the beam between the supports mm

E = Young‟s modulus of material of the beam, N/mm2

I = Second moment of area of the cross- section (i.e, moment of Inertia) of the beam, about the neutral axis,
mm.4

Bending Stress

As per bending equation

Where
M = Bending Moment N-mm
I = Moment of inertia mm4
σ b = Bending stress, N/mm2 , and
Y = Distance of the top fibre of beam from the neutral axis

PROCEDURE:

1. Adjust cast- iron block along the bed so that they are symmetrical with respect to the length of the bed.
2. Place the beam on the knife edges on the block so as to project equally beyond each knife edge. See
that the load is applied at the center of the beam
3. Note the initial reading of Vernier scale.

4. Add a weight of 20N (say) and again note the reading of the Vernier scale.

5. Go on taking readings adding 20N (say) each time till you have minimum six readings.
6. Find the deflection (δ) in each case by subtracting the initial reading of Vernier scale.
7. Draw a graph between load (W) and deflection (δ). On the graph choose any two convenient points and
between these points find the corresponding values of W and δ. Putting these Values in the relation

Calculate the value of E

8. Calculate the bending stresses for different loads using relation

=
TABULATION

Sl No Load Bending Moment Bending Deflection Young‟s Modulus

W Stress of elasticity
(N)

PRECAUTIONS

 Make sure that beam and load are placed a proper position.

 The cross- section of the beam should be large.

 Note down the readings of the Vernier scale carefully

RESULT:

1. The young‟s modulus for steel beam is found to be ----- N/mm2.

2. The young‟s modulus for wooden beam is found to be ----- N/mm2

 STRAIN MEASUREMENT USING ROSETTE STRAIN GAUGE

Ex.No:
Date :
AIM:
To Measure the Normal strains along different directions in the underlying surface of the test part

OBJECTIVE:
To obtain the principal strains and stresses, Principal directions of independent closely positioned gage
grids
THEORY :
A strain gauge is a device which is used to measure strain (deformation) on an object subjected to forces. Strain

can be measured using various types of devices classified depending upon their principle of operation. Some of

them are as follows:

1. Mechanical type

2. Optical type

3. Pneumatic type

4. Electrical type earlier

Mechanical type of device such as extensometer or extension meter was used to measure strain by measuring

change in length. Photoelectric strain gauge was also introduced which uses a light beam to produce electric

current corresponding to deformation. The most commonly used strain gauge is an electrical resistance strain

gauge. This strain gauge works on the principle that when a metallic wire type gauge is strained (here due to

forces on object in contact), the resistance of the wire will be changed due to changes in its length, diameter and

resistivity. Resistance (R) = ρL A Where ρ is resistivity; L is length of wire; A is area of cross section of wire.

This change in resistance will be in proportion with the strain produced which can be easily measured using

Wheatstone bridge.
To meet the foregoing requirements, the Micro Measurements manufactures three basic types of strain gauge

rosettes (each in a variety of forms):

 Tee: two mutually perpendicular grids.

 45°-Rectangular: three grids, with the second and third grids angularly displaced from the first grid by

45° and 90°, respectively.

 60°-Delta: three grids, with the second and third grids 60° and 120° away, respectively, from the first

grid. Representative gage patterns for the three rosette types are reproduced.
In common with single-element strain gages, rosettes are manufactured from different combinations of
grid alloy and backing material to meet varying application requirements. They are also offered in a number of
gage lengths, noting that the gage length specified for a rosette refers to the active length of each
individual grid within the rosette. As illustrated below

Rectangular and delta rosettes may appear in any of several geometrically different, but functionally equivalent,

forms. Guidance in choosing the most suitable rosette for a particular application is provided in Section 2.0,

where selection considerations are reviewed.

ROSETTE SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS

A comprehensive guide for use in selecting Micro Measurements strain gages is provided in Reference 1. This

publication should first be consulted for recommendations on the strain-sensitive alloy, backing material, self-

temperature-compensation number, gage length, and other strain gage characteristics suitable to the expected

application. In addition to basic parameters such as the foregoing, which must be considered in the selection of

any strain gage,

Two other parameters are important in rosette selection.

1.The rosette type — tee, rectangular, or delta

2. The rosette construction — planar (single plane) or stacked (layered).

 EFFECT OF HARDENING- IMPROVEMENT IN HARDNESS AND IMPACT RESISTANCE OF
STEELS

Ex.No:
Date :
AIM:
To observe the property changes of Steel material due to hardening process

OBJECTIVE:
To identify and compare the material properties with and without hardening process
METAL HARDENING
The use of this treatment will result in an improvement of the mechanical properties, as well as an increase in

the level of hardness, producing a tougher, more durable item. Alloys are heated above the critical

transformation temperature for the material, then cooled rapidly enough to cause the soft initial material to

transform to a much harder, stronger structure. Alloys may be air cooled, or cooled by quenching in oil, water,

or another liquid, depending upon the amount of alloying elements in the material. Hardened materials are

usually tempered or stress relieved to improve their dimensional stability and toughness. Steel parts often require

a heat treatment to obtain improved mechanical properties, such as increasing increase hardness or strength. The

hardening process consists of heating the components above the critical (normalizing) temperature, holding at

this temperature for one hour per inch of thickness cooling at a rate fast enough to allow the material to

transform to a much harder, stronger structure, and then tempering. Steel is essentially an alloy of iron and

carbon; other steel alloys have other metal elements in solution. Heating the material above the critical

temperature causes carbon and the other elements to go into solid solution. Quenching "freezes" the

microstructure, inducing stresses. Parts are subsequently tempered to transform the microstructure, achieve the

appropriate hardness and eliminate the stresses.

PROCESS AND EFFECTS OF HARDENING

The Hall–Petch method, or grain boundary strengthening, is to obtain small grains. Smaller grains increase the

likelihood of dislocations running into grain boundaries after shorter distances, which are very strong
dislocation barriers. In general, smaller grain size will make the material harder. When the grain size approach

sub-micron sizes, some materials may however become softer. This is simply an effect of another deformation

mechanism that becomes easier, i.e. grain boundary sliding. At this point, all dislocation related hardening

mechanisms become irrelevant.

 In work hardening (also referred to as strain hardening) the material is strained past its yield point, e.g.

by cold working. Ductile metal becomes harder and stronger as it's physically deformed. The plastic

straining generates new dislocations. As the dislocation density increases, further dislocation movement

becomes more difficult since they hinder each other, which means the material hardness increases.

 In solid solution strengthening, a soluble alloying element is added to the material desired to be

strengthened, and together they form a “solid solution”. A solid solution can be thought of just as a

"normal" liquid solution, e.g. salt in water, except it is solid. Depending on the size of the dissolved alloying

element's ion compared to that of the matrix-metal, it is dissolved either substitutionally (large alloying

element substituting for an atom in the crystal) or interstitially (small alloying element taking a place

between atoms in the crystal lattice). In both cases, the size difference of the foreign elements make them

act as sand grains in sandpaper, resisting dislocations that try to slip by, resulting in higher material

strength. In solution hardening, the alloying element does not precipitate from solution.

 Precipitation hardening (also called age hardening) is a process where a second phase that begins in solid

solution with the matrix metal is precipitated out of solution with the metal as it is quenched, leaving

particles of that phase distributed throughout to cause resistance to slip dislocations. This is achieved by

first heating the metal to a temperature where the elements forming the particles are soluble then quenching

it, trapping them in a solid solution. Had it been a liquid solution, the elements would form precipitates, just

as supersaturated saltwater would precipitate small salt crystals, but atom diffusion in a solid is very slow at

room temperature. A second heat treatment at a suitable temperature is then required to age the material.

The elevated temperature allows the dissolved elements to diffuse much faster, and form the desired
 precipitated particles. The quenching is required since the material otherwise would start the precipitation

already during the slow cooling. This type of precipitation results in few large particles rather than the,

generally desired, profusion of small precipitates. Precipitation hardening is one of the most commonly used

techniques for the hardening of metal alloys.

 Martensitic transformation, more commonly known as quenching and tempering, is a hardening mechanism

specific for steel. The steel must be heated to a temperature where the iron phase changes from ferrite into

austenite, i.e. changes crystal structure from BCC (body-centered cubic) to FCC (face-centered cubic). In

austenitic form, steel can dissolve a lot more carbon. Once the carbon has been dissolved, the material is

then quenched. It is important to quench with a high cooling rate so that the carbon does not have time to

form precipitates of carbides. When the temperature is low enough, the steel tries to return to the low

temperature crystal structure BCC. This change is very quick since it does not rely on diffusion and is called

a martensitic transformation. Because of the extreme supersaturation of solid solution carbon, the crystal

lattice becomes BCT (body-centered tetragonal) instead. This phase is called martensite, and is extremely

hard due to a combined effect of the distorted crystal structure and the extreme solid solution strengthening,

both mechanisms of which resist slip dislocation.

APPLICATION

 Machine cutting tools (drill bits, taps, lathe tools) need be much harder than the material they are

operating on in order to be effective.

 Knife blades – a high hardness blade keeps a sharp edge.

 Bearings – necessary to have a very hard surface that will withstand continued stresses.

 Armor plating - High strength is extremely important both for bullet proof plates and for heavy duty

containers for mining and construction.

 Anti-fatigue - Martensitic case hardening can drastically improve the service life of mechanical

components with repeated loading/unloading, such as axles and cogs.

 TEMPERED MATERIAL BRITTLE HARDNESS TEST

Ex.No:
Date :
AIM:
To find the brinell hardness number of tempered metals and hardened material.
OBJECTIVE:
To Test and identify property changes of material due to hardening process

APPARATUS:

 Brinell hardness testing machine

 Specimen of Tempered metal

 Specimen of Hardened metal

 Brinell microscope

THEORY:
Hardness represents the resistance of material surface to abrasion, scratching and cutting, hardness

after gives clear identification of strength. In all hardness testes, a define force is mechanically applied

on the test piece for about 15 seconds. The indentor, which transmits the load to the test piece, varies

in size and shape for different tests. Common indenters are made of hardened steel or diamond. In

Brinell hardness testing, steel balls are used as indentor. Diameter of the indentor and the applied

force depend upon the thickness of the test specimen, because for accurate results, depth of

indentation should be less than 1/8 of the thickness of the test pieces. According to the thickness of the

test piece increase, the diameter of the indentor and force are changed.

Knowledge of the specimen:

Load is applied on the specimen the band of the slide of the machines which is operated of handling and

watching the specimen the diameter of the indentor is which helps of traveling microscope.

Specification of Hardness Testing machine and Indentors:

A hardness test can be conducted on Brinell testing m/c, Rockwell hardness m/c or vicker testing m/c.
the specimen may be a cylinder, cube, think or thin metallic sheet. Its specification are as follows:

1. Ability to determine hardness upto 500BHN.

2. Diameter of ball (as indentor) used D = 2.5mm, 5mm, 10mm.

3. Maximum application load = 3000kgf.

4. Method of load application = Lever type

5. Capability of testing the lower hardness range = 1 BHN on application of 0.5Dload

PROCEDURE

 Insert ball of dia ‘D’ in ball holder of the m/c.

 Make the specimen surface clean by removing dust, dirt, oil and grease etc.

 Make contact between the specimen surface and the ball by rotating the jack adjusting wheel.

 Push the required button for loading.

 Pull the load release level and wait for minimum 15 second. The load will automatically apply

gradually

 Remove the specimen from support table and locate the indentation so made.

 View the indentation through microscope and measure the diameter‘d’ by micrometer fitted on

microscope.

 Repeat the entire operation, 3-times.

TABULATION

S.No.

Ball Diameter Load applied Diameter of

Type of Specimen
in mm P in‘kgf. indentations’’ (mm) P/D2 BHN

1
Tempered Specimen

2
Hardened Specimen

FORMULA USED

1. Area of indentation A=π×d/2(D- √D2-d2)

2. BHN = Load Applied (kgf.)/ Spherical surface area indentation (in mm.)

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The specimen should be clean properly.

2. Take reading more carefully and correct.

3. Place the specimen properly.

4. Jack adjusting wheel move slowly

5. After applying load remove the load.

RESULT:

The brinell hardness number of the given specimen are found out and tabulated
 MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
Ex.No:
Date :
AIM:
To examine the microstructure of a given plain carbon steel sample before and after heat treatment.
OBJECTIVE:
To Show the changes in micro structure of material due to hardening process

APPARATUS:

 Belt grinder

 Simple disc polishing machine

 Stretching agent

 Emery sheet

 Muffle furnace

THEORY:
Sample specimen:

i) Unbalanced specimen

ii) Harden specimen

iii) Tempered specimen

Steel can be heat treated to high temperature to achieve the requirement harden and strength. The high

operating stress need the high strength of hardened structure similarly tools such as like knives etc. as

quenched hardened steels are so, brittle than even slight compact cause fracture. The heat treatment

that reduces the brittleness of steel without significantly lowering the hardness and strength. Hardened

steel must be tempered before use.

Importance:
Hardening:
To increase the strength and hardness

To improve the mechanical properties Hardening temperature-90 0c

Holding time-1 hr Quenching medium - Water.

Tempering:

To reduce the stress & reduce the brittleness

Tempering temperature-320o C

Holding time-1 hr

Quenching medium-Air

The specimen and is heated at a temperature which is determined using the microstructure the

specimen quenching into oil. The given three samples are subjected to The specimen and is heated at a

temperature which is determined using the microstructure the specimen quenching into oil. The given

three samples are subjected t the study of microstructure of the hardened metal. The micro structure of

the unhardened sample is studied and hardness is found. The furnace which is maintained at temperature

at 900o C for hardening. The sample is added to get austenite structure. The third sample is subjected

to tempering process of is hold at 830 is furnace for this and quenched in air. The micro structure of the

third specimen is studied and hardness is formed.

PROCEDURE
 Specimen is heated to temperature which is determined using the microscopic structure the

specimen is quenched in oil.

 The given samples are subjected to the study of micro structure and hardness.

 The remaining two specimens is quenched into the furnace which is maintained at the temperature

9000c for hardening process

 The microstructure of the hardened sample is subjected and hardness is found.

 The specimen is then taken from the furnace and immediately quenched in oil
TABULATION

SAMPLES SAMPLES-I SAMPLES-I SAMPLES-II

(Before hardening) (After (After tempering)
hardening)
MICROSTRUCTURE Structure1 Structure 2 Structure 3

HARDENING

HARDENING &
TEMPERING

OBSERVATION

Specimen: Low Carbon Steel Magnification: 2%

Metal Composition: 80%Ferrite, 20% Pearlite

Hardness test: RC

Load: 100 kg

Indentor:1 20o C

PRECAUTIONS

1. Test piece should be clean properly.

2. Test piece should be straight.

RESULT

Thus the microstructure and the hardness of the given sample are studied and treatment is tabulated.
 DETERMINATION OF THE CO EFFICIENT OF
DISCHARGE OF GIVEN VENTURIMETER

Exp No:
Date:

AIM:
To determine the coefficient of discharge for liquid flowing through venturimeter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Venturimeter
2. Stop watch
3. Collecting tank
4. Differential U-tube
5. Manometer
6. Scale
FORMULAE:
1. ACTUAL DISCHARGE:
Q act = A x h / t (m3 / s)

2. THEORTICAL DISCHARGE:
Qth = a 1 x a 2 x  2 g h /  a 12 – a 22 (m3 / s)
Where:
A = Area of collecting tank in m2
h = Height of collected water in tank = 10 cm
a 1 = Area of inlet pipe in m2
a 2 = Area of the throat in m2
g = Specify gravity in m / s2
t = Time taken for h cm rise of water
H = Orifice head in terms of flowing
liquid (H1 ~ H2) (s m /s 1 - 1)
Where:
H1 = Manometric head in first limb
H2 = Manometric head in second limb
s m = Specific gravity of Manometric liquid
(i.e.) Liquid mercury Hg = 13.6
s1 = Specific gravity of flowing liquid water = 1

3. CO EFFICENT OF DISCHARGE:
Co- efficient of discharge = Q act / Q th (no units)

DESCRIPTION:
Venturi meter has two sections. One divergent area and the other throat area. The former is
represented as a 1 and the later is a 2 water or any other liquid flows through the Venturi meter and it
passes to the throat area the value of discharge is same at a 1 and a 2 .

PROCEDURE:
1. The pipe is selected for doing experiments
2. The motor is switched on, as a result water will flow
3. According to the flow, the mercury level fluctuates in the U-tube manometer
4. The reading of H1 and H2 are noted
5. The time taken for 10 cm rise of water in the collecting tank is noted
6. The experiment is repeated for various flow in the same pipe
7. The co-efficient of discharge is calculated

RESULT:
The co efficient of discharge through Venturimeter is ……… (No unit)
 Manometric Manometric Time taken for h Actual Theoretical Co-efficient of
S.no Diameter in reading head cm rise of water t discharge discharge Qth discharge Cd
-3 -3
mm H=(H1~H2) Q act x 10 x 10
H1 cm H2 cm x 12.6 x 10-2 sec m3 / s (no unit)
of Hg of Hg m3 / s

Mean Cd =
 DETERMINATION OF FRICTION FACTOR OF
GIVEN SET OF PIPES

Exp No:
Date:

AIM:
To find the friction ‘f’ for the given pipe.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. A pipe provided with inlet and outlet and pressure tapping
2. Differential u-tube manometer
3. Collecting tank with piezometer
4. Stopwatch
5. Scale

FORMULAE:
1. FRICTION FACTOR (F):
f = 2 x g x d x h f / l x v2 (no unit)

Where,

g = Acceleration due to gravity (m / sec2)

d = Diameter of the pipe (m)
l = Length of the pipe (m)
v = Velocity of liquid following in the pipe (m / s)
h f = Loss of head due to friction (m)
= h1 ~ h2

Where
h1 = Manometric head in the first limbs
h2 = Manometric head in the second limbs
 2. ACTUAL DISCHARGE:
Q=Axh/t (m3 / sec)
Where
A = Area of the collecting tank (m2)
h = Rise of water for 5 cm (m)
t = Time taken for 5 cm rise (sec)

3. VELOCITY:
V=Q/a (m / sec)
Where
Q = Actual discharge (m3/ sec)
A = Area of the pipe (m2)
DESCRIPTION:
When liquid flows through a pipeline it is subjected to frictional resistance. The frictional
resistance depends upon the roughness of the pipe. More the roughness of the pipe will be more the
frictional resistance. The loss of head between selected lengths of the pipe is observed.

PROCEDURE:

1. The diameter of the pipe is measured and the internal dimensions of the collecting tank and
the length of the pipe line is measured
2. Keeping the outlet valve closed and the inlet valve opened
3. The outlet valve is slightly opened and the manometer head on the limbs h1 and h2 are noted
4. The above procedure is repeated by gradually increasing the flow rate and then the
corresponding readings are noted.

RESULT:

1.The frictional factor ‘f‘for given pipe = x 10-2 (no unit)

-2
2. The friction factor for given pipe by graphical method = …… x 10 ( no unit )
 Diameter of Manometer readings Time for Actual discharge Velocity V2 Friction
S.no pipe mm 5cm rise Qact x 10-3 V factor
of water m/s m2 / s 2 f x 10-2
h1 x h2 x hf = (h1-h2) m3 / s
t sec
10-2 10-2 x 10-2

Mean f =
 DETERMINATION OF THE METACENTRIC HEIGHT
Aim
To determine the metacentric height of a typical float.

Apparatus
Metacentric height instrument, measuring scale etc.

Theory
Metacentre is the point, where the line of buoyant force and the perpendicular passing
through the centre of gravity intersect.
The metacentric height , GM = w x/W tanθ
where, GM = metacentric height in mm, w is the mass of the slider in kg, x is the distance
to the movable weight from the central position in mm, W is the mass of the trough and
the slider in kg, θ is the angle of inclination
The distance between the buoyancy and the metacentre, BM = I/V
where, V is the volume in the displaced water, I is the moment of inertia of the plane of
water respect to the longitudinal axis = lb3 / 12
Hence, the metacentric height, GM = BM – BG

Procedure
1) Weigh the adjustable transversal mass as well as the floating prismatic base and
assembly.
2) Displace the sliding mass up to upper part of the mass in such a way that the
gravity center be in the upper part of the floating assembly
3) Fill the volumetric tank with water.
4) Move the adjustable mass to the right of the center in 10mm steps of x, until the
end of the scale, recording the angular displacement for every position.
Observations
Mass of movable slider w = 0.302
Mass of trough W‟= 1.649
Mass of slider and trough W = 1.951

OBSERVATION TABLE

Distance from the Position of vertical slider Inclination Metacentric

movable mass to the Y (cm) angle θ tan θ height
right of the center, GM(cm)
X(cm)
2
4
6
8
-2
-4
-6
-8

Sample Calculation

Results and Discussion

 IMPACT OF A JET

OBJECTIVE:
To measure the force exerted by a jet on a flat plate normal to the Jet

APPARATUS
Impact of Jet Apparatus

Theory
A jet of fluid emerging from a nozzle has some velocity and hence it possesses a certain
amount of kinetic energy. If this jet strikes an obstruction placed in its path, it will exert a
force on the obstruction. This impressed force is known as impact of the jet. Since, a
dynamic force is involved by virtue of fluid motion; it always involves a change of
momentum.

Flat plate normal to the jet: Let a jet of diameter d and velocity V is issued from a
nozzle and strikes a flat plate as shown in Fig 1. The plate is held stationary and
perpendicular to the centre line of the jet. The jet after striking the plate will leave it
tangentially i.e. the jet will get deflected through 900.
The quantity of fluid striking the plate Q= (πd2/ 4) x V = a V, where a is the area of cross
section of the jet. Thus, the mass of fluid issued by the jet per second is m = ρ Q = ρaV;
w
where ρ represents the mass density of the fluid. Since ρ = (w/g), where w is the
g
waV
specific weight of the fluid, the mass m may also be expressed as m =
g
After striking the plate since the jet gets deflected through 900, the component of the
velocity of the jet leaving the plate, in the original direction of the striking jet will be
zero. Therefore, by applying impulse-momentum equation, the force F exerted by the
stationary plate on the jet of fluid in the direction normal to the plate may be determined
as
waV
-F= (0  V )
g

waV 2
F= ---- (i)
g

The sign for the force F has been considered as negative because the force exerted by the
plate on the jet is in the negative x-direction. Further the force which the jet exerts on the
plate is equal and opposite to the force exerted by the plate on the jet, hence it is equal to
F acting in the positive x-direction and its magnitude is given by equation (i)
PROCEDURE:
1. Fill up clean water in the sump tank up to the mark
2. Fix the flat plate to the fixing rod. Fix the nozzle in perspex box at centre and
close the top covers.
3. Adjust the balance weight. Locking bolt is provided so that the vane fixing rod is
in horizontal position.
4. Connect the electric supply and hose pipe connection to inlet of the nozzle.
5. Fully open the bypass valve. Start the pump.
6. Slowly close bypass valve. The jet strikes the vane.
7. Now, the vane fixing rod gets unbalanced. Put the sliding weight over the rod and
adjust it‟s distance such that vane fixing rod is in balanced position.
8. Note down the balance weight and it‟s distance from the centre of the pivot.
9. Close the discharge valve of the measuring tank. Turn the funnel towards the
measuring tank so that the water gets collected in the measuring tank. Start stop
watch at -0 Lit and measure the time required for 10 Lit.
10. For next reading use same procedure.
11. After completion of experiment drain all the water and tighten the drain plug.

OBSERVATION TABLE

Sl Time for 10 litre Weight Distance of FTheo Fexp

no. discharge added sliding weight, (kg) (kg)
t (sec) m (kg) l (m)
01 0.1
02 0.1
03 0.1

CALCULATIONS:

Diameter of the nozzle = 8 mm

Diameter of jet: d = 8 x 10-3 m
Cross sectional area of jet, a = 5.02 x 10-5 m2

Let the time required for 10 litre level rise in measuring tank be t sec

0.01 3
Discharge = m / sec
t

Q
Velocity of jet = m/sec
a

Force exerted by the flat vane (deflection of jet is 900)

FTheo = paV 2 kg
Where ρ = Density of water = 1000 kg/ m3

Experimentally, taking moments about the fulcrum,

Distance of vane from fulcrum is 0.135 mtr. (along the beam)

Fexp x 0.135 = m x g x l

Fexp = (m x g x l) / 0.135

Where, m = Mass of sliding weight in kg

l = Distance of sliding weight from fulcrum, m
g = Gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/ sec2

RESULT
 CHARACTERISTICS TEST ON CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

Exp No:
Date:

AIM:
To study the performance characteristics of a centrifugal pump and to determine the
characteristic with maximum efficiency.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Centrifugal pump setup

2. Meter scale
3. Stop watch

FORMULAE :

1.ACTUAL DISCHARGE:

Q act = A x y / t (m3 / s)

Where:

A = Area of the collecting tank (m2)

y = 10 cm rise of water level in the collecting tank
t = Time taken for 10 cm rise of water level in collecting tank.

2. TOTAL HEAD:
H = Hd + H s + Z

Where:
Hd = Discharge head, meter
Hs = Suction head, meter
Z = Datum head, meter
3. INPUT POWER:
 I/P = (3600  N  1000) / (E  T) (watts)

Where,
N = Number of revolutions of energy meter disc
E = Energy meter constant (rev / Kw hr)
T = time taken for ‘Nr’ revolutions (seconds)

4. OUTPUT POWER:

Po = ρ x g x Q x H / 1000 (watts)

Where,
ρ = Density of water (kg / m³)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m / s2)
H = Total head of water (m)

5. EFFICIENCY:

o = (Output power o/p / input power I/p)  100 %

Where,
O/p = Output power kW

I/ p = Input power kW

DESCRIPTION:

PRIMING:

The operation of filling water in the suction pipe casing and a portion delivery pipe for the
removal of air before starting is called priming.
After priming the impeller is rotated by a prime mover. The rotating vane gives a centrifugal
head to the pump. When the pump attains a constant speed, the delivery valve is gradually opened. The
water flows in a radially outward direction. Then, it leaves the vanes at the outer circumference with a
high velocity and pressure. Now kinetic energy is gradually converted in to pressure energy. The high-
pressure water is through the delivery pipe to the required height.

PROCEDURE:
1. Prime the pump close the delivery valve and switch on the unit
2. Open the delivery valve and maintain the required delivery head
 3. Note down the reading and note the corresponding suction head reading
4. Close the drain valve and note down the time taken for 10 cm rise of water level in
collecting tank
5. Measure the area of collecting tank
6. For different delivery tubes, repeat the experiment
7. For every set reading note down the time taken for 5 revolutions of energy meter disc.

GRAPHS:

1. Actual discharge Vs Total head

2. Actual discharge Vs Efficiency
3. Actual discharge Vs Input power
4. Actual discharge Vs Output power

RESULT:

Thus the performance characteristics of centrifugal pump was studied and the
maximum efficiency was found to be _____________
 Suction Suction head Delivery Delive Total Time Time Actual Inpu Outpu
S.no gauge Hs m Hs m of water Gauge ry Head taken taken Dischar t t %
of water Reading Head (H) m for ‘h’ for Nr ge Pow Power 
(hd) m of (Hd) of rise revolu (Qact) er (Po)
water m of water of water tion t x10-3 (Pi ) watt
water (t) S S m3\sec watt
 CHARACTERISTICS CURVES OF RECIPROCATING PUMP

Exp No:
Date:
AIM:
To study the performance characteristics of a reciprocating pump and to determine the
characteristic with maximum efficiency.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Reciprocating pump
2. Meter scale
3. Stop watch
FORMULAE:

1. ACTUAL DISCHARGE:

Q act = A x y / t (m3 / s)
Where:
A = Area of the collecting tank (m2)
y = 10 cm rise of water level in the collecting tank
t = Time taken for 10 cm rise of water level in collecting tank
2. TOTAL HEAD:
H = Hd + Hs + Z
Where:
Hd = Discharge head; Hd = Pd x 10, m
Hs = Suction head; Pd = Ps x 0.0136, m
Z = Datum head, m
Pd = Pressure gauge reading, kg / cm2
Ps = Suction pressure gauge reading, mm of Hg
3. INPUT POWER:
Pi = (3600  N) / (E  T) (Kw)
Where,
N = Number of revolutions of energy meter disc
E = Energy meter constant (rev / Kw hr)
T = time taken for ‘N’ revolutions (seconds)
 4. OUTPUT POWER:

Po = ρ x g x Q x H / 1000 (Kw)
Where,
ρ = Density of water (kg / m³)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m / s2)
H = Total head of water (m)
Q = Discharge (m3 / sec)

5. EFFICIENCY:

o = (Output power po / input power pi)  100 %

Where,
Po = Output power KW
Pi = Input power KW
PROCEDURE:
1. Close the delivery valve and switch on the unit
2. Open the delivery valve and maintain the required delivery head
3. Note down the reading and note the corresponding suction head reading
4. Close the drain valve and note down the time taken for 10 cm rise of water level in
collecting tank
5. Measure the area of collecting tank
6. For different delivery tubes, repeat the experiment
7. For every set reading note down the time taken for 5 revolutions of energy meter disc.

GRAPHS:

1. Actual discharge Vs Total head

2. Actual discharge Vs Efficiency
3. Actual discharge Vs Input power
4. Actual discharge Vs Output power

RESULT:

The performance characteristic of the reciprocating pump is studied and the efficiency
is calculated …………… %
S.no
Delivery Suction Delivery Suction Datum Total Time taken Actual Time taken Input Output
pressure pressure head head head Z head for 10 cm of discharge for N rev of power power 
reading reading Hd=Pdx1 Hs = Ps m H rise of water Qact m³/s energy Pi kw Po kw
Pd kg / Ps mm 0.0 x in tank t sec meter disc %
cm2 of Hg 0.0136 t sec

Mean =
 CHARACTERISTICS CURVES OF PELTON WHEEL

Exp No:
Date:

AIM:
To conduct load test on pelton wheel turbine and to study the characteristics of pelton wheel
turbine.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Venturimeter
2. Stopwatch
3. Tachometer
4. Dead weight
FORMULAE:

1. VENTURIMETER READING:

h = (P1 ~ P2)  10 (m of water)

Where,
P1, P2 - venturimeter reading in Kg /cm2

2. DISCHARGE:

Q = 0.0055  h (m3 / s)

3. BRAKE HORSE POWER:

BHP = ( x D x N x T) / (60 75) (hp)

Where,
N = Speed of the turbine in (rpm)
D = Effective diameter of brake drum = 0.315 m
T = Torsion in To + T1 – T2 (Kg)

4. INDICATED HORSE POWER:

IHP = (1000  Q  H) / 75 (hp)
Where,
H = Total head (m)
5. PERCENTAGE EFFICIENCY:

% = (B.H.P / I.H.P x 100) (%)

DESCRIPTION:

Pelton wheel turbine is an impulse turbine, which is used to act on high loads and for generating
electricity. All the available heads are classified in to velocity energy by means of spear and nozzle
arrangement. Position of the jet strikes the knife-edge of the buckets with least relative resistances and
shocks. While passing along the buckets the velocity of the water is reduced and hence an impulse force
is supplied to the cups which in turn are moved and hence shaft is rotated.

PROCEDURE:

1. The Pelton wheel turbine is started.

2. All the weight in the hanger is removed.
3. The pressure gauge reading is noted down and it is to be maintained constant for
different loads.
4. The venturimeter readings are noted down.
5. The spring balance reading and speed of the turbine are also noted down.
6. A 5Kg load is put on the hanger, similarly all the corresponding readings are noted
down.
7. The experiment is repeated for different loads and the readings are tabulated.
GRAPHS:
The following graphs are drawn.
1. BHP Vs IHP
2. BHP Vs speed
3. BHP Vs Efficiency
RESULT:

Thus the performance characteristics of the Pelton Wheel Turbine are done and the maximum
efficiency of the turbine is ………. %
 Pressur Total Venturime H= (P1- Weight Speed of Weigh Spring Tension Discharge B.H.P I.H.P 
S.no e Head ter reading P2) x 10 of turbine of Balance [T] Q x10-3 hp hp %
Gauge [H] Kg\cm2 m of hanger N hanger T2 Kg m3\sec
Reading m of water To Rpm [T1] Kg
[Hp] water P1 P2 Kg kg
Kg\cm2

Mean =