A Hunter’s Guide to

Aging Lions in
Eastern and
Southern Africa
by Karyl L. Whitman and Craig Packer
Copyright © 2006 Conservation Force Photographs by:
All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America © Peyton West: pages cover, 32, 33
© Karyl L. Whitman: pages 6, 7, 13, 23, 24, 25, 26, 42
Distributed by © Christian Sperka: pages 16, 17, 18, 26, 34, 40, 43
Safari Press & Sports Afield © Andy Loveridge: page 38
15621 Chemical Lane, Bldg B © Paul Funston: page 39
Huntington Beach, CA 92649-1506, USA © Luke Hunter: page 40
714/894-9080 Fax 714/894-4949 © Alessandra Soressina: page 41
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data © Bernard Kissui: page 41

Whitman, Karyl L., 1970– Design and Layout: Kathleen Nolan

Packer, Craig, 1950- Cover: Adult male and cub in the Serengeti National Park,
A Hunter’s Guide to Aging Lions in Eastern and Tanzania
Southern Africa / by Karyl L. Whitman and Craig Packer
p. cm.
ISBN #-#####-###-#
1. [ ] 2. [ ] 3. [ ]
I. [ ] II. [ ] III. [ ]
TX###,####### 2006 ##-#####
###.##—#### ###
This is a guide to making trophy selection. In those areas tourist trophy hunting This guide aims to increase the
The guide contains the most scientifically can maximize the value of lion to the conservation value of lion as well as serve
up-to-date data on judging the age authorities and local people who will as an aid to hunters. The fact of being a
of African lion. The foremost scientific ultimately determine its fate. Moreover, game animal can serve a species well.
experts in Eastern and Southern Africa the biological consequences of taking lion Being a true trophy serves it even better.
have joined together with Conservation can be minimized if the lion are six years
Conservation Force is endeavoring to
Force to provide this information. The of age or older. The strategy of limiting
better forge hunting into a force for
objective is to apply science for better or the harvest to older males is in harmony
conservation. We hope that you find the
best hunting practices. with trophy hunting and it raises the
guide useful and wish you luck in your
esteem of this important game species.
This is part of a larger collaborative quest to genuinely make the King of
It is the best management practice.
effort between Conservation Force and Beasts part of your life experiences.
the African lion scientific community. More trophy lion will be available if young
Conservation Force has led the hunting males are spared. The overall take will be
community’s increased efforts to conserve less because fewer lion live to the age of
the African lion with dozens of projects six or more. The whole lion population
and programs across most of Africa. will be more robust. It’s time that safari
Tourist hunting has a critical role to play hunters stop settling for anything less John J. Jackson, III
in conserving lion beyond the borders than a mature lion. Who has more to lose Chairman of Conservation Force
of protected areas. Most lion habitat and than the safari hunting world if African
prey are in Africa’s tourist hunting areas. lion don’t survive?

Foreword 
Credits 
Funding for production was provided We thank several researchers affiliated We appreciate the thoughtful
by Conservation Force, Dallas Safari with the Serengeti Lion Project over the suggestions by reviewers of this guide:
Club, International Professional Hunters years for contributing to the extensive John J. Jackson III, Luke Hunter,
Association, International Council demographic records and library of George Hartley, Markus Borner,
for Game and Wildlife Conservation, photos used for this guide: Peyton West, Debbie Peake, Shane Mahoney,
Chancellor International Wildlife Fund, Grant Hopcraft, Meggan Craft, Iain Taylor, David Erickson, Sarel van der Merwe,
and Rann-Force Program. Audie Hazenburg, Maria Finnigan, Henry Philippe Chardonnet, and
Brink, Kirsten Skinner, Ingela Jansson and Bertrand des Clers.
Content for this guide was made possible
Jonathan Packer.
by long-term scientific research on Finally, many thanks are due to
known-aged lions in Serengeti National Paul Funston, Andy Loveridge, Kathleen Nolan for her assistance in
Park, Tanzania conducted by the Luke Hunter, Christian Sperka, Alessandra putting this guide together and for
Serengeti Lion Project (SLP) over the last Soresina and Bernard Kissui generously her many hours making it so visually
40 years. The SLP is in a unique position to provided photographs of known-aged appealing.
provide precise ages for all of the lions in lions from their respective study areas.
Karyl Whitman & Craig Packer
its study area. Unless otherwise indicated, We also thank Paul for bringing our
all photographs used in this book are attention to the leg markings observed
either the property of the authors or the on some males.
Serengeti Lion Project. All photographs
and illustrations contained herein are
protected by copyright.
 A Hunter’s Guide to
Aging Lions in
Eastern and
Southern Africa
by Karyl L. Whitman and Craig Packer

Conservation Force Savannas Forever

3240 S. I-10 Service Road W., Suite 200 Metairie, LA 70002 USA Department of Ecology, University of Minnesota
Phone: (504) 837-1233 Fax: (504) 837-1145 Box 878 ARUSHA, TANZANIA
E-mail: [email protected] | www.conservationforce.org www.savannasforever.org
Table of Contents 
Foreword by John J. Johnson, III 1 Sex and Age Classes and How to Tell Them Apart 23
Credits 2 Females and Cubs 24
2-Year-Old Males 26
Preface 5 3-Year-Old Males 28
A Brief Overview of Lion Natural History 7 4-Year-Old Males 30
Using this Guide to Age Lions 8 5-Year-Old Males 32
Methods of Ageing Lions 6-Year-Old Males 34
Mane Development 9 7-Year-Old Males 36
Facial Markings 12 8-Year-Old Males 37
Nose Pigmentation 13 Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe 38
Teeth 16 Kruger National Park, Republic of South Africa 39
Tooth Wear 3–4 Years 17 Phinda Game Reserve, Republic of South Africa 40
Tooth Wear 5–6 Years 18 Tarangire National Park, Tanzania 41
Tooth Wear >7 Years 19 Common Misconceptions About Lions 42
Comparative Tooth Wear 20 References and Further Reading 44
Closure of Pulp Cavity 21 About the Authors 45
Leg Markings 22 Sponsors 46
The African lion (Panthera leo) is the King to better use tourist hunting as a force Because numerous safari books thoroughly
of Beasts. Although lions can be found for conservation of the African lion. Many review lion behavior, we focused our efforts
throughout various parts of sub-Saharan authorities believe that tourist hunting on identifying key criteria that can be used
Africa, the best studied lion population can be an important conservation tool to age lions and on presenting a useful set
resides in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. and means of alleviating the primary of little-known factoids about lion ecology.
George Schaller began the first research threats to the survival of the African lion.
It is important to collect as much
on lions there in the late 1960s and the The objective of Conservation Force and
information as you can about the lion
Serengeti lions have been continuously Savannas Forever is to develop the best
you encounter, so it would be useful to
studied for the last 40 years by a multitude practices for the conservation of African
familiarize yourself with various criteria for
of researchers. Because of this long-term lion. The guidelines presented in this
aging lions before you set out on safari. We
research, the Serengeti Lion Project (SLP) guide are not thought to be applicable in
know from first-hand experience that too
is in the unique position of having detailed Western and Central Africa
often the lion will move out of sight while
observations of all the lions in the study
Also, recent research has shown that trophy you are nose-deep thumbing through your
area since research first began. And because
hunting may only be sustainable when guidebooks, trying to find the right picture.
lions can be individually identified by their
off-take is restricted to mature males. The
whisker spots and other natural markings, Also, aside from the key physical traits that
shooting of males under 6 years of age can
the SLP has been able to track thousands of we outline below, pay careful attention
be extremely detrimental to the population
individuals and entire prides through time. to the lion’s behavior—not only does
as a whole, since the dependent cubs of a
this make a lion more interesting, but it
This book is a practical guide to making trophy male are vulnerable to infanticide
sometimes will provide you not only with
trophy selection through age judgment by subsequent resident males. For this
clues to his likely age, but also with valuable
in the field. It has been written in reason it is critical that hunters endeavor
insight about a lion’s status in his world.
collaboration with Conservation Force to accurately estimate the potential trophy
as part of its many projects and programs lion’s age.

Preface 
A Brief Overview of Lion Natural History 
Lions live in social groups called ‘prides,’ for as long as a week. Lions typically
consisting of 2 to 18 adult females and mate every 30 minutes for 4 days—and
their dependent offspring. All females several females within the same pride
in the pride are related and will occupy may go into heat around the same time.
and defend the same territory for years. Actively mating or courting males can be
Males, however, leave their mother’s pride extremely aggressive
at about 2 to 3 years of age and form
‘coalitions’ of up to nine individuals. These
coalitions actively compete for ‘residency’
male: 7 yrs 7 mo in a pride—only pride males are able
to successfully raise cubs to maturity.
The lion is the largest cat in Africa, with a
Coalitions may reside in one to four prides
pronounced difference in size between
at a time and tenure is typically about
the sexes. Males weigh from 330 to 550
2 years. Large coalitions have a
pounds (150–249 kilos) and females weigh
competitive advantage over smaller
260 to 400 pounds (118–181 kilos). A male
ones and are better able to defend their
is 8 to 10 feet (2.4–3.1 m) long when fully
prides for longer periods of time.
grown, not including the tail. The lion is
the only species of cat to possess a mane. When a female within the pride is in heat,
The mane is a light sandy color in younger the first male to encounter her will form a

Whitman
males but generally darkens with age. possessive “consortship” that may persist male: >7yrs
About 100–120 days after conception, the a group—although males will take the Due to their large size, lions have few
lioness secretly gives birth to a litter of ‘lion’s share’. About a quarter of the hunts predators besides man and each other.
one to six cubs, with the average being are successful. Males can eat about one- Lions are extremely territorial and they
two to three in East Africa and three cubs third of their body weight at one sitting, will kill unrelated intruders. Males also
in Southern Africa. Cubs typically weigh but on average need about 15 pounds kill small cubs when they first take over a
less than 5 pounds (2.3 kilos) at birth. (6.8 kilos) of meat each day; females can pride—eliminating the offspring of their
The cub’s eyes open by about 3 weeks. eat about one-quarter of their weight, predecessors so that they can breed more
Between 4–7 weeks of age, mothers or about 11 pounds (5 kilos) per day quickly with the pride females. Nearly
will ‘introduce’ their cubs to the other on average. one-quarter of annual cub mortality is a
members of the pride. Because breeding result of infanticide by incoming males.
is somewhat synchronized, pridemates
If prey is scarce, young cubs can easily
often produce cubs within a few months
starve. Other common causes of cub
of each other thereby forming large
mortality are predation by hyenas,
‘creches’ of cubs. After 3 months, cubs
leopards, and neglect by inexperienced
accompany their mother on hunting
mothers. In the Serengeti, males reach
trips and they are dependent upon their
sexual maturity by about 2 years of age
mother for the first 2 years.
and are fully grown at 4 years; females
Lions kill their prey by ambush and seize typically have their first litter between
mostly large to medium-sized animals like 3–4 years of age. Males rarely reach

Whitman
the buffalo, zebra, wildebeest, warthogs, 12 years of age in the wild, while females
and gazelle. A pride will often hunt as may live up to 19 years.

A Brief Overview of Lion Natural History 

Using this Guide to Age Lions 
It is best to use a combination of traits to estimate a lion’s age. Because there can be a large degree of variation in the expression of each
trait, relying on only one factor can easily be misleading. The most reliable age estimate will be a composite of multiple factors.

This guide is broken down into five key areas on the body that provide clues as to a lion’s age: (1) Mane, (2) Nose, (3) Teeth, (4) Facial
Characteristics, and (5) Leg Markings. Throughout this guide you will also see the symbol which highlights key points of interest.

Most of the material in this guide comes from the Serengeti, and we provide detailed information for aging Serengeti females and cubs.
For Serengeti males, we explicitly break down development according to age, providing several examples within each age class to
illustrate the range in variation. Although the mane is a notoriously unreliable indicator of a male’s age, it does have use within context,
so we provide cartoon examples that best depict the ‘average’ male
Facial Mane
at each age. Whenever possible, we also note the actual age of each Development
Markings
lion pictured. page 9
page 12
In this guide we have emphasized methods to age lions non- Nose
Pigmentation
invasively, however we have also included preliminary results from page 13
ongoing studies in the Serengeti showing how tooth x-rays and
tooth wear can be used to estimate lion age post-mortem. We also Teeth
Leg
provide photographs of known-age males from Hwange National page 16
Markings
Park, Kruger National Park, Phinda Game Reserve, and Tarangire page 22
National Park. We hope that later editions of this guide will provide
more extensive coverage of other ecosystems besides the Serengeti.

Finally, we have included a section at the end that covers common

misconceptions about lions that can lead to inaccurate assumptions
about a lion’s age.
Function Differences between populations young males typically have a ‘Mohawk’
It has been a long-held belief that the A male’s mane can vary across seasons between the ears on the forehead (A)
lion’s mane largely functions to protect and with age—and if he is wounded, it and have little to no mane hair on an area
the male’s neck and throat. However, can even fall out entirely until he regains immediately behind the ears (B) referred
recent research¹ has effectively shown his health. Across populations, males that to here as the ‘Ear Gap’. Although some
that the mane provides minimal defense live in hot climates generally have shorter males develop full manes much earlier.
against aggressive attacks by other and lighter colored manes. Although
Since manes develop at different rates in
lions, and it is more likely that the mane some of this may be genetic, a male that is
different habitats, keep in mind that the
has evolved as a reliable indicator of translocated from a hot climate to a cold
following chronology refers to the timing
the male’s physical condition. The color climate will grow a longer mane. Likewise,
of mane growth in the Serengeti—manes
and length of the mane broadcast the males in captivity (who are fed a nutritious
develop 1–2 years later in Tsavo males.
overall ‘quality’ of its owner. Males who diet) will grow impressive manes. Further,
possess darker manes have higher levels unrelated males from the same habitat
of testosterone, live longer, and produce may have very similar looking manes, A. Mohawk/Forehead
whereas brothers may look nothing alike! B. Ear
cubs that are more likely to survive. It’s Gap
not surprising that females prefer males Development
with darker manes. Of all areas of the mane, the chest
develops earliest, followed by the back C. Shoulder
of the neck then the shoulders. Although Region
the hair on the forehead darkens first, it
is the last to develop in length, so that 3yrs 1 mo
¹ See West & Packer 2002 and West et al. 2006

Mane Development 
Mane Development 10
Between the ages of 1 and 3 years the
mane around the neck is generally longer
and darker than on the shoulder. But as
Serengeti males approach 3½ to 4 years,
these two areas become similar in length
and color. The chest is almost always the
darkest part of the mane and continues to 2 yrs
darken with age. As young males become
reach about 4 years of age, the chest and
shoulder regions become darker than the 5 yrs
neck or forehead.

Serengeti males possess a maneless area

of fur between the back of the neck and
the chest around the (C) shoulder blade 3 yrs
which fills in between 5–6 years of age as
the mane grows. As the lion ages beyond
7 years, his mane slowly loses condition—
the mane hairs frazzle and split and take
6 yrs
on a progressively more ‘fuzzy’ look. From
about 8 onwards most manes lose some The same Serengeti male photographed
of the length of their younger years. 4 yrs
between 2 and 6 years of age.
A 2-Year-Old 3-Year-Old 4-Year-Old
B
C

5-Year-Old 6-Year-Old

Key Areas of the Mane

A. Mohawk/Forehead
B. Ear Gap
C. Shoulder Region

Mane Development 11
Facial Markings 12

15 mo 5 yrs 8 mo 7 yrs 11 yrs 6 mo

Young males tend to have smooth glossy fur on their face. As males mature, their face will broaden and attain a more massive
appearance. The fur on the face begins to appear duller as they age and will start to thin somewhat causing the skin to look dark,
especially on the top of the muzzle. This usually becomes visible around 5–6 years of age. Once lions are about 8–9 years of age,
their whisker spots are less apparent because of a general lack of contrast due to accumulating scars and thinner hair on their
muzzle. The fur begins to appear pock-marked around 8½–9 years and lions older than that usually begin to have a loose or
slack-jawed expression.
 a b In the Serengeti, a clear relationship exists
between a lion’s age and the amount of
pigmentation on his nose. After about
3 months of age, the fleshy part of the
lion’s nose turns a pink to light grey.
Photograph of a 3½ year old Serengeti Once the lion is 3 years old, he will start
lion and the corresponding (a) excised developing tiny freckles on it*. As the lion
nose tip and (b) graphic rendering of the continues to age, these freckles coalesce
pigmentation pattern. and become more liver-spotted until the
nose is entirely black by about 8 years
of age. The cause of this is currently

Whitman
3yrs 6 mo unclear, however it is thought that
environmental conditions may act upon
a genetic component. It is not yet certain
* In some cases young lions may also have if the rate of pigmentation is the same in
grey, not pink noses. In certain light these other populations. Domestic cats, tigers,
grey-morphs will appear dark, however mountain lions, and leopards also show
and freckles or speckling will still be visible some nose freckling, but none of the other
when it starts to appear around 3 years. By Serengeti cub cats express the trait to the same degree
approximately 4 years the freckle pattern is (5 mo) with as lions do.
also apparent in the grey-morphs. grey nose

Nose Pigmentation 13
 Nose Pigmentation 14
Proportion of nose pigmented

1 yr 3 yrs

Figure 1. Relationship between known age and nose pigmentation 3 yrs 4 yrs
for adult male and female lions in Serengeti and Ngorongoro Crater:
(•) Serengeti females (n=62); (s) Serengeti males (n=22); (°) Crater
females (n=11); (∆) Crater males (n=10) (Whitman, et al. 2004). Males
with at least 60% of the nose pigmented are about 6 yrs old.

4 yrs 4 yrs
Right: Photographs of fleshy nose tips from immature (<5 yrs) lions
 5 yrs 5 yrs 6 yrs

5 yrs 8 mo 6 yrs 1 mo 6 yrs 11 mo 7 yrs

Above: Serengeti male

Right:
Noses of lions 5–8 years old.

7 yrs 11 mo 8 yrs 8 yrs 7 mo

Nose Pigmentation 15
Teeth 16

Christian Sperka
2 yrs 5 yrs 8 mo 6 yrs 6 mo 7 yrs 3 mo

Teeth can be a useful indicator of age, although accuracy is much improved during a post-mortem exam. All 30 permanent teeth are
visible between 15–17 months and teeth are initially sharp and white. As a lion ages, its teeth turn yellow, wear down, break, and often
fall out, although there can be a great deal of variation within each age class. The next few pages detail the approximate rate at which
these events occur.
 At 3–4 years the permanent teeth are fully erupted, sharp, and mostly white.
Only a small amount of wear on the incisors, canines, and premolars may
be apparent. Slight yellowing of canines, but incisors are typically white.

Left: Note damage

to lower left canine;
Right: Upper right
canine from a male,
3 yrs 3 mo. Note
prominent longitudinal

Christian Sperka
ridge (red arrow) with
little wear on the
3 yrs 7 mo 3 yrs 7 mo
lingual side.

3 yrs 7 mo 4 yrs 4 yrs 2 mo

Tooth Wear 3–4 Years 17

Tooth Wear 5–6 Years 18
At 5–6 years there is obvious wear on canines, incisors, the upper P3, and lower P4,
but the upper P2 and lower P3 show little wear. However this can be very difficult to
see at a distance. Canines are often yellow and the distal longitudinal ridge is often chipped.
The cheek teeth and incisors can vary from white to various degrees of yellow. There can be
considerable variation at this age in the coloring, wear, and damage—thus it is best to use a
Christian Sperka composite approach to aging, especially for this age group.

6 yrs 8 mo

P2 P3 P4

5 yrs 5 mo 5 yrs 1 mo 6 yrs 3 mo

Upper

Lower Left: Prepared

skull from male
6 yrs 2 mo. The
M1 P4 P3 teeth are white
due to processing. 6 yrs 3 mo 6 yrs 3 mo 6 yrs 10 mo
 From 7–9 years
all teeth show
wear; with it being most
obvious on the canines
and incisors. The incisors
show the most wear on 13 yrs 6 mo
the upper and lower outer
most tooth and some 9 yrs 2 mo
incisors might be missing.
The distal ridges are worn
From 9+ years
completely and nearly all
onwards, there
teeth show some degree
is obvious wear on the
7 yrs 11 mo of yellowing.
teeth. Canines are often
broken or missing, and
one or more of the Above center: male >9 yrs.
incisors may be worn Distal longitudinal ridge on
down to the stumps or canine and two incisors missing.
missing entirely. All teeth Above lower: male >11 yrs,
are yellow. note conspicuous wearing of all
7 yrs 2 mo 8 yrs 7 mo cheek teeth.

Tooth Wear >7 years 19

 Comparative Tooth Wear 20
Teeth from
known-aged
Serengeti lions:
By 8 years of
Lower Canine

age, a wide
groove has
developed on
the back surface
of the lower
canines. The
P3

wear-pattern
of the cutting
P4

edge of the
carnassial (M1)
teeth becomes
broader, and the
M1

tooth becomes
thinner and
Lower

often breaks.

18 mo 6 yrs 2 mo >8 yrs >8 yrs 9 yrs >11 yrs

16 mo 18 mo 3 yrs 1 mo 3 yrs 3 mo 4 yrs 9 mo
Post mortem x-rays of
the lion’s teeth can help
estimate their age at
death. The pulp cavity
(red arrow above left) is
initially quite wide at
3 yrs 3 mo and fills in by
about 4 yrs 9 mo of age.
All photos on this page
are from known-age
6 yrs 2 mo 7 yrs 11 mo 8 yrs 11 mo 9 yrs 2 mo Serengeti lions.

Closure of Pulp Cavity 21

Leg Markings 22
Male lions often have a narrow strip
of black guard hair on the back of
their hind legs and those who have
recently become residents in a pride
actively scent mark and develop
conspicuous dark markings on their
hindquarters. In the Serengeti, these
markings are most likely to be found
on males that are between the ages
of 3–7 years but are most prominent
between 4–5 years and taper off
4 yrs 4 yrs 2 mo 5 yrs 4 mo 5 yrs 4 mo 6 yrs with age. Males with prominent dark
markings are still at the beginning
Hunters of their reproductive careers, having
should just become territorial and started
avoid confusing defending their pride ranges against
prominent dark rival males.
markings with the
narrow strip of
black guard hairs
that grow on the
back of the legs. 8 yrs 9 mo
6 yrs 2 mo 7 yrs 4 mo
Serengeti male (>7 years) investigates female while her cub looks on. Photo: Whitman.

Sex and Age Classes and How to Tell them Apart 23

Females and Cubs 24
How to age cubs: Cubs are able to walk well at >3 weeks and Top right: Adult Female.
accompany their mother at around 5–6 weeks. They are no Lower right: cub <3 months,
longer carried around 6–7 weeks and can keep up with the pride note the lack of a tail tuft.
at >8 weeks. The eyes are greyish-blue up until 2–3 months; nose
tips are ‘pink’ or light grey by 3 months. Their coat is woolly at Left: Adult female and 5 month
old cub. Yellow arrows mark
3 months, then attains an adult texture by about 5 months. The
relative height of cub against
tail tuft does not appear until 5 months and it is obvious by
mother’s body according to
7 months. Cubs are usually weaned by 8 months and about age. At 4 months cubs reach the
the size of a leopard (~45 kg) by 12–15 months. elbow joint; at 6 months the cub
is approximately two-thirds the
shoulder height; at 12 months

Whitman
the cub reaches about half of
12 mo
the shoulder height. Note the
6 mo conspicuous tail tuft of the
4 mo cub—also this mother has lost
the tip of her tail.
2 mo
Whitman

Adult female and 5-month-old cub < 3 mo

 Distinguishing between adults and sub-adults: 2-year-old females are about
two-thirds the size of an adult female. 2-year-old males however, are much larger than
their same aged sisters and they are usually taller than their mothers at this age. Males
can reach the size of an average adult male by 2½ years.

Likewise, by 2½ years females can reach the full height of an adult. It is difficult at a
distance to age a 3-year-old female since they appear full-grown. Beyond this age,
females cannot be aged by body size, therefore teeth, nose, and facial markings are
better indicators.

Because females usually do not conceive their first litter until at least 3½ years,
a lactating female is almost always older than 4 years.

Whitman

15 mo
Male cub. Note the starting of a mane on the
chest and ‘peach fuzz’ on the cheeks.

Whitman

Whitman
19 mo
Lactation stains on nursing lion. Male cub

Females and Cubs 25

2-Year-Old Males 26
Appearance: 2-year-old males are usually larger than adult females, especially in
height; they often have a gangly and awkward appearance and some may have already
reached the size of an adult male by 2 years 6 months to 2 years 8 months. They weigh
about 90–100 kg.

Behavioral Characteristics: Around 2 years of age, males will start to scuff mark
and spray vegetation (when still in their mother’s pride). They will roar alongside their
natal pride, but not when alone. Generally they keep a low profile even in the company
of their natal pride. Shortly they will leave and form young nomadic coalitions, either
with similarly aged brothers or independently. 2-year-old females will help to defend
Whitman
2 yrs 11 mo their natal pride against unknown lions, 2-year-old males behave less predictably—some
come to the aid of their mothers, others do not.

Nose Pigmentation:
Pink with 0–30% of nose pigmented
(usually ~ 20%).

Teeth: Fully erupted, white, little wear except

for slight chipping on the enamel ridge on the
back of the canines.
Christian Sperka

Mane: Mohawk obvious and ears clearly visible.

2 yrs 9 mo Shoulders fully exposed (red arrow).
 2 yrs

2 yrs 10 mo 2 yrs 3 mo 2 yrs 10 mo

2-Year-Old Males 27
3-Year-Old Males 28
Appearance: 3-year-old males are not yet fully mature. Although some may have
attained the size of an average adult male, others may not have attained their full size
yet and may not necessarily have the muscle mass of older males. Mane development is
highly variable, but even in males who have more fully developed manes, the ‘mohawk’
is visible on the forehead and the shoulder patch has not yet filled in (red arrow below).

Behavioral Characteristics: Except under unusual circumstances 3-year-olds

do not typically have an opportunity to breed. They have recently left the protection of
their mother’s pride and are living on their own or have formed a coalition with other
males. They do not defend territories, will not scent mark, and will avoid encounters
with resident lions, especially males. As ‘nomads’ they almost never roar.

Nose Pigmentation:
15 to 30% of nose pigmented.

Teeth: Fully erupted, white, and little wear

except for slight chipping on the enamel
ridge on the back of the canines.

Mane: Usually obvious mohawk and

Mane development has considerable shoulder blade exposed.
variation at this age. Both males shown
above are 3 yrs 10 mo.
3 yrs 3 yrs 4 mo 3 yrs 5 mo

3 yrs 11 mo 3 yrs 9 mo 3 yrs 7 mo

3-Year-Old Males 29
4-Year-Old Males 30
Appearance: The mane is still highly variable in appearance and development
between males. However, generally it is usually very full on the cheeks, forehead,
and chest, but is not yet filled in completely between or behind the ears. Nearly all
males have achieved their full body size, although some may continue to put on mass,
especially in the shoulders.
Behavioral Characteristics: Depending upon his competitive ability, he may
either be a nomad or a newly resident male. If he is a pride male, it will often be his first
4 yrs 3 mo chance to successfully raise cubs. If a nomad, he will keep a low profile (by not roaring
or scent marking) until he ventures to challenge a resident coalition. He may have a
coalition of his own or be solitary.
Nose Pigmentation: Pink, 25–50% of
nose pigmented, usually ~40% black
Teeth: Fully erupted, white and little wear
except for slight chipping on the enamel
ridge on the back of the canines.
4 yrs 4 mo
Mane: Mohawk present and shoulder
Mane development still has considerable blade exposed, some males may have well
variation at this age. The male on the top is developed manes between ears, but the
4 yrs 3 mo, the male on the bottom is one mane on the shoulder region will still be
month older. incomplete (see red arrow).
4 yrs 4 yrs 1 mo 4 yrs 2 mo

4 yrs 9 mo 4 yrs 8 mo 4 yrs 3 mo

4-Year-Old Males 31
5-Year-Old Males 32
Appearance: Five-year-olds are full grown and appear massive. Their chests and
foreheads are broad and they have put on much muscle mass, especially in the
shoulders.
Behavioral Characteristics: In their prime, the average 5-year-old will be in a
coalition of other males and be actively looking for a pride if he does not already have
one. As a resident he will roar and scent mark—as a nomad, his behavior depends on
his intention—run for cover or challenge the current pride males!

Peyton West
Nose Pigmentation: Usually about 50% of nose is pigmented (range 35–60%).

Serengeti brothers, 5 yrs 4 mo Teeth: Canines are slightly yellow and have a little wear on the inside back ridge. The
incisors will have marginal wear but are rarely
missing or heavily worn. Overall the teeth
will be cream colored to slightly yellow, with
the canines having the most discoloration.
Canines may also begin to show breakage.
Mane: Nearly fully grown and in excellent
condition. By about 5½ years the mane
is typically filled between the ears on
the top of the head. Usually a small patch
of maneless shoulder still remains, but this
5 yrs 7 mo
will fill in completely by about age 6–6½.
 Peyton West
5 yrs 5 yrs 5 mo

5 yr 10 mo 5 yrs 9 mo 5 yrs 9 mo

5-Year-Old Males 33
6-Year-Old Males 34
Appearance: Males are full grown, in their ‘prime’ and massive. They should stand
about 1.2 m tall and weigh 126–272 kg and be about 2.4–3.3 m long (excluding the tail).
Behavioral Characteristics: Often affiliated with prides at this age—they will
conspicuously roar and scent mark if resident.
Nose Pigmentation: Usually at least 60%
of the nose is pigmented, but the range is
37–85% (see photo on right).
Teeth: Usually some slight wear on the
canines and incisors. The enamel ridge on The range in the extent of nose pigmentation
the back of the canine usually chipped. No found at this age: 37% (left) to 85% (right).
Top: pulp chambers for incisors should be visible.
Serengeti brothers, The cheek teeth should be slightly yellow,
both 6 yrs 11 mo and the tips of the canines should be less
Bottom: 6 yrs 2 mo yellow than the bases or the cheek teeth.
Mane: Fully developed, with forehead
section fully filled between ears. The inside
lobe of the ears is usually difficult to see.
Christian Sperka

The shoulders have filled in and the mane

is nearly continuous from the ridge of the
back to the chest.
 6 yrs

6 yrs 6 yrs 1 mo

6 yrs 8 mo 6 yrs 5 mo 6 yrs 1 mo

6-Year-Old Males 35
7-Year-Old Males 36
Appearance: Generally considered to be fully mature and in
his ‘prime’. The hair on the muzzle may be thinner and appear
slightly ‘pock-marked’ or worn away, but overall the lion is in
good condition. Muzzles and flanks can be heavily scarred.

Behavioral Characteristics: Typically a pride male or

recently ousted. May be paired up with males of similar age or
even younger. They conspicuously roar and scent mark when
resident.
7 yrs 7 yrs 3 mo
Nose Pigmentation: 50–85% pigmented, usually ~75%.

Teeth: Conspicuously yellow and all teeth will show some wear.
Canines often show some breakage and a few incisors maybe
missing.

Mane: Fully developed especially between and behind the ears

and around the face. Hair tips generally still smooth, although
some manes may now appear ‘fuzzy’ as hair shafts begin to split.
Mane color often is dark, especially on the chest.

7 yrs 11 mo 7 yrs 7 mo
 Appearance: An 8-year-old typically is in his last year of his ‘prime’. Facial hair is worn
away in some sections, becoming conspicuously ‘pock-marked’ or scarred by 10 years.
Whisker spots become increasingly more difficult to discern. As they become older, they
develop a somewhat ‘slack-jawed’ expression.

Behavioral Characteristics: These males will usually have had the opportunity
to breed and successfully raise several sets of cubs. If they are still resident, they will
roar and scent mark—if they have been ousted from their pride(s) they usually will not
have another opportunity to be a pride male so they no longer roar or scent mark. Once
ousted, they do not usually survive more than 1–2 years on their own.
8 yrs 2 mo
Nose Pigmentation: 75–100% pigmented; >10 years 100% black.

Teeth: Conspicuously yellow, all teeth will show heavy wear. Canines often show some
breakage, incisors may be missing or worn down to stumps. From 10–14+ years, broken
canines common and pulp chambers of incisors clearly visible.

Mane: Fully developed especially between ears, behind the ears and around face,
usually >8 years, the end of the hair start looking frayed and the mane may thin or fall
out in sections as the lion loses condition.

11 yrs 6 mo

8-Year-Old and Older Males 37

Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe 38

Photos this page courtesy of Andy Loveridge

3 yrs 6 mo 3 yrs 6 mo 3 yrs 6 mo

7 yrs 6 mo 5 yrs 6 mo 4 yrs

3 yrs 4 yrs 4 yrs 4 yrs 6 mo

All photos this page courtesy of Paul Funston

8 yrs 7 yrs 6 yrs 4 yrs 6 mo

Kruger National Park, Republic of South Africa 39

Phinda Game Reserve, Republic of South Africa 40

3 yrs 2 mo

18 mo 2 yrs 9 mo 3 yrs 8 mo 4 yrs

4 yrs 6 mo

Christian Sperka
Luke Hunter

7 yrs 6 yrs 8 mo 5 yrs 10 mo 6 yrs 2 mo

*Phinda lions are descendents from founders translocated from Kruger region (1992 and 1993) and Pilanesberg/Madikwe reserves (2003).
 Photos this page courtesy of Alessandra Soressina,
unless otherwise noted
2 yrs 6 mo 3 yrs 6 mo 4 yrs 6 mo 5 yrs
Bernard Kissui

Bernard Kissui

6 yrs 9 mo 6 yrs 5 mo 5 yrs 5 yrs

Tarangire National Park, Tanzania 41

Common Misconceptions About Lions 42
Only old lions have a ‘sway’ back.
FALSE: Sway backs are not a sign of old age; some lions
have curved spines their entire lives, and most older lions have
straight backs. (see examples a and b)

Only mature males have elbow tufts.

a. b. FALSE: Some males grow dark prominent elbow tufts at an
early age, whereas some males never develop elbow tufts.
(see examples c and d)

Older males have grey or ‘donkey-skinned’ coats.

FALSE: Coat color remains the same throughout a lion’s life.
Individual lions vary from grey, pale yellow, tawny to dark ochre.
Grey-colored lions may be young or old, and old lions may be
c. d.
yellow or orange. (see example e and f)

From top left: a. Male cub with a ‘sway back’; b. 9 yr 6 mo male

with straight back; c. 4 yr 6 mo male with prominent black elbow
tufts; d. 8-year-old with no elbow tufts, straight back; e. male, 9 yr
6 mo, with dark coat; f. 14-year-old with blonde coat and mane,
Whitman

e. f. straight back, no elbow tufts.

 Males only mate in their ‘prime.’
FALSE: Males as young as 18 months are physically capable of reproducing. However,
breeding opportunities are generally restricted by the lion’s social system, and males typically
do not become resident in a pride until they are about 4 years of age. This is determined by the

Christian Sperka
amount of competition in an area, with older males and males in larger groups (coalitions) having
a competitive advantage over younger or solitary males. So if there are fewer males around, the
4 yrs 3 mo age at which a male breeds drops significantly.

A proportion of males are maneless in the same way that some elephants are tuskless.
FALSE: All male lions are capable of growing manes. A male may temporarily lose his mane
when he is injured, but it grows back once he has recovered (see examples a and b). Males in hotter
climates grow shorter manes and their manes take a year or two longer to grow, but if a hot-
climate male is translocated to a cooler climate, anecdotal evidence suggests that his mane will
become fuller. Thus regional variations in ambient temperature prevent absolute mane size from
a. being a reliable yardstick for estimating a male’s age. However, within any given geographical
area, males with relatively large manes are much more likely to be fully adult than are so-called
maneless males.

Thorny bush or scrub is responsible for the lack of mane observed in some males.
FALSE: Thorny bushes have no effect on the lack of mane or overall mane development.
Left: Same male (a) photographed at 8 yrs 7 mo then (b) 10 months later after he lost condition due to a
b. leg injury and his mane started to fall out.

Common Misconceptions About Lions 43

References and Further Reading 44
Chardonnet, Ph. (ed), 2002. Conservation of the African Lion: Contribution to a Status Survey. International Foundation for the
Conservation of Wildlife, France & Conservation Force, USA.

Estes, R. 1993. The Safari Companion: A Guide to Watching African Mammals. Vermont, United States of America: Chelsea Green
Publishing Company.

Hanby, J., J. Bygott, C. Packer. 1995. Ecology, Demography, and Behavior of Lions in Two Contrasting Habitats: Ngorongoro Crater
and the Serengeti Plains. Pp. 315-331 in A.R.E. Sinclair, P. Arcese, eds. Serengeti II. Chicago, Ohio: The University of Chicago Press.

Packer, C., L. Herbst, A.E. Pusey, J.D. Bygott, J.P. Hanby, S.J. Cairns, M. Borgerhoff-Mulder. 1988. Reproductive success of lions.
Pp. 363-383 in T.H. Clutton-Brock, ed., Reproductive Success: Studies of Individual Variation in Contrasting Breeding Systems. Chicago,
Ohio: The University of Chicago Press.

Schaller, G. 1972. The Serengeti Lion. Chicago, Ohio: The University of Chicago Press.

West, P.M. H. Maccormick, G. Hopcraft, K. Whitman, M. Ericson, M. Hordinsky, and C. Packer. 2006. Wounding, mortality and
mane morphology in African lions, Panthera leo. Animal Behavior. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2005.06.009

West, P.M. & C. Packer 2003. Sexual selection, temperature and the lion’s mane. Science 297, 1339-1343.

Whitman, K., A. Starfield, H. Quadling & C. Packer 2004. Sustainable trophy hunting in African lions. Nature 428, 175-178.

Whitman, K., A. Starfield, H. Quadling & C. Packer (in press). Integrating long-term data and simulation models for sustainable
harvest of the African lion. Conservation Biology.

Urban, M., P. West. 2002. “Lion Research Center” (On-line: http://www.lionresearch.org/ )

Karyl Whitman Craig Packer
Dr. Karyl Whitman is originally from New Jersey and began Dr. Craig Packer was born in Texas and graduated from Stanford
her academic career as an anthropologist and graduated from University in 1972 and completed his PhD at the University of
Rutgers University in 1993. She completed her PhD in Ecology at Sussex in 1977. He studied baboons in Gombe National Park,
the University of Minnesota in 2006. Karyl was the first scientist Tanzania, intermittently from 1972-2000, and has headed the
to evaluate the impact of trophy hunting on lion population Serengeti lion project since 1978. Craig currently has students
dynamics, and she led the way for the development of a detailed working on lions in Tarangire and Serengeti National Parks,
simulation model published in 2004 that provided invaluable Selous Game Reserve, as well as Ngorongoro Conservation
insights into the consequences of different trophy-hunting Area, Tanzania. In addition to his lion work, Craig is the Principal
strategies on lion conservation. Karyl also pioneered techniques Investigator of collaborative research projects in the Serengeti
for accurately estimating the ages of male lions in the field. funded by the NSF program in the Ecology of Infectious Diseases
and the NSF initiative on Biocomplexity. Craig is the author of
While conducting her graduate research, Karyl received a
“Into Africa,” which won the 1995 John Burroughs medal. He is
MacArthur Graduate Fellowship from the John D. and
currently a Distinguished McKnight Professor in the Department
Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation and she was the recipient
of Ecology, Evolution & Behavior at the University of Minnesota
of the Louis T. Dosdall Fellowship for Women of Science.
and a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Her research was partly funded by a grant from the Wildlife
Craig and his wife, Susan James, are co-executive directors of
Conservation Society Research Fellowship Program and the
Savannas Forever.
Big Game Special Projects Foundation and in-kind support
from Friedkin Conservation Fund.

About the Authors 45

Sponsors 46
Sponsors 47
Quick Reference
Mane
Development
Facial Markings page 9
page 12

Nose
Pigmentation
page 13

Teeth
page 16

Leg Markings
page 22