Source: Introduction to the Finite Element Method, 4th Edition

ISBN: 9781259861901
Authors: J. N. Reddy Ph.D.

1.6. Summary
Engineers develop conceptual and mathematical models of phenomena and systems that they wish to understand. The
understanding may be used to develop and improve systems that contribute to the human convenience and comfort.
Mathematical models are developed using axioms and laws of nature that govern the phenomena. Mathematical models
consist of algebraic, differential, and/or integral equations, and they are readily available for most problems in textbooks.
Differential and integral equations are often difficult to solve exactly for the desired quantities of the system for a variety of
input parameters (called data), necessitating the use of numerical methods.

In the numerical simulations of physical processes, we employ a numerical method and a computer to evaluate the
mathematical model of the process. The finite element method is a powerful numerical method of solving algebraic,
differential, and integral equations, and it is devised to study complex physical processes. The method is characterized by
three basic features:

1. The domain of the problem is represented by a collection of simple subdomains, called finite elements. The collection of
finite elements is called the finite element mesh.

2. Over each finite element, the physical process is approximated by functions of desired type (polynomials or otherwise), and
algebraic equations relating physical quantities (duality pairs) at selective points, called nodes, of the element are
developed. The set of algebraic equations is called a finite element model.

3. The element equations are assembled using continuity and "balance" of the physical quantities in the model.

In the finite element method one may seek an approximation uh of u in the form

n m
∑ ∑
u(x) ≈ uh(x) = j =1 uj ψj (x) + j =1 cj ϕ j (x)

where uj are the values of uh at the element nodes, ψj are the interpolation functions, cj are coefficients that are not
associated with nodes, and ϕ j are the associated approximation functions. Direct substitution of such approximations into the
governing differential equations does not always result, for an arbitrary choice of the data of the problem, in a necessary and
sufficient number of equations for the undetermined coefficients uj and cj . Therefore, a procedure whereby a necessary and
sufficient number of equations can be obtained is needed. One such procedure is provided by a weighted-integral form of the
governing equations. Chapter 2 is devoted to the study of weighted-integral formulations of differential equations and their
solution by variational methods of approximation.

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There is only one method of finite elements that is characterized by the three features stated above. Of course, there can be
more than one finite element model of the same problem (i.e., governing equations). The type of model depends on the
differential equations, methods used (i.e., the weighted-integral form used) to derive the algebraic equations for the
undetermined coefficients over an element, and nature of the approximation functions used (but using the same three basic
steps). Although the Ritz (or the weak-form Galerkin) method with polynomial approximations is used frequently to generate the
finite element equations, any appropriate method and approximations can be used, in principle, to generate the algebraic
equations. In this spirit, the collocation method, subdomain method, boundary integral methods, and so on can be used to
generate the algebraic equations among discrete values of the primary and secondary variables. Each method results in a
different finite element model of the same governing equations.

The basic theory of the finite element method can be found in more than three dozen textbooks. For the beginner, it is not
necessary to consult any other books on the finite element method since the present book provides complete details of the
method as applied to linear field problems, with examples drawn from fluid mechanics, heat transfer, solid and structural
mechanics, and other field problems from engineering and applied sciences. For an introduction to nonlinear finite element
analysis, the reader is referred to the author's book, An Introduction to Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis (2nd ed., Oxford
University Press, 2015), which is a sequel to the present book, and it is prepared as a textbook with details that no other existing
books can provide.

A summary of the basic equations of fluid mechanics, heat transfer, and solid mechanics is presented inChapter 2. In studying
these fields, we will come across a variety of physical quantities that describe the characteristics of the problem. Most of the
quantities have dimensions and it is important to use units that are consistent throughout the study. For convenience of the
readers, the dimensions of common physical quantities used herein are presented in Table 1.6.1. Each quantity is measured in
terms of the primary quantities, such as length L, time T, mass M, and temperature Θ. Since Newton's law states that force is
equal to the time rate of linear momentum (or mass times acceleration), it follows that F = MLT− 2 or M = FL− 1 T 2. The
equality between quantities in this discussion is only to indicate the equivalence of the units and they are not mathematical
formulas. For example, density ρ = ML−3 means "the dimensions of a density are mass per unit of length cube." Inter-
conversion of units between the metric (SI) and American (US) systems can be found in the Symbols and Conversion Factors
section in the front of the book.

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Table 1.6.1 Dimensions associated with common physical quantities.

Quantity FLT System MLT System Quantity FLT System MLT System

Acceleration LT −2 LT −2 Momentum FT M LT −1

Angle F 0 L0 T 0 M 0 L0 T 0 Power FLT −1 ML2 T −3

Angular acceleration T −2 T −2 Pressure FL−2 ML−1 T −2

Angular velocity T −1 T −1 Specific heat L2 T −2 Θ−1 L2 T −2 Θ−1

Area L2 L2 Specific wt. FL−3 ML−2 T −2

Density FL−4 T 2 ML−3 Strain F 0 L0 T 0 M 0 L0 T 0

Energy FL ML2 T −2 Stress FL−2 ML−1 T −2

Force F MLT−2 Surface ten. FL−1 MT−2

Frequency T −1 T −1 Heat FL ML2 T −2

Heat FL ML2 T −2 Temperature Θ Θ

Length L L Time T T

Mass FL−1 T 2 M Torque FL ML2 T −2

Modulus of elasticity FL−2 ML−1 T −2 Velocity LT−1 LT −1

Moment of a force FL ML2 T −2 Viscosity (dynamic) FL−2 T ML−1 T −1

Moment of inertia (area) L4 L4 Viscosity (kinematic) L 2 T −1 L 2 T −1

Moment of inertia (mass) FLT2 ML2 Volume L3 L3

Momentum FT MLT−1 Work FL ML2 T −2

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