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Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series

Sharlotte L.B. Kramer · Emily Retzlaff · Piyush Thakre ·

Johan Hoefnagels · Marco Rossi · Attilio Lattanzi ·
François Hemez · Mostafa Mirshekari · Austin Downey   Editors

Additive and Advanced

Manufacturing, Inverse
Problem Methodologies and
Machine Learning and Data
Science, Volume 4
Proceedings of the 2023 Annual Conference & Exposition
on Experimental and Applied Mechanics
Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series

Series Editor
Kristin B. Zimmerman
Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc.,
Bethel, USA
The Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series presents early findings and case studies from
a wide range of fundamental and applied work across the broad range of fields that comprise Experimental Mechanics. Series
volumes follow the principle tracks or focus topics featured in each of the Society's two annual conferences: IMAC,
A Conference and Exposition on Structural Dynamics, and the Society's Annual Conference & Exposition and will address
critical areas of interest to researchers and design engineers working in all areas of Structural Dynamics, Solid Mechanics
and Materials Research.
Sharlotte L. B. Kramer • Emily Retzlaff • Piyush Thakre
Johan Hoefnagels • Marco Rossi • Attilio Lattanzi
François Hemez • Mostafa Mirshekari • Austin Downey
Editors

Additive and Advanced Manufacturing,

Inverse Problem Methodologies
and Machine Learning and Data Science,
Volume 4
Proceedings of the 2023 Annual Conference & Exposition on
Experimental and Applied Mechanics
Editors
Sharlotte L. B. Kramer Emily Retzlaff
Sandia National Laboratories United States Naval Academy
Albuquerque, NM, USA Annapolis, MD, USA

Piyush Thakre Johan Hoefnagels

Dow Inc. Eindhoven University of Technology
Lake Jackson, TX, USA Eindhoven, Noord-Brabant, The Netherlands

Marco Rossi Attilio Lattanzi

Università Politecnica delle Marche California Institute of Technology
Ancona, Italy Pasadena, CA, USA

François Hemez Mostafa Mirshekari

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Carnegie Mellon University
Livermore, CA, USA Pittsburgh, PA, USA

Austin Downey
University of South Carolina
Columbia, SC, USA

ISSN 2191-5644 ISSN 2191-5652 (electronic)

Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series
ISBN 978-3-031-50473-0 ISBN 978-3-031-50474-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50474-7

© The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2024

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Preface

Additive and Advanced Manufacturing, Inverse Problem Methodologies and Machine Learning and Data Science represents
one of five volumes of technical papers presented at the 2023 SEM Annual Conference and Exposition on Experimental and
Applied Mechanics organized by the Society for Experimental Mechanics held on June 5–8, 2023. The complete proceedings
also include volumes on: Advancement of Optical Methods in Experimental Mechanics, Dynamic Behavior of Materials,
Fracture and Fatigue, Mechanics of Biological Systems and Materials, Mechanics of Composite and Multifunctional
Materials, Residual Stress, Thermomechanics and Infrared Imaging, and Time-Dependent Materials.
Each collection presents early findings from experimental and computational investigations on an important area within
Experimental Mechanics.
Mechanics of Additive and Advanced Manufactured Materials is an emerging area due to the unprecedented design and
manufacturing possibilities offered by new and evolving advanced manufacturing processes and the rich mechanics issues that
emerge. Technical interest within the Society spans several other SEM Technical Divisions such as: Composites, Hybrids and
Multifunctional Materials, Dynamic Behavior of Materials, Fracture and Fatigue, Residual Stress, Time-Dependent Materials,
and the Research Committee.
The topic of mechanics of additive and advanced manufacturing included in this volume covers design, optimization,
experiments, computations, and materials for advanced manufacturing processes (3D printing, micro- and nano-
manufacturing, powder bed fusion, directed energy deposition, etc.) with particular focus on mechanics aspects (e.g.,
mechanical properties, residual stress, deformation, failure, rate-dependent mechanical behavior, etc.).
The conference organizers thank the authors, presenters, and session chairs for their participation, support, and contribution
to this very exciting area of experimental mechanics.

Albuquerque, NM, USA Sharlotte L. B. Kramer

Annapolis, MD, USA Emily Retzlaff
Lake Jackson, TX, USA Piyush Thakre
Eindhoven, Noord-Brabant, The Netherlands Johan Hoefnagels
Ancona, Italy Marco Rossi
Pasadena, CA, USA Attilio Lattanzi
Livermore, CA, USA François Hemez
Pittsburgh, PA, USA Mostafa Mirshekari
Columbia, SC, USA Austin Downey

v
Contents

Quantifying Residual Stresses Generated by Laser-Powder Bed Fusion of Metallic Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Pouria Khanbolouki, Rodrigo Magana-Carranza, Eann Patterson, Chris Sutcliffe, and John Lambros
Loading-Unloading Compressive Response and Energy Dissipation of Liquid Crystal
Elastomers and Their 3D Printed Lattice Structures at Various Strain Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Bo Song, Dylan Landry, Thomas Martinez, Christopher Chung, Kevin Long, Kai Yu, and Chris Yakacki
Residual Stress Induced in Thin Plates During Additive Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Eann A. Patterson, John Lambros, Rodrigo Magana-Carranza, and Christopher J. Sutcliffe
Investigating the Effects of Acetone Vapor Treatment and Post Drying Conditions on Tensile
and Fatigue Behavior of 3D Printed ABS Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Heechang Bae, Nicholas Blair, Matthew Michaelis, and Awlad Hossain
Mechanics of Novel Double-Rounded-V Hierarchical Auxetic Structure: Finite Element Analysis
and Experiments Using Three-Dimensional Digital Image Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Rajesh Kumar and Iniyan Thiruselvam
Repeatability of Residual Stress in Replicate Additively Manufactured 316L Stainless Steel Samples . . . . . . . . . 39
Christopher R. D’Elia, Daniel R. Moser, Kyle L. Johnson, and Michael R. Hill
Acoustic Nondestructive Characterization of Metal Pantographs for Material
and Defect Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Silviya M. Boyadzhieva, Lea S. Kollmannsperger, Florian Gutmann, Thomas Straub, and Sarah C. L. Fischer
Rapid Prototyping of a Micro-Scale Spectroscopic System by Two-Photon Direct Laser Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Anthony Salerni and Cosme Furlong
Bioinspired Interfaces for Improved Interlaminar Shear Strength in 3D Printed
Multi-material Polymer Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Umut Altuntas, Demirkan Coker, and Denizhan Yavas
Thermo-mechanical Characterization of High-Strength Steel Through Inverse Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Marco Rossi, Luca Morichelli, and Steven Cooreman
A Multi-testing Approach for the Full Calibration of 3D Anisotropic Plasticity Models
via Inverse Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Attilio Lattanzi, Mattia Utzeri, Marco Rossi, and Dario Amodio
Finite Element Based Material Property Identification Utilizing Full-Field Deformation Measurements . . . . . . . 85
Sreehari Rajan Kattil, Subramani Sockalingam, Michael A. Sutton, and Tusit Weerasooriya
Data-Driven Material Models for Engineering Materials Subjected to Arbitrary Loading Paths:
Influence of the Dimension of the Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Burcu Tasdemir, Vito Tagarielli, and Antonio Pellegrino
Data-Driven Methodology to Extract Stress Fields in Materials Subjected to Dynamic Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Vijendra Gupta and Addis Kidane

vii
Quantifying Residual Stresses Generated by Laser-Powder
Bed Fusion of Metallic Samples

Pouria Khanbolouki, Rodrigo Magana-Carranza, Eann Patterson, Chris Sutcliffe, and John Lambros

Abstract We use numerical modeling to predict residual stresses and deformations of thin metallic structures manufactured
by laser-powder bed fusion. The effect of L-PBF process on residual deformations of thin quasi-2D structures is expected to
be more substantial and complex than for thicker/bulk or axisymmetric components. Two types of geometries are considered:
a thin horizontal plate for residual force measurements and thin vertical plates for residual deformations and support removal
experiments. In both cases knowledge of the initially deformed shape and internal residual stresses will affect experimental
interpretation. The numerical scheme used (ANSYS Additive Suite) involves weakly coupled thermomechanical simulations
in a commercially available finite element package. It is shown that the simulations are in qualitative and general quantitative
agreement with the experimental measurements within this numerical framework. Additionally, it is shown that the provided
numerical framework can be used to predict the effect of support removal sequence on the final geometry of thin metallic
structures.

Keywords Additive manufacturing · FEA · Residual stress · L-PBF

Introduction

Additively manufactured parts made with the laser-powder bed fusion (L-PBF) process are susceptible to build defects
associated with residual stresses during processing. For bulk objects, these residual stresses manifest themselves in the
microstructure as stress/strain inhomogeneities at the grain level, as well as in the macroscale as dimensional tolerances of the
manufactured part. While the platform that the parts are built on constrains their distortion during the build process, the
removal of supports between part and platform (cut-off) activates additional permanent deformations and redistribution of
residual stresses in the parts. Thin metallic structures on the other hand, have been seen to generate additional complexities
during the build and removal process, requiring frames and lateral support structures [1]. These structures are less explored
while their use is commonplace in industries such as aerospace. Additive manufacturing can reduce the material waste of
traditional methods used for manufacturing these components [2]. Knowledge of the residual stresses in the final part is
important not only for corrections of possible geometric tolerances necessary in the finished part, but also for an assessment of
the part’s mechanical performance. In the past decade, many numerical schemes have been developed to predict the residual
deformations and stresses of an additively manufactured part [3–8]. Only a handful of these studies investigated the residual
stresses and deformations after the support removal steps [9]; and to the best of our knowledge, no studies were focused on the
residual deformations of thin metallic plates through numerical methods. Additionally, the part removal for the built
component in the mentioned studies incorporated a single-step plate removal scheme. Most often, the parts are removed
from the build platform in a series of steps by cutting techniques. One objective of this study is to predict the residual forces

P. Khanbolouki (✉) · J. Lambros

Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
R. Magana-Carranza · E. Patterson
Department of Mechanical, Materials & Aerospace Engineering, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
C. Sutcliffe
Meta Consulting LDA, Lisbon, Portugal

© The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2024 1

S. L. B. Kramer et al. (eds.), Additive and Advanced Manufacturing, Inverse Problem Methodologies and Machine Learning
and Data Science, Volume 4, Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50474-7_1
2 P. Khanbolouki et al.

Fig. 1 Numerical scheme for simulation of L-PBF process of thin metallic structures in the commercial package ANSYS

and deformations in additively manufactured quasi-2D structures. Another objective of this study is to investigate whether the
sequence with which the supports are removed affects the redistribution of residual strains in the additively manufactured
parts.

Background

In recent experimental studies by Magana-Carranza et al. horizontal plates were manufactured with L-PBF process for the
in-situ force measurement of additive manufacturing process to infer the development of stresses [10, 11]. A four-by-four
array of force transducer devices (FTD) were implemented and the support-structures were built on top of the connecting rods
on the strain gauge load cells. In another experimental study, the additive manufacturing of vertical thin plates in portrait and
landscape mode were explored and challenges of additive manufacturing of thin plates were discussed [1]. Frames and lateral
triangular-shaped support buttresses were added to prevent the failure of the plates during the build process, indicating the
additional complexities in additive manufacturing of quasi-2D structures. The measurements included the out-of-plane
deformations of the plates at the end of the build process as well every support removal step. In both cases, knowledge of
the initially deformed shape and internal residual stresses will affect experimental interpretation. Here, both types of
geometries are considered: horizontal plates for in-situ force measurements during the build process and reinforced vertical
thin plates for residual deformation redistributions during the cut-off process. The numerical scheme used (ANSYS Additive
Suite) involves weakly coupled thermomechanical simulations in a commercially available FE package (Fig. 1). In this
scheme, a transient thermal history analysis is performed on the undeformed mesh in a layer lumping technique, the results of
which are utilized as input for a static mechanical simulation.

Analysis

As mentioned, two types of geometries are considered for this study: horizontal plates for in-situ force measurements during
the build process and reinforced vertical thin plates for residual deformation redistributions during the cut-off process. For the
horizontal plate simulation, a quarter symmetry design was implemented to the CAD model to reduce the computational costs.
Similar to the experiments and previous research, the calculated forces developed in the central region of the part were
compressive, while the corners undergo tension. The experimental measurements collected from FTDs during the build
process are shown in Fig. 2. Additionally, comparable values to the experimental measurement for residual forces at the center
Quantifying Residual Stresses Generated by Laser-Powder Bed Fusion of Metallic Samples 3

Fig. 2 Forces measured by each FTD versus time/layer number during the build process of the square flat plate built with Inconel 625 and the
arrangement of FTDs for in situ force measurements during build process of this square flat plate

Fig. 3 Finite element analysis results after the L-PBF part is removed from the build platform, presenting the calculated directional deformations of
the part and the supports in the build direction (z-axis)

and corners of the thin horizontal plate were acquired from the simulations. Figure 3 presents the results of calculated
directional deformations of the thin plate and the supports in the build direction (along z-axis).
The second set of simulations were included to compare the final deformed shaped of thin plates after cooling down and the
removal steps (Fig. 4). The symmetrical design of the plates as well as the sequence in which the supports were removed,
aimed at designing half of the plate for the simulations. The lateral supports are removed after the cool-down step, from both
sides, followed by incremental removal of the bottom supports in 5 mm increments from either side toward the center of the
plate. Additionally, full plates (without plane symmetry) were simulated to investigate the effect of support removal sequence
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4 P. Khanbolouki et al.

Fig. 4 Simulation progression for LPBF process including layer-by-layer deposition, cool-down, and support removal
Quantifying Residual Stresses Generated by Laser-Powder Bed Fusion of Metallic Samples 5

of the vertical thin plates. Results from the simulations were post-processed in a third-party software (Origin pro and
MATLAB) to acquire a one-to-one comparison at each step. The resulting calculated geometries from FEA were compared
to stereo digital image correlation (stereo-DIC) measurements of manufactured specimens, before, during, and after the cut-off
process for the vertical plates. The results from the simulations are in qualitative agreement with the 3D-DIC measurements.
The effect of different cut-off sequences was explored on the residual deformations of the vertical plates. It was observed that
the cut-off sequence might introduce additional deformations in quasi-2D structures.

Conclusion

It has been shown that the simulations are capable of providing acceptable qualitative and generally quantitative predictions of
residual forces, residual deformations, and final geometries of thin structures. We can take advantage of these capabilities in
developing optimization approaches for minimizing the residual deformations of thin metallic structures that are manufactured
by L-PBF. The results also suggest that the cut-off sequence of the support structures of high aspect ratio components can
result in substantial additional deformations in the part.

Acknowledgements The research was supported by grants from both the EPSRC (Grant No. EP/T013141/1) in UK and NSF CMMI (Grant
No. 20–27082) in the USA. The opinions expressed in this article reflect only the authors’ view and EPSRC is not responsible for any use that may
be made of the information it contains.

References

1. Patterson, E.A., Lambros, J., Magana-Carranza, R., Sutcliffe, C.J.: Residual stress effects during additive manufacturing of reinforced thin
nickel–chromium plates. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 123, 1845–1857 (2022)
2. Blakey-Milner, B., Gradl, P., Snedden, G., Brooks, M., Pitot, J., Lopez, E., Leary, M., Berto, F., du Plessis, A.: Metal additive manufacturing in
aerospace: a review. Mater. Des. 209, 110008 (2021)
3. Li, C., Liu, Z.Y., Fang, X.Y., Guo, Y.B.: Residual stress in metal additive manufacturing. Procedia CIRP. 71, 348–353 (2018)
4. Kruth, J., Deckers, J., Yasa, E., Wauthlé, R.: Assessing and comparing influencing factors of residual stresses in selective laser melting using a
novel analysis method. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. B J. Eng. Manuf. 226(6), 980–991 (2012)
5. Li, C., Guo, Y., Fang, X., Fang, F.: A scalable predictive model and validation for residual stress and distortion in selective laser melting. CIRP
Ann. 67(1), 249–252 (2018)
6. Setien, I., Chiumenti, M., Sjoerd van der Veen, M.S.S., Garciandía, F., Echeverría, A.: Empirical methodology to determine inherent strains in
additive manufacturing. Comput. Math. Appl. 78(7), 2282–2295 (2019)
7. Li, C., Liu, J.F., Fang, X.Y., Guo, Y.B.: Efficient predictive model of part distortion and residual stress in selective laser melting. Addit. Manuf.
17, 157–168 (2017)
8. Yakout, M., Elbestawi, M.A., Veldhuis, S.C., Nangle-Smith, S.: Influence of thermal properties on residual stresses in SLM of aerospace alloys.
Rapid Prototyp. J. 26(1), 213–222 (2020)
9. Li, C., Liu, Z.Y., Fang, X.Y., Guo, Y.B.: On the simulation scalability of predicting residual stress and distortion in selective laser
melting. J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 140(4), 041013 (2018)
10. Carranza, R.M., Robinson, J., Ashton, I., Fox, P., Sutcliffe, C., Patterson, E.: A novel device for in-situ force measurements during laser powder
bed fusion (L-PBF). Rapid Prototyp. J. 27(7), 1423–1431 (2021)
11. Magana-Carranza, R., Sutcliffe, C.J., Patterson, E.A.: The effect of processing parameters and material properties on residual forces induced in
Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF). Addit. Manuf. 46, 102192 (2021)
Loading-Unloading Compressive Response and Energy Dissipation
of Liquid Crystal Elastomers and Their 3D Printed Lattice
Structures at Various Strain Rates

Bo Song, Dylan Landry, Thomas Martinez, Christopher Chung, Kevin Long, Kai Yu, and Chris Yakacki

Abstract Nematic liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) are a unique class of network polymers with potential for excellent
mechanical energy absorption and dissipation capacity due to their ability to change the nematic director under mechanical
loading (sometimes called soft-elasticity) in addition to the viscoelastic behavior of the remaining polymer network. This
additional inelastic mechanism makes them appealing as candidate damping materials in a variety of applications from
vibration to impact. The lattice structures made from the LCEs provide further mechanical energy absorption and dissipation
capacity associated with packing out the porosity.
Understanding the extent of mechanical energy absorption versus dissipation depends on the mechanical stress-strain
response under both loading and unloading. In the past, the loading-unloading stress-strain response was only obtained within
quasi-static (slow) strain rates on standard material test frames. In this study, we used a newly developed bench-top linear
actuator to characterize the loading-unloading compressive response of polydomain and monodomain LCE polymers and
polydomain LCE lattice structures with two different porosities (nominally, 62% and 85%) at both low and intermediate strain
rates at room temperature. As a reference material, a bisphenol A (BPA) polymer with a similar glass transition temperature
(9 °C) as the nematic LCE (4 °C) was also characterized at the same conditions for comparing to the LCE polymers. Based on
the loading-unloading stress-strain curves, the energy absorption and dissipation for each material at different strain rates
(0.001, 0.1, 1, 10 and 90 s-1) were able to be calculated. The strain-rate effect on the mechanical response and energy
absorption and dissipation behaviors was determined.

Keywords Liquid crystal elastomer (LCE) · Lattice structure · Stress-strain · Energy dissipation

Introduction

Liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) are a unique class of polymers that have multiple inelastic deformation mechanisms that
confer unusual rate-dependent mechanical behavior, which makes them particularly attractive materials for damping and
mechanical impact mitigation applications and potentially in biological or biomedical applications. In the LCEs studied here,
liquid crystals (mesogen) are covalently bonded into a flexible polymer network to enable unique mechanical, thermal, and
photo-mechanical properties, which make it be used as cell scaffolds, artificial muscles, interbody fusion cage, soft-active
robotics or actuators, and wearable devices [1–6].
Recent studies of LCEs have investigated their unusual energy dissipation capacity due to their ability to undergo mesogen
re-orientation under mechanical loading in addition to background viscoelastic effects [7–9]. Foam or lattice structures made
from the LCEs have also been proposed for better energy dissipation and shock mitigation performance as compressive
loading must first pack out the porosity before the mesogen re-orientation begins [10–12]. Understanding the energy
dissipation characteristics depends on the mechanical stress-strain response under both loading and unloading. Considering
the anticipated mechanical shock mitigation applications, strain rate becomes a critical variable for strain-rate-dependent
hysteretic stress-strain response of the LCEs with both soft elastic and viscoelasticity mechanisms. However, the study of

B. Song (✉) · D. Landry · T. Martinez · K. Long

Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]
C. Chung · K. Yu · C. Yakacki
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado, Denver, CO, USA
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

© The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2024 7

S. L. B. Kramer et al. (eds.), Additive and Advanced Manufacturing, Inverse Problem Methodologies and Machine Learning
and Data Science, Volume 4, Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50474-7_2
8 B. Song et al.

strain-rate effects on the stress-strain response and energy dissipation of the LCEs and LCE-based lattice structures is very
limited [8–14].
In this study, a high-speed bench-top linear actuator was employed to characterize the loading-unloading compressive
response of polydomain and monodomain LCE polymers and polydomain LCE lattice structures with two different porosities
(nominally, 62% and 85%) at low and intermediate strain rates. It is noted that the actual porosities for the two lattice
structures were 50.8% and 73.7%, which are ~11% lower than the nominal values. As a reference material, a bisphenol A
(BPA) polymer with a similar glass transition temperature (9 °C) as the nematic LCE (4 °C), both as characterized by the peak
of the loss to storage modulus ratio in a 1 Hz three-point-bend dynamic mechanical analysis test swept at 3 °C/min, was also
characterized at the same conditions for comparing to the LCE polymers. It is noted that, for the monodomain LCE polymer,
the loading direction was along the direction of the nematic director. Based on the loading-unloading stress-strain curves, the
energy absorption and dissipation for each material at different strain rates (0.001, 0.1, 1, 10 and 90 s-1) were calculated. The
strain-rate effect on the mechanical behavior and energy dissipation was determined and compared between materials.

Experiments and Results

The compressive experiments on all five materials were conducted with a bench-top high-speed linear actuator that is
presented in detail in the Journal of Dynamic Behavior of Materials [15]. As shown in Fig. 1, the test system consists of a
Rexroth® high-speed electromechanical actuator to which a front platen was connected via an adapting rod. Another identical
platen was installed on a Kistler load cell mounted on a back plate. The Kistler load cell was used to measure the force history
on the specimen during mechanical loading. A customized laser extensometer [16] was installed to directly measure the
displacement of actuator such that the specimen strain can be calculated. The compressive stress-strain curve of the material
under investigation was then obtained. The linear actuator has a maximum velocity of ~1.9 m/s with a closed-loop operation
mode, enabling loading-unloading stress-strain characterization at the strain rates up to 100 s-1 for the specimen design in this
study. The signals from the load cell and the laser extensometer were acquired with a LeCroy digital oscilloscope.
The loading and unloading stress-strain curves of the five materials are shown in Fig. 2, respectively. It is noted that, due to
significant strain-rate effect, the resultant stress-strain curves were plotted in two figures with the results at 1 s-1 used as a
divide to ensure sufficient resolution within the entire strain-rate range. The results show that the polydomain LCE exhibited a
very similar stress-strain response to the reference material BPA. A plateau was observed in the stress-strain curves of the
monodomain LCE due to the effect of mesogen re-orientation and alignment (sometimes referred to soft-elasticity), which
indicates that the monodomain LCE may have superior energy absorption to the polydomain LCE and BPA. The polydomain
LCE lattice structures exhibited typical compressive stress-strain response of foam materials. With increasing porosity
(85% vs. 62%), the stress at a certain strain significantly decreased.
Based on the compressive loading and unloading stress-strain curves shown in Fig. 2, the energy dissipation ratio was
calculated with the following equation,

Fig. 1 Photograph of the high-speed linear actuator

Loading-Unloading Compressive Response and Energy Dissipation of Liquid Crystal Elastomers. . . 9

Fig. 2 Loading and unloading stress-strain curves of all five materials at various strain rates
10 B. Song et al.

Fig. 3 Energy dissipation ratio of the five materials at various strain rates

σdε
unloading
δ=1- ð1Þ
σdε
loading

where loadingσdε and unloadingσdε are the integrals of the stress-strain curves for loading and unloading, respectively.
Figure 3 compares the energy dissipation ratios at various strain rates for the five materials. The BPA and polydomain LCE
had very similar strain rate effect on the energy dissipation ratio. At the strain rate of 0.001 s-1, both materials had energy
dissipation ratios around 0.8. When the strain rate increased to 0.1 s-1, the energy dissipation ratios decreased to 0.32 and ~0.5
for the BPA and polydomain LCE, respectively. With further increase of strain rate, the energy dissipation ratios for the BPA
and polydomain LCE increased. The monodomain LCE showed similar trend but the lowest energy dissipation ratio (~0.85)
at the strain rate of 1 s-1. All BPA, polydomain LCE, and monodomain LCE had a very close energy dissipation ratio (~0.90)
at the strain rate of 90 s-1, which suggests that viscoelasticity becomes dominant over the nematic director reorientation
mechanism at higher strain rates (since all materials have similar Tgs and approximately similar viscoelastic behavior at room
temperature). Although the porosities were different, the polydomain LCE lattice structures show very similar characteristic of
energy dissipation ratio. When strain rate was below 1 s-1, the energy dissipation ratio was the same (~0.90) for both
polydomain LCE lattice structures, indicating minimal strain rate effect. When strain rate is above 1 s-1, the energy
dissipation ratio increased with increasing strain rate. At the strain rate of 90 s-1, nearly 100% energy was dissipated in the
polydomain LCE lattice structures, which indicates that the polydomain LCE lattice structures had an excellent performance
to mitigate external shock and impact. It is noted that, at the strain rate of 0.001 s-1, the monodomain LCE had the highest
energy dissipation ratio among the materials including the lattice structures. This suggests that nematic director re-orientation
dominates the material response at low strain rates, but still warrant further investigation.

Conclusion

3D printed polydomain LCE, monodomain LCE, and two polydomain LCE lattice structures with 62% and 85% porosities
were mechanically characterized in compression with a high-speed linear actuator. A BPA polymer was also characterized as
a reference material. Compressive loading and unloading hysteretic stress-strain curves for all five materials were obtained at
various strain rates from 0.001 to 90 s-1. All five materials showed significant strain rate effect. Energy dissipation ratio was
calculated from the resultant loading and unloading stress-strain curves. All five materials showed significant but different
strain rates on energy dissipation ratio. In general, the solid LCE and BPA materials showed great energy dissipation
capabilities at both low (0.001 s-1) and high (above 1 s-1) strain rates, but not at the strain rates in between. The polydomain
LCE lattice structure showed superior energy dissipation performance compared with the solid polymers.
Loading-Unloading Compressive Response and Energy Dissipation of Liquid Crystal Elastomers. . . 11

Acknowledgements Sandia National Laboratories is a multimission laboratory managed and operated by National Technology and Engineering
Solutions of Sandia, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of Honeywell International, Inc., for the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Nuclear
Security Administration under contract DE-NA0003525. The views expressed in the article do not necessarily represent the views of the
U.S. Department of Energy or the United States Government.

References

1. Giamberini, M., Ambrogi, V., Cerruti, P., Carfagna, C.: Viscoelasticity of main chain liquid crystalline elastomers. Polymer. 47, 4490–4496
(2006)
2. Jiang, H., Li, C., Huang, X.: Actuators based on liquid crystalline elastomer materials. Nanoscale. 5, 5225–5240 (2013)
3. Ula, S.W., Traugutt, N.A., Volpe, R.H., Patel, R.R., Yu, K., Yakacki, C.M.: Liquid crystal elastomers: an introduction and review of emerging
technologies. Liq. Cryst. Rev. 6, 78–107 (2018)
4. Hussain, M., Jull, E.I.L., Mandle, R.J., Raistrick, T., Hine, P.J., Gleeson, H.F.: Liquid crystal elastomers for biological applications. Nano. 11,
813 (2021)
5. Annapooranan, R., Wang, Y., Cai, S.: Highly durable and tough liquid crystal elastomers. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 14, 2006–2014 (2022)
6. Liao, W., Yang, Z.: 3D printing programmable liquid crystal elastomer soft pneumatic actuators. Mater. Horiz. (2022). https://doi.org/10.1039/
d2mh01001a
7. Mistry, D., Traugutt, N.A., Yu, K., Yakacki, C.M.: Processing and reprocessing liquid crystal elastomer actuators. J. Appl. Phys. 129, 130901
(2021)
8. Jeon, S.-Y., Shen, B., Traugutt, N.A., Zhu, Z., Fang, L., Yakacki, C.M., Nguyen, T.D., Kang, S.H.: Synergistic energy absorption mechanisms
of architected liquid crystal elastomers. Adv. Mater. 34, 2200272 (2022)
9. Zhang, Z., Huo, Y.: Programmable mechanical energy absorption and dissipation of liquid crystal elastomers: modeling and simulations. Adv.
Eng. Mater. 24, 2100590 (2022)
10. Traugutt, N.A., Mistry, D., Luo, C., Yu, K., Ge, Q., Yakacki, C.M.: Liquid-crystal-elastomer-based dissipative structures by digital light
processing 3D printing. Adv. Mater. 32, 2000797 (2020)
11. Luo, C., Chung, C., Traugutt, N.A., Yakacki, C.M., Long, K.N., Yu, K.: 3D printing of liquid crystal elastomer foams for enhanced energy
dissipation under mechanical insult. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 13, 12698–12708 (2021)
12. Mistry, D., Traugutt, N.A., Sanborn, B., Volpe, R.H., Chatham, L.S., Zhou, R., Song, B., Yu, K., Long, K.N., Yakacki, C.M.: Soft elasticity
optimizes dissipation in 3D-printed liquid crystal elastomers. Nat. Commun. 12, 6677 (2021)
13. Azoug, A., Vasconcellos, V., Dooling, J., Saed, M., Yakacki, C.M., Nguyen, T.D.: Viscoelasticity of the polydomain-monodomain transition in
main-chain liquid crystal elastomers. Polymer. 98, 165–171 (2016)
14. Martin Linares, C.P., Traugutt, N.A., Saed, M.O., Martin Linares, A., Yakacki, C.M., Nguyen, T.D.: The effect of alignment on the rate-
dependent behavior of a main-chain liquid crystal elastomer. Soft Matter. 16, 8782–8798 (2020)
15. Song, B., Martinez, T., Landry, D., Aragon, P., Long, K.: Development of a bench-top intermediate-strain-rate (ISR) test apparatus for soft
materials. J. Dyn. Behav. Mater. 9, 36–43 (2023) (online available)
16. Nie, X., Song, B., Loeffler, C.M.: A novel splitting-beam laser extensometer technique for Kolsky tension bar experiment. J. Dyn. Behav. Mater.
1, 70–74 (2015)
Residual Stress Induced in Thin Plates During Additive
Manufacturing

Eann A. Patterson, John Lambros, Rodrigo Magana-Carranza, and Christopher J. Sutcliffe

Abstract Additive manufacturing is a technique for producing complex geometry engineering parts relatively quickly and
cheaply; however, residual stresses induced in the part during manufacture can result in significant distortion of the build. In
this study, nickel-chromium alloy (Inconel 625) geometrically-reinforced thin plates have been additively manufactured using
laser-powder bed fusion, that have comparable flatness to those built subtractively. The residual stresses induced in the thin
plates from manufacture are deduced by measuring out-of-plane displacements using stereoscopic digital image correlation.
The results demonstrate that residual stresses cause potentially severe out-of-plane displacements which can be alleviated by
using buttress supports to reinforce the plate edges during the build. In both landscape and portrait orientation builds, out-of-
plane displacement increased upon release from the baseplate but was reduced by incremental release.

Keywords Residual stress · L-PBF · Digital image correlation · Additive manufacturing · Thin plates

Introduction

Thin plates with reinforced edges have potential applications as skins for divertors in fusion reactors and for hypersonic flight
vehicles [1–3]. Subtractive manufacturing of such parts can create significant waste and costly tool degradation for high
temperature and corrosion resistant materials, such as Inconel.
Additive manufacturing (AM) is a modern technique for producing engineering components in a variety of materials in a
layer-by-layer process based on the digital representation of the part. A key advantage of AM is the capability to produce
complex geometry parts without the need for part-specific tools; however, when parts are created layer-by-layer during AM,
differential strains caused by non-uniform plastic deformation and time-varying temperature distributions, induce macroscale
residual stresses that can cause large distortions of the part [4]. The direct measurement of residual stress is difficult and
instead residual stresses are usually deduced from measurements of displacements or strains induced by releasing residual
stresses after build completion, employing techniques such as X-ray and neutron diffraction [5, 6]. Magana-Carranza et al.
[7, 8] also evaluated residual stresses induced by AM by incorporating a force transducer into a laser-powder bed fusion
(L-PBF) AM machine to measure forces induced during the build process.
In this study, nickel-chromium alloy (Inconel 625) geometrically-reinforced thin plates were additively manufactured
using L-PBF and the residual stresses deduced from full-field stereoscopic digital image correlation (DIC) measurements of
surface strains. Information has been obtained from plates built in both landscape and portrait orientations and with various
build support structures. The study has resulted in a series of findings relating to build supports, orientation and support
removal procedures, that minimise the distortion of the final plate.

E. A. Patterson (✉) · R. Magana-Carranza

Department of Mechanical, Materials & Aerospace Engineering, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
e-mail: [email protected]
J. Lambros
Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
C. J. Sutcliffe
Meta Consulting LDA, Foz do Arelho, Portugal

© The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2024 13

S. L. B. Kramer et al. (eds.), Additive and Advanced Manufacturing, Inverse Problem Methodologies and Machine Learning
and Data Science, Volume 4, Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50474-7_3
14 E. A. Patterson et al.

Methods

1 mm thick nickel-chromium alloy (Inconel 625) flat plates with in-plane dimensions of 130 mm × 230 mm surrounded by a
reinforced frame of 10 mm by 5 mm, were built using a L-PBF machine (Renishaw AM250, UK). In all builds, the laser power
was 400 W, the point distance 70 μm, and the layer thickness 60 μm; values that were selected based on prior experience [9].
A typical portrait orientation plate build, with support structures, is shown in Fig. 1a. The parts were built on a 170 °C
pre-heated standard base plate for the machine. Preliminary tests confirmed that a stripe scan strategy produced lower levels of
deformation, so this was implemented in all plate builds.
The shapes of the plates were measured using a stereoscopic DIC correlation system (Q400, Dantec Dynamics GmbH,
Ulm, Germany). The system was setup as shown in Fig. 1b to achieve a spatial resolution of 20 pixels/mm using a pair of
identical CCD cameras with 1292 × 964 pixels and 50 mm lenses. Each specimen was painted black at the end of its build
process and a white speckle pattern applied to allow for DIC analysis. The equipment was calibrated before each set of
measurements to determine the measurement uncertainty which typically had a mean of zero and a standard deviation of
0.0014 mm (see Fig. 1c).
After completion of the build process and specimen paint preparation, the base plate with the reinforced plate attached was
placed on an optical table for DIC measurements. The supports were released incrementally alternating between each end of
the geometry with stereoscopic images taken at each increment to allow the evolution of shape to be evaluated.

Fig. 1 (a) Exemplar of a successful L-PBF build of an Inconel 625 thin plate before base plate release (dimensions in mm); (b) Schematic diagram
of the setup used for stereoscopic digital image correlation (DIC) measurements of out-of-plane displacement; (c) DIC map of measurement
uncertainty. (Modified from Patterson et al. [4])
Residual Stress Induced in Thin Plates During Additive Manufacturing 15

Results and Discussion

An out-of-plane step occurred in a number of the initial builds in the landscape orientation at a height of around 105 mm as
illustrated in Fig. 2a, prompting trials with different support structures to prevent its occurrence. An enveloping structure
successfully produced a plate with a flatness of 5.05 mm but created significant material waste which negated any advantage
of using AM. Metrologically flatness is defined as the minimum distance between two planes within which all the points on a
surface lie [10]. Successful landscape builds, with minimal material wastage, were produced when triangular support
buttresses orientated perpendicular to the plane of the reinforced plate were used. Although the builds in landscape orientation
with triangular supports were successful, they produced significant out-of-plane displacement and a flatness of 5.7 mm when
released from the support structures. An alternate build approach was sought, so it was decided to build the plates in a portrait
orientation with triangular support buttresses orientated perpendicular to the plane of the reinforced plate. This strategy was
unsuccessful and resulted in a horizontal discontinuity at a height of 113 mm and a delamination at 225 mm as shown in
Fig. 2b. The addition of in-plane buttresses removed the delamination and discontinuity, resulting in a successful build
(Fig. 1a) that when released from the base plate, resulted in a flatness of 4.6 mm as shown in Fig. 3a; an improved flatness of
approximately 9% when compared with the build in landscape orientation with the envelope supports. The difference between
displacement in the plates built in landscape and portrait orientations, likely results from the geometric effects associated with
constraining the long and short edges to the base plate; as well as from differential thermal strains between layers in the
transverse and longitudinal directions.
The formation of residual stresses and consequential deformation of the plates are time-varying processes and history-
dependent. They occur when the balance of forces in the plate changes during the build process due to the addition of mass to
the part as well as due to energy transfers from the laser and to the surroundings. This balance of forces within the plate also
changes during the removal of the plate from the baseplate and the supporting structures. The sequence of out-of-plane
displacement fields shown in Fig. 3b for a reinforced plate built in the portrait orientation, illustrates this changing state of the
forces during release from the baseplate. Each step shows the changes to the shape of the part as the supports are released in
5 mm increments. Figure 3b shows that the displacements are substantially larger in the bottom half of the plate when
compared to the top (also observed for the builds with the landscape orientation). This result was anticipated as the effect of
the residual forces reacted through the base plate would be expected to be greater adjacent to the baseplate and to dissipate
with distance from the baseplate.
For builds that use other aspect ratios or materials, it seems likely that the use of buttress supports would be effective in
reducing out-of-plane displacement. Although it is hard to predict this behaviour from the data collected in this study, the
datasets should be invaluable for the development and validation of computational models that could provide such predictions
of residual stress development in AM builds.

Fig. 2 (a) Example of a failed build in the landscape orientation; (b) Example of a failed build in the portrait orientation. (Modified from Patterson
et al. [4])
Visit https://textbookfull.com
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16 E. A. Patterson et al.

Fig. 3 (a) Measurements of out-of-plane displacement, before and after baseplate release, for a build in the portrait orientation with both in-plane
and out-of-plane buttresses; (b) Out-of-plane displacements measured at increments of 5 mm release from the baseplate for the first 12 steps and final
4 steps. (Modified from Patterson et al. [4])

Conclusion

Geometrically reinforced thin plates have been successfully built using laser-powder bed fusion (L-PBF) and their shapes
measured using stereoscopic DIC before, during and after release from the baseplate of the AM machine. The results
demonstrate that residual stresses induced by AM cause severe out-of-plane deformation that can be minimised by using
in-plane and out-of-plane support buttresses. The out-of-plane displacement that occurs during release from the base plate can
be minimised by incremental releases of 5 mm. Plates built in the portrait orientation with both in-plane and out-of-plane
support buttresses resulted in builds with an out-of-plane deformation of 4.6 mm; the lowest out-of-plane displacement for all
geometries built in this study.

Acknowledgements The research was supported by grants from both the EPSRC (Grant No. EP/T013141/1) in UK and NSF CMMI (Grant
No. 20–27082) in the USA. The opinions expressed in this article reflect only the authors’ view and EPSRC is not responsible for any use that may
be made of the information it contains. The authors are grateful to funders for providing the resources for the research and to the University of
Liverpool for access to facilities to perform the research.

References

1. Santos Silva, A.C., Sebastian, C.M., Lambros, J., Patterson, E.A.: High temperature modal analysis of a non-uniformly heated rectangular plate:
experiments and simulations. J. Sound Vib. 443, 397–410 (2019)
2. Lopez-Alba, E., Sebastian, C.M., Santos Silva, A.C., Patterson, E.A.: Experimental study of mode shifting in an asymmetrically heated
rectangular plate. J. Sound Vib. 439, 241–250 (2019)
3. Silva, A.C.S., Lambros, J., Garner, D.M., Patterson, E.A.: Dynamic response of a thermally stressed plate with reinforced edges. Exp. Mech.
60(1), 81–92 (2020)
4. Patterson, E.A., Lambros, J., Magana-Carranza, R., Sutcliffe, C.J.: Residual stress effects during additive manufacturing of reinforced thin
nickel–chromium plates. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 123(5), 1845–1857 (2022)
5. Mercelis, P., Kruth, J.-P.: Residual Stresses in Selective Laser Sintering and Selective Laser Melting. Emerald Group Publishing Limited (2006)
6. Qian, W., Wu, S., Wu, Z., Ahmed, S., Zhang, W., Qian, G., Withers, P.J.: In situ X-ray imaging of fatigue crack growth from multiple defects in
additively manufactured AlSi10Mg alloy. Int. J. Fatigue. 155, 106616 (2022)
7. Magana Carranza, R., Robinson, J., Ashton, I., Fox, P., Sutcliffe, C., Patterson, E.: A novel device for in-situ force measurements during laser
powder bed fusion (L-PBF). Rapid Prototyp. J. 27(7), 1423–1431 (2021)
8. Magana-Carranza, R., Sutcliffe, C.J., Patterson, E.A.: The effect of processing parameters and material properties on residual forces induced in
Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF). Addit. Manuf. 46, 102192 (2021)
9. Bartlett, J., Li, X.: An Overview of Residual Stresses in Metal Powder Bed Fusion, vol. 27, pp. 131–149 (2019)
10. Thomas, G.G.: Engineering metrology. Butterworths, London (1974)
Investigating the Effects of Acetone Vapor Treatment and Post
Drying Conditions on Tensile and Fatigue Behavior of 3D Printed
ABS Components

Heechang Bae, Nicholas Blair, Matthew Michaelis, and Awlad Hossain

Abstract Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), an additive manufacturing/3D printing process, is widely used where the
material is melted, extruded, and deposited in layers to build up the desired object. The applications of FDM technologies
have significantly increased recently not only for rapid prototyping but also for mass production of finished products. In 3D
printing, parts are usually built in discrete layers. Hence, this manufacturing process results in a certain amount of structural
uncertainty in the form of discontinuities, voids, and poor inter-layer bonding. In our previous research, we successfully
investigated the differences in the ultimate strength and fatigue life for 3D printed Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS)
components built by various build/layer orientations. Our previous research successfully highlighted the ultimate strengths
and fatigue life, including SN Curves. However, there is a need for further research to improve the tensile strength and fatigue
life of the 3D printed ABS components. This research explores effects of the surface treatment on the tensile strength and
fatigue life of the 3D printed ABS components with various layup-orientation. In this study, Acetone Vaper Smoothing (AVS)
method was used as the surface treatment of the 3D printed ABS components. Our research found that the AVS method could
reduce stress concentrations on the surface and structural uncertainty of the 3D printed ABS components to improve the
tensile and fatigue strength. However, these results were occurred after adjusting the Acetone vapor exposure and improving
the drying methods because Acetone weakened the layer bonding of the ABS and reduced the tensile strength and fatigue life
of the 3D printed ABS components. This research provides the optimal conditions of the Acetone Vapor exposure time and
the drying time.

Keywords 3D printing · ABS · Strength · Acetone · Fatigue

Introduction

The Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is a form of additive manufacturing (AM) in which a material is melted, extruded, and
fused in layers to build the intended model, often through the use of 3D printers. Additive manufacturing is a manufacturing
process where material is added to form the object rather than removing material or using some form of a mold. Subtractive
manufacturing (SM) requires material to be removed to form the desired part utilizing equipment such as cut-ting, milling,
grinding, drilling, etc. The requirement to use multiple machines and the expertise to use each one individually is a limitation
when using SM for rapid prototyping or other short-run applications. Historically, AM had been primarily used to fill the role
of rapid prototyping, but it is expanding and increasingly used to create end user products. The use of AM products has
increased design flexibility and speed and is being used to customize products for consumers while reducing waste and the
amount of production steps.
Current AM capabilities have limitations due the nature of the fused material being added in layers, which impacts the
us-ability for end user products. The products produced by AM methods are not formed from a solid continuous piece of
material and so the properties differ based on how the manufacturing process is conducted (i.e., not isotropic). The surface
finish is a property of AM that is limited by the layering process. The layers fuse to each other but do not form a continuous
and smooth surface finish. Instead, it consists of ridges and valleys of material. Besides the cosmetic drawbacks, such surface

H. Bae (✉) · N. Blair · M. Michaelis · A. Hossain

Department of Mechanical Engineering & Technology, College of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics, Eastern Washington
University, Cheney, WA, USA
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

© The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2024 17

S. L. B. Kramer et al. (eds.), Additive and Advanced Manufacturing, Inverse Problem Methodologies and Machine Learning
and Data Science, Volume 4, Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50474-7_4
18 H. Bae et al.

texture is undesirable for product properties such as fatigue life, which is significantly impacted by surface quality and
roughness.
Many researchers have investigated the anisotropic behavior of tensile test specimens fabricated by FDM AM techniques
[1–6]. However, few researchers have studied the fatigue behavior of ABS specimens fabricated by FDM AM techniques.
Ziemian et al. studied the tensile and fatigue behavior of layered acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) samples, fabricated by
FDM method [7]. In that research, typical tensile tests were performed first on FDM specimens with four different layup
orientations. Then, the ABS samples were subjected to tension-tension fatigue cycling load to generate SN plots, which were
finally used to determine the fatigue strength. SEM images of fracture surfaces of fatigue specimens with different layup
orientations were also presented in this research paper. In a study of Bae et al. [8], several fatigue tests were conducted and
generated SN curves for the ABS samples with the different layup orientations. The research also calculated and estimated the
fatigue strengths of the ABS samples for the different layup orientations.
Dimethyl ketone (acetone) is a solvent of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and is a common secondary process to
improve smoothness of ABS printed objects in the hobbyist community. The acetone is vaporized on a heated surface and the
model is lowered into the fumes, dissolving the outer surfaces and penetrating into the material based on fume exposure time.
After the sample is removed, and given enough time, the acetone evaporates from the material returning it to the original
composition but with a visually smoother surface finish.
The application of a chemical post-process to ABS material manufactured with FDM has been the focus of several studies
but is still an emerging discussion. Multiple studies have been focused on the effectiveness of acetone vapor being used as a
smoothing process for ABS parts made with FDM [9–12]. From these experiments, it was concluded that the treatment was
very effective at improving the surface quality. To improve the process, the use of a vacuum chamber was able to reduce the
amount of time and solvent needed to achieve the same smoothing effect from the acetone vapor at atmospheric conditions
[13]. Concern that the process would impact the geometric accuracy of the parts was the focus of Garg et al. and the authors
concluded that cold vapor treatment significantly improved the surface roughness of the part while having minimal impact to
the geometric accuracy [14]. Adding a solvent to a material will put it at risk of altering the mechanical properties of the
material as well as the surface quality. In a study of vapor smoothing in relation to mechanical strengths, it was determined that
the process altered strengths which ruled it out to be used in certain applications, otherwise it was effective at smoothing
surface quality [15]. In a study by Cunico et al., the mechanical strengths were tested before and after exposure to a solvent.
The peak-peak roughness was greatly reduced when exposed to a correct amount of solvent and it also increased the
mechanical strengths [16]. In a study by Neff et al., they concluded that the vapor polishing on thin specimens had minimal
impact to mechanical properties but still had vast improvement of surface quality [17]. Vapor polishing is not the only method
to improve surface finish, other methods include tumbling, hand finishing, shot peening, etc. ABS immersion in acetone
yielded the best geometric accuracy of methods tested [18].
In this study, ABS specimens were manufactured using FDM methods utilizing a 3D printer. The specimens had two
unique layup orientations and underwent acetone vapor polishing with two distinct drying methods. After undergoing the
vaporization treatment process, the samples were tested in tension and rotational bending fatigue. Conclusions are drawn from
the ultimate strength and fatigue life; the latter being estimated by the Stress-Life approach.

Materials and Methods

3D Printing

The fatigue and tensile samples were printed using a Prusa Mk3 3D printer in an enclosure to maintain consistent print
conditions. Table 1 shows all the parameters that are used to prepare the 3D printed samples (Fig. 1).
The tensile samples are the standard dog-bone shape samples, as shown in Fig. 2a. The dimensions of these samples are
adjusted so that they could fit to our existing tensile testing machine. The fatigue samples are also dimensioned to properly fit
the testing machine, but to account for the strength differences between metal and ABS samples, the minimum neck diameter
recommended by the fatigue tester manual is increased, as shown in Fig. 2b.

Table 1 3D printing parameters and settings

Room temperature Bed temperature Nozzle temperature Print speed Infill setting Filament material
20 °C 100 °C 255 °C 2400 mm/mm 100% Black ABS, matter hacker
Investigating the Effects of Acetone Vapor Treatment and Post Drying Conditions on Tensile. . . 19

Fig. 1 Prusa i3 MK3 3D printer in its printing enclosure

Fig. 2 Basic dimensioning for (a) tensile samples and (b) fatigue samples (units: inch [mm])

Fig. 3 Tensile samples in the (a) horizontal orientation (b) vertical orientation

Tensile and fatigue samples were printed in two variations of the print layup orientation, as shown in Fig. 3. The horizontal
print orientation is made by the printer nozzle running parallel to the length axis. If the nozzle is printing normal to the length
axis, it is called vertical. The same naming convention applies to the tensile and fatigue samples.
20 H. Bae et al.

Fig. 4 Acetone vapor treatment process of fatigue samples

Acetone Vapor Treatment Process

To begin the acetone vapor treatment process, the samples were lightly sanded with 320 grit sandpaper to remove any large
printing surface defects. In a well-ventilated area, acetone is poured into a glass beaker with a heat safe lid that is non-sealing.
The beaker is put on a hot plate set to a medium heat setting. The samples to be treated are held by a copper wire that is bent
into a shape that holds the end of the samples by pinching them shown in Fig. 4. When the acetone vapor has risen enough to
submerge the entire length of the samples, the samples are lowered into the vapor for 5 s. After the 5 s have passed, the
samples are removed and hung up to dry for 5 min.
For the long-term drying process, two different methods were used. The first method was to allow the sample to dry
exposed to the open room environment for 3 days. The samples were placed on a paper surface to prevent the material bonding
to a hard surface. The other method was in a heated environment produced in a modified food dehydrator shown in Fig. 5.
The samples were dried at 64 °C for 24 h.

Surface Roughness Measurement

Before and after each sample goes through the acetone treatment process, the surface roughness is measured using a
profilometer. The surface roughness was measured at the smallest neck diameter for the fatigue samples and on the thickness
direction for tensile samples. The samples roughness was measured along the axial and transverse directions. Figure 6 shows a
fatigue sample being measured in the transverse direction.

Tensile Testing

Tensile testing was performed with a Tinius Olsen H50KS tensile testing machine shown in Fig. 7. Testing included both of
the orientations and curing conditions, horizontal air-dried, horizontal heated-dry, vertical air-dried, and vertical heated dry.
With each configuration, three samples were tested to determine the failure force in tension.
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all admitted that he would create a sensation when they took him
into port.
“Put your mark on him, Breeze,” said the skipper, “so that you will
be able to pick him out when we get home. He might get lost, you
know, among the really big ones that the rest of us are going to
catch.”
The boy laughed, but felt very proud of his first fish, as with his
sharp sheath-knife he cut a rude B like this, , in the thick skin on
its head, and inscribed the same mark near its tail.
Old Mateo was as delighted at the success of his protégé as the
boy himself, and in honor of the event brought him a cup of hot
coffee and an extra nice Joe-flogger spread with butter and sugar.
“Me tell ’em so ven you lit babee, an’ eat ze harda tack. Me tell
’em you catch ze feesh bimeby plentee, plentee! Now zey find out,
eh?” he exclaimed, in a tone of self-satisfied pride. It was as much
as to say that if they would only bring all the babies to him, he could
tell whether they would make successful fishermen or not. The men
laughed at him, and made many jokes concerning his wisdom; but
he only laughed back good-naturedly, and shook his head at them as
he again disappeared in the depths of his own domain.
For the rest of the day the fishing went on so merrily, and halibut
and cod were piled up on deck so rapidly, that nobody found time to
stop for dinner; but snatched hurried mouthfuls of food as they
tended their lines. It was lively and exciting work; but when it was
time to knock off, and begin to clear and pack the day’s catch,
Breeze, for one, found himself aching in every joint, while his hands
were raw and water-soaked from handling the hard, wet lines.
He would have gladly turned in at once, but the fish must be
cleaned first, and after that it was his turn to stand a two hours’
watch on deck. Thus it was late in the evening before the exhausted
lad tumbled into his bunk, where he dreamed of monstrous fish with
twenty-dollar gold-pieces in their mouths, that turned into Joe-
floggers as he reached for them.
The fishing was good for three days longer, and all hands were
light-hearted and happy over their success. Songs and jokes were
heard on all sides, and the yarns told at night in the cabin were all of
big fares and quick trips to the Banks. It had been a stormy winter,
and March had come in like an angry, roaring lion; but now it
seemed to be anxious to prove the truth of the old saying, and to be
about to go out like the meekest of lambs. Three days more of such
luck as they had had would pull up their anchor and see them
homeward bound. But March is a fickle month.
The fourth day broke cloudy and threatening. The sky was gray
and the air was filled with a penetrating chill. The schooner rode
uneasily, straining and surging at her cable in the heavy swell that
rolled in from the eastward. The previous day had been what old
sailors would call “a weather-breeder,” with the wind light and puffy
from the south-west. The mercury in the barometer had stood about
30.7, which indicated a change, and something to be expected from
off the sea.
As the day wore on there was a feeling of snow in the
atmosphere, and the barometer fell steadily. The fish continued to
bite eagerly, and every man did his best to swell the sum total of his
catch while he had the chance. The luck of the Albatross had been
noticed, and several other vessels were anchored near her, both
ahead and astern.
By noon angry spurts of snow were driving in the faces of her
crew, the wind was moaning drearily through the rigging, and an
occasional dash of spray wet the deck. About this time all hands
were ordered to “knock off” fishing, dress the morning’s catch, stow
all light articles below, and “snug ship.” Twenty more fathoms of
cable were paid out. The foresail was loosed and three reefs were
tied in it, so that it might be ready for instant use in case the vessel
broke adrift. Then it was again furled, and securely tied.
The storm came on rapidly after that, until at four o’clock, when
supper was served, the schooner was pitching furiously, and bringing
up with vicious jerks on its straining cable. It was already quite dark,
and the snow drove in horizontal lines, tingling against a bare face
like cuts from a whip-lash. The wind howled through the taut
rigging, and the spray, torn from the crests of the racing seas, was
blown in blinding sheets above the slippery decks.
 Breeze had never experienced anything like this. To him it was
already a frightful gale, and, as he almost pitched down the forward
companion-ladder in answer to the supper call, he was surprised to
find how calmly the men were taking it. In spite of the tumult on
deck, the creaking and groaning of the vessel’s timbers, and her
mad pitching, several of them were seated at the mess-table eating
as unconcernedly as though nothing unusual were happening.
Another lay in his bunk, smoking and exchanging jokes with those
who were eating.
After the storm-swept deck, the forecastle seemed warm, light,
and cheerful. As Breeze sat down to the table, from which, in spite
of the storm-racks, the dishes were every now and then flung to the
floor, he wondered that he had never before noticed what a cosey
and comfortable place it was.
“Vel, Breeza!” shouted old Mateo, whose entire energies were
devoted to keeping the coffee-pot from sliding off the stove. “How
you lak him? Pret good, eh?”
“I lak him very much better down here than I do on deck,”
answered the boy between his mouthfuls of hot coffee and biscuit.
“But, I say, Mateo, don’t you call this a pretty stiff sort of a gale?”
“No,” replied the old cook, scornfully; “zis only one-a lit Georgy
shake-up. For ze gale you mus’ go to ze Gran’ Bank. Ah, zat ze
place!”
With this the others chimed in, and began to tell of their
experiences in real gales, to which this one was but a March zephyr.
For all this, a little later, when the crew were gathered in the
cabin, where, around the little red-hot stove, wet clothing and boots
were sending up clouds of steam, the skipper, after looking out of
the companion-way, said,
“Boys, we are in for a regular ‘rip-snorter.’ I never saw a nastier
night. You’d better get a nap if you can now, for after midnight there
won’t be any chance for sleep aboard this craft. I want the watch on
deck to keep the sharpest kind of a lookout, and to call me the
moment a light is seen in any direction.”
The great danger of the night lay either in getting adrift, through
the parting of their cable or the dragging of their anchor, and
rushing into collision with some anchored vessel, or in being run
down. In either case the result would probably be the almost instant
death of all on board.
Following the skipper’s advice, Breeze crept into his bunk for a
nap, but for a long time found it impossible to sleep. The violence of
the pitching and the roar of the gale seemed to increase with each
moment, and it was only by the strongest effort of will that he could
restrain himself from springing up and rushing on deck. At last he
did sleep, but was only aware of it when a dash of icy water in his
face awakened him. Forgetting where he was, he sprang up, and
struck his head violently against the low ceiling above him.
A great sea of solid water had broken over the schooner’s bows,
and swept aft in such a volume that it must have flooded the cabin
had not the skipper, who stood in the companion-way, pulled the
slide. As it was, about a bucketful had made its way in, and a
portion of it had fallen on Breeze.
Scrambling from the bunk, he found his companions clad in their
oil-skins and prepared to hurry on deck at the first notice that their
presence was needed. Several of them were picking themselves up
from the floor, to which they had been flung by the shock of the big
wave, and one was lamenting a broken pipe. They were much more
sober now than at supper-time, and their conversation, which was
entirely of wreck and disaster, was not calculated to fill the boy with
cheerful thoughts. Glancing at the clock, he saw that it was past
midnight, and the skipper’s warning that there would be no sleep for
them after that hour flashed into his mind.
Following the example of the others, he pulled on his oil-skins,
and sat down to wait, he knew not what for. A few minutes later the
summons came. It was an unintelligible cry from the watch on deck,
but its meaning was clear to the practised ears of those below, and
as the skipper sprang up the steps, the others followed.
When Breeze reached the deck and felt the full force of the blast,
it seemed to drive the breath from his body. The wind was shrieking
through the strained rigging like a hundred steam-whistles. The
snow had turned into fine particles of ice that pricked like needles.
The billows hissed and seethed as, with streaming manes of
glistening white, they galloped past the quivering vessel. Now she
was poised on the crest of a gigantic wave, and the next instant
buried in a yawning depth, beneath a smother of broken waters that
leaped high up on her masts.
By the rays of the riding-light, that still burned steadily just abaft
the foremast, Breeze could make out the several members of the
crew clinging to whatever seemed to promise the greatest safety,
the fife-rail, halyards, or rigging. Away forward, beside the groaning
windlass, was a figure which he knew to be that of the skipper,
crouching, axe in hand, ready to cut the cable.
All this had been taken in at one glance, the next revealed the
cause of the outcry from the watch on deck. A light dead ahead was
bearing swiftly down upon them. It was that of a fishing schooner
torn from her anchorage, and being hurled by the storm giant, like a
bolt of destruction, through the helpless fleet.
During the fearful suspense of the next minute the boy did not
breathe, and his very heart seemed to cease its beating. Twice the
gleaming axe in the skipper’s hand was raised to strike. Each time he
thought of the vessels anchored astern of the Albatross, upon which
she must drive in turn if cut adrift, and the blow was withheld.
Now the threatening light rose high above them, and then it
swooped down and rushed past so close that they could almost have
sprung aboard the drifting schooner. They caught a momentary
glimpse of white faces, heard one wild cry, and felt the dragging of
the broken cable as it was drawn across their own. Then all was
again swallowed up in the furious blackness astern, and for them
that danger was past.
The night was bitterly cold, but the first sensation of which Breeze
was aware, when it was all over, was that of the profuse perspiration
in which he was bathed.
There being no longer any need of their presence on deck, the
members of the crew, after a fresh watch was set, again sought the
shelter of the cabin. Here Breeze was advised to try and get some
more sleep, as it would be his turn to go on watch at four o’clock.
He lay down, but felt as though he should never sleep again; for he
could not close his eyes without seeing, once more, the drifting
phantom of destruction that had just swept past them. He started
fearfully at each lurch of the reeling vessel, and fancied that he
heard cries in the shriek of the blast overhead. Although he dreaded
to go on deck, it seemed as though he should prefer it to remaining
in the cabin, and it was a relief when he was called to go on watch.
The lad’s watchmate was much older than he, a weather-beaten
sailor who had witnessed a hundred such gales, and felt that so long
as the cable held, there was not much to fear. He helped Breeze up
on the foregaff, where he would escape the worst of the great seas
that continually broke over the schooner’s bows, sweeping her from
stem to stern, and bade him keep a sharp lookout from there.
At last, faint and uncertain, the prayed-for, long-deferred, and
anxiously awaited light of day began to creep over the wild scene,
and the white foam-crests stretched away farther and farther. The
snow ceased to fall, and there was some promise of a cessation of
the gale. One of the first things they distinguished in the early light
was the huge dim form of a square-rigged vessel that, under bare
poles, drove past them, less than a quarter of a mile away, and
vanished almost as soon as she was seen. Nothing was said, for only
a shout close to the ear could be heard amid the tumult; but Breeze
shuddered to think how powerless their little schooner would have
been to resist that driving mass had they chanced to lie in its course.
They next saw a schooner plunging at her anchor, a short distance
ahead of them, and noted how she had dragged during the night,
for they had seen her the day before, but then much farther away.
Her anchors had only caught just in time to save both her and them,
and again Breeze realized the narrowness of their escape from the
night’s perils.
As the daylight revealed her sad plight, they turned their attention
to their own craft. The seas no longer broke over her so furiously as
they had, but crushed bulwarks, and the deck swept clear of boat,
gurry-kids, and everything not absolutely built into it told of their
awful force.
All at once Breeze, from his slight elevation, noted a commotion
on the deck of the schooner ahead of them. The men on watch
seemed to be heaving lines at something in the water. It was
evidently drifting past them, and their lines plainly failed to reach it.
They were motioning, as though to attract his attention towards it,
and the thought flashed into his mind that perhaps they had
discovered a survivor of some wreck floating in the angry waters,
and had tried unsuccessfully to save him. He told his companion of
what he had seen, and they both watched eagerly in the hope that if
it was indeed a man he might drift within their reach. They procured
a couple of long light lines, made one end fast, and coiled them
carefully, in readiness to be flung at a moment’s notice.
“I see him!” cried Breeze at length. “There, see! off our port bow;
but he is going to drift clear of us.”
It was the figure of a man, clad in oil-skins, the yellow gleam of
which had caught the boy’s eye as they showed for a moment on
the crest of a wave.
As he came near they saw that he was apparently clinging to the
bottom of an overturned dory. At the same time it was evident that
he was going to drift far beyond their reach, and they doubted if
their lines even could be made to reach him. They shouted again
and again, but he gave no sign of hearing them.
Breeze began to tear off his oil-skins, then his jacket and boots,
and to knot the end of a line about his waist.
“What are you going to do?” shouted his companion. “Not try and
swim to him?”
 “YOU’RE CRAZY, LAD! YOU CAN’T LIVE A MINUTE IN
SUCH A SEA.”

“Yes, I am,” shouted Breeze, in reply. “It would be a pity if the

best swimmer in Gloucester should let a man drown before his eyes
for want of trying to save him.”
“But you’re crazy, lad! You can’t live a minute in such a sea!” and
the man took hold of the boy’s arm to restrain him from the rash
attempt.
With a single violent wrench Breeze freed himself from the other’s
grasp, and just as some of the crew, who had been attracted by the
shouts on deck, came up from the cabin, he plunged headlong into
the raging waters.
 CHAPTER VII.
A STRUGGLE FOR A LIFE.

For half a minute Breeze was lost to the view of those who from
the deck of the schooner watched anxiously to see him emerge from
his brave plunge. They gave a shout as he reappeared. He had only
time to draw in a single breath of air before he was again buried
beneath a huge curling wave that, before it broke, towered many
feet above his head. His comrades were just about to haul him back
by means of the line they were paying out, and the other end of
which was knotted about his waist, when his head was once more
seen above the surface.
This time they were astonished to note what a distance he had
gained, for being many feet under water had not prevented his
swimming sturdily towards the object of his efforts. Now how
gallantly he dashed forward! with what splendid overhand strokes he
took advantage of the few moments of surface-swimming granted
him before he was again swallowed up! He had won many a
swimming-match in both smooth and storm-tossed waters about
Gloucester. He had taken many a header through green walls of
inrushing breakers, but never before had he swam as now; never
before had he struggled for the prize of a human life.
When for the third time he emerged from the suffocating waters,
he saw the yellow-clad form, to gain which he had fought so bravely,
within a few feet of him. With one more desperate effort, for the line
about his waist was now dragging him back almost irresistibly, he
reached it, and grasped the stern becket of the overturned dory.
 Out-stretched upon its flat bottom, with both arms and legs
twined about the life-line,[E] lay the senseless form of a young man,
apparently but little older than the brave swimmer who now tried to
rouse him. It was impossible to do so, and Breeze feared that he
was dead. Without casting loose the line from about his body, he
gathered a bight in it, and made this fast to the becket of the dory.
Then he waved his hand as a signal to those on board the schooner
to pull in.
The strain upon the light line was terrible, and in any other hands
but those of expert fishermen it would have parted a dozen times
before its precious burden was drawn as close as was safe under the
stern of the schooner. Then a second line was thrown to Breeze,
who, nearly exhausted as he was, still found strength to secure it
about the body of the senseless lad beside him. He could not,
however, undo the clutch of the rigid fingers from the life-line, and
for a moment began to despair, even within reach of rescue, of
saving him for whom he had risked so much. But help was at hand,
and it came as he least expected it.
From the schooner’s deck old Mateo had watched the brave
struggles of his boy, as he called him, in an agony of apprehension.
Now, with senses quickened by affection, he was the first to
comprehend the difficulty. Just as Breeze was about to relax his
efforts, feeling that he could do no more, the old cook’s heavy jack-
knife, with the end of a fishing-line attached to the ring in its horn
handle, came flying across the dory, and dropped into the water
beyond it.
Breeze secured it, opened it, and with a last effort cut both ends
of the dory’s life-line, as well as the becket to which he had fastened
himself. Then the knife dropped from his nerveless fingers, and, as
the dory drifted away, two senseless figures were drawn through the
wild waters to the plunging schooner. With a final effort for their
destruction, a huge billow hurled itself bodily upon them, and the
lines had to be slackened for a few moments, or they would have
parted. The limp forms were buried deep beneath the green waters;
but again they were drawn to the surface, and this time they came
within reach of the eagerly out-stretched arms waiting to grasp
them.
The unknown lad was carried into the cabin; while Breeze, claimed
by Mateo, was tenderly taken into the forecastle. There, while two
men stripped and rubbed him, the old cook heated blankets, and
prepared hot stimulants, wailing as he bustled about, “Oh, Breeza!
ma boy, ma boy! You no-a die; you must leeve!”
It was half an hour before their efforts were rewarded by a faint
sigh and a flush of returning color in the livid cheeks. Then the boy
opened his eyes, and gazed about him wonderingly for an instant. A
few minutes later, wrapped in hot blankets, he fell asleep and was
breathing regularly.
Almost the same scene was taking place in the cabin, only there it
was so long before the patient showed the least sign of life that
some of those who worked over him were several times ready to
give up in despair. They were only kept at it by the skipper, who
exclaimed,
“Great Scott, men! it will be a shame if we cannot fetch him to,
after that boy has nearly given his life to save him. I, for one, shall
work over him from now till noon before I will give him up.”
At last he, too, was brought back to the life from which he had so
nearly departed, and by noon, when the sun came out, both patients
were doing finely. Neither of them was allowed to leave his bunk
until the next morning; but they were kept warm, and encouraged to
sleep as much as possible. In their exhausted condition this was
easy to do. So with only one or two awakenings to take the light
nourishment that Mateo prepared for them, by the aid of his never-
failing “lit tin cow,” they slept through the rest of the day and the
whole of the night.
The next morning they awoke, filled with the life and energy that
always wait upon youth and a sound constitution, and almost
inclined to believe their recent adventure to be but a troubled
dream. Only a few bruises, and the marks about their bodies of the
ropes by which they had been drawn aboard the schooner, remained
as traces of what they had undergone.
 The sea had gone down so rapidly the day before that the crew of
the Albatross had been able to resume their fishing by noon, and
had had remarkably good-luck until night. By a mutual agreement,
suggested by the man who had been watchmate with Breeze that
morning, they devoted half an hour to their brave young comrade,
and the entire catch of fish, made during that time, was credited to
him in the ship’s books.
The next morning when Breeze came on deck he saw the skipper
talking to a well-built young stranger, whose naturally ruddy face
had not yet wholly recovered its color. For an instant he wondered
who it could be, and where he had come from. Then it flashed
across him that this was the person whom he had rescued from the
sea; and, not knowing exactly what to do or say, he stood looking at
him curiously.
The young stranger noticing him, said something to the skipper,
who turned quickly and exclaimed,
“Good-morning, Breeze! Why, you are looking as fresh as a daisy.
This is Mr. Wolfe Brady,” he added, indicating the lad who stood
beside him. “Although you two have already been dorymates, he
declares he has never seen you before, and I am certain you have
never been introduced. Mr. Brady, Mr. McCloud.”
In assuming this jesting tone the skipper hoped to put the young
men at their ease, and relieve their first meeting of the
embarrassment they might naturally be expected to feel under the
circumstances.
There was a long, firm hand-clasp between the two who had so
nearly met death together; but for a moment neither of them spoke.
Then Wolfe Brady said,
“They tell me you saved my life, and nearly lost your own in doing
it. I can’t thank you, because I haven’t the gift; but if ever the time
comes when you can use it, I will offer my life to you as freely as
you offered yours for me.”
“Thank you,” answered Breeze, simply. “I am very glad I
succeeded in reaching you; but how did you happen to be afloat on
that dory?”
 THERE WAS A LONG FIRM HAND-CLASP
BETWEEN THEM.

“I hardly know myself. Yesterday morning I belonged to the

trawler Ibis of Boston. Just before daylight, while half the crew, and
I among them, were on deck, we were run down by a large square-
rigger scudding under bare poles. It was so dark that we did not see
her until she was right on top of us, and then, though we cut the
cable, it was too late. She struck us before those below could get on
deck, and crushed the schooner down as though she were a herring-
box. Then I’ve no knowledge of what happened to the others, or
even to myself. I only know that I was under water such a long time
that I wonder I did not stay there. When I came up something was
floating close beside me, and I got hold of it. The rest is a blank.
The next thing I knew, I was lying in a bunk and somebody was
trying to pour something down my throat. Your skipper was just
telling me what a splendid fight you made to get me, and how near
you came to losing the number of your mess, and sending your
vessel home with her flag at half-mast in doing it. I’m awfully
grateful, and I hope some time I may be able to prove it; for I’ve
been a pretty bad lot, and was not ready to go up aloft yet.”
“No,” said Breeze, soberly, “I don’t suppose many of us are.” Then
he asked, “Are you an American?” The other’s name, and a foreign
accent to his speech, led to the question.
“Not yet,” answered Wolfe, smiling, "but I hope to be in two years
more when I come of age. At present I am an Irishman. That is, my
father is Irish, my mother is English, and I was born in England, but
brought up in Queenstown, Ireland, where my parents live, and from
which I ran away to sea about a year ago. Before they were married,
my father was butler and my mother lady’s-maid in the household of
Sir Wolfe Tresmont. That’s where I got my first name. My father is
now a linen-draper in Queenstown, where his best customers are
Americans. I was sent to school in England for four years, but I
hated it, and from seeing and hearing so much of Americans, I had
a great desire to come to this country. Last year my father took me
from school and set me to work in his shop. I hated that worse than
school, and seeing a chance to run away and ship on board a bark
bound for Boston, I took it and came over here.
“By the time I got on this side I had had enough of merchant
sailing; and, as I could not find anything else to do, thought I would
try fishing. Since then I have made two trips, one of four months to
the Newfoundland Banks, and one to George’s before this one. Now
here I am, and you know more about me than I have told to another
living soul since leaving home.”
“Well,” said Breeze, “you know a good deal more about yourself
than I do about myself. I suppose I must have had a real father and
mother, but I never knew them, for I was picked up at sea, floating
in a cask, when I was a baby. I am almost certain I must be an
American, though, for I know I could never love any other country
so well. I’m glad you are going to be one too, as soon as you can.
Don’t you think I look more like an American than anything else?” he
inquired, a little anxiously.
“I don’t know,” replied the other, regarding him attentively. “Yes,
on the whole I think perhaps you do. Still, with light hair and blue
eyes, you know, you might be a Scandinavian, or a Dutchman, or an
Englishman, or a Scotchman, or even an Irishman.”
They both laughed at this, and Breeze said,
“You might as well quote ‘Pinafore’ at once and be done with it.”
So the conversation between the two, which had been rather
constrained at first, became more easy and confidential, until they
found themselves discussing each other’s hopes and plans with the
freedom of old friends.
Every now and then a shadow would sweep over Wolfe’s face, and
he would speak in a lower tone as he thought of the probable fate of
his recent shipmates. Still, as grieving could do neither them nor him
the slightest good, he tried to keep cheerful, by remembering how
marvellously he himself had been spared. He confessed to Breeze
that he had caused his parents much trouble and anxiety, by his
manner of life, both in school and at home, but declared that now
he really meant to turn over a new leaf.
“I’ll begin by writing to my mother as soon as ever we reach port,”
he said, “for it makes me feel ashamed of myself to remember that I
have not sent home a single line since I left there. I do not suppose
they have the slightest idea what has become of me, or whether I
am alive or dead.”
To Breeze, his mother was so near and dear, he had thought of
her and written to her so often even during his short absence from
home, that Wolfe’s account of his own neglect was most surprising.
Still, he did not feel at liberty to express his feelings in the matter,
and only said, “I would, if I were you, by all means; she must be
feeling awfully at not hearing.”
The rest of the schooner’s crew had been hard at work catching
fish since daylight, and during their conversation Breeze and Wolfe
had also been busy with their lines. Several other schooners were
still in sight, though at long distances from them. Most of the fleet
had been scattered far and wide by the gale, which, though short,
had been one of the severest of the season. After it was over many
of the fishing vessels returned to port to refit, while the fate of
others was told by the melancholy signs of wreck and disaster that
every now and then floated past the Albatross. Her skipper knew
that for a time fresh fish would command an extra price in the
Eastern market, and so was anxious to carry in as large a fare as
possible. For this reason, in spite of the damaged condition of his
vessel, he remained on the bank two days longer before getting up
the anchors that had held her so well, and heading for home.
In the mean time tidings of the gale and its destruction of lives
and vessels had reached Gloucester, and had caused the greatest
anxiety there. As one after another of the schooners that had
escaped sailed into the harbor, their crews were eagerly questioned
for news of this one or that one not yet heard from. At last one
came in bringing with her a dory that she had picked up, and on
which was stencilled the name “Albatross.” Her skipper reported that
on the night of the awful storm, during a slight lull, he had caught a
momentary glimpse of two lights. They were so close together that
the vessels bearing them must have been in collision. They bore
from him just as the Albatross had when he last saw her. As he
looked the lights suddenly disappeared, either from the shutting in
again of the snow, or because they had gone to the bottom. Soon
afterwards his own craft had parted her cables, but had managed to
weather the gale, and on the following day he had picked up this
dory. That was all, but it seemed to seal the fate of the schooner,
whose return had until then been watched for so hopefully and so
anxiously.
Mrs. McCloud had made Captain Coffin, who was still at home,
promise to bring her the very first tidings, whether good or bad, that
should come. Now with a heavy heart he walked slowly towards the
little cottage, in which sorrow was becoming so familiar a visitor.
The moment he opened the door, and the anxious loving mother
caught sight of his face, she exclaimed, “He is lost; my boy is lost! I
know he is! I can see it in your face!”
 “You must not give up all hope yet,” said the captain, soothingly,
seeking to comfort her, though he felt that his words would be in
vain. “We do not yet know certainly the fate of the Albatross, though
we have every reason to fear the worst.”
 CHAPTER VIII.
A FALSE FRIEND, AND AN OPEN ENEMY.

All night long the poor mother seemed to hear Captain Coffin’s last
words, “We have every reason to fear the worst,” repeated over and
over; but, as though to comfort her, they were always followed by
the thought, “Nothing certain is yet known.” She always tried to find
a bright side to her troubles, and by looking steadily at it, to forget
that there was any dark side. This plan worked so well now that by
morning she had determined to still hope for the best, instead of
fearing the worst, until something more definite should be known.
This was certainly the wisest thing to do, for more than half of all
our troubles are those we think may come, but which, after all,
never do come; and hoping steadily for the best goes a long way
towards bringing the best to us.
Though all this had nothing to do with bringing Breeze McCloud
home, he came nevertheless. While his mother was busy, with
almost her usual cheerfulness, preparing breakfast, she heard a
joyous shout in the little front yard, the door was burst open, and
the next moment her boy’s arms were thrown about her neck.
The Albatross had made a glorious run home, and passed in by
Eastern Point at sunrise that morning. The moment she was made
fast to her wharf Breeze had jumped into a dory and pulled across
the harbor, so as to be the first to tell his mother of his own arrival.
He could stay to breakfast, but must get back to the schooner as
quickly as possible afterwards, and help discharge the fare of fish
she had brought in. One of the boy’s first questions was,
“Is there any news from father yet, mother?”
 “Not yet,” was the answer; “but I feel certain there will be soon,
and that when it comes it will be good news. How much we shall
have to tell him when he does get home, and how proud he will be
of you!” she added, fondly.
Her faith in her husband’s return was still as strong as ever, and
Breeze had always shared it.
While they were at breakfast there came another shout in the
front yard, the door again opened, and before he got fairly inside,
Captain Coffin exclaimed, “It’s all right, Mrs. McCloud! The Albatross
is in, and Breeze is--”
“Here, and mighty glad to see you, sir!” cried the lad, jumping up
from the table to greet the new-comer.
“Bless my soul!” exclaimed the astonished skipper, shaking Breeze
heartily by the hand, and gazing at him incredulously, “you have
both out-footed and out-pointed me this time. I didn’t suppose the
Albatross was tied up yet, and thought I had at least half an hour’s
start of you.”
The captain sat down to breakfast with them, and between
mouthfuls Breeze tried to give them an outline of his recent
adventures. They were all so excited, and Mrs. McCloud had to jump
up from the table so often to replenish the plates, that she only
received a confused impression that her boy had saved somebody’s
life and caught the biggest fish that ever was seen. This, however,
satisfied her for the present; the details she could learn afterwards.
As soon as breakfast was over, Breeze started back for the
schooner, and Captain Coffin went with him. While they were rowing
across the harbor the latter said,
“I’ve got a new schooner, Breeze, and a finer craft was never built
in Essex. Her name is the Fish-hawk, and she is fitting out for a salt
trip to Grand Bank. Don’t you want to ship on her? I can offer you a
full share now.”
“I don’t know, sir. It seems as though I ought to stay with mother
a few days at any rate.”
“So you can; we sha’n’t get off for a week yet, but I thought I
would speak about it now, so that if you decided to go I could hold
the place for you. Besides, you could put your dunnage right aboard,
which would save you the trouble of carrying it home when the
Albatross hauls out for repairs.”
“All right, sir,” said Breeze; “I should like to go with you better
than with anybody else, and I guess, inside of a week, I can
persuade mother to let me start off again. If you’ve got room for
another, I’d like to speak for a berth for a friend of mine too.”
“Do you mean the one you went dorymate with on George’s the
other day?” asked the captain, laughing.
“Yes, sir. His name is Wolfe Brady, and he has been on one
trawling trip to the Banks already, besides two to George’s.”
“Well, I’ve got about all the men I want, except a cook, and I
don’t suppose he can fill that berth, but I’ll take a look at him, and if
we suit each other perhaps I can make room for him.”
“If you want a cook,” said Breeze, eagerly, “why not try and get
old Mateo? He is the best cook sailing out of Gloucester, and if the
Albatross is going to be laid up for some time, perhaps he will go
with us.”
“I see that you were cut out for a regular shipping agent,” laughed
the captain, “but I’ll get Mateo if I can.”
Everything went well that day. Captain Coffin took a fancy to
Wolfe and offered him a berth on the Fishhawk almost as soon as he
saw him. Wolfe, who was willing to ship for any kind of a trip, was
greatly pleased at the prospect of going with Breeze, and at once
accepted the offer.
Old Mateo, too, who, now that his boy had become a sailor,
seemed to think it his duty to follow and watch over him, was easily
booked as cook of the new schooner.
The big halibut caught by Breeze sold for nearly twenty dollars,
and the boy was handed a check for thirty-four dollars as the result
of his eight days’ trip to George’s. Wolfe was also made happy by
receiving twelve dollars as his share of the three days’ fishing after
he had been picked up.
After getting his check cashed, and repaying what old Mateo had
loaned him, Breeze carried the rest home to his mother. This money,
added to what he had made on the mackerelling trip in the Curlew,
amounted to sixty-five dollars. It would be hard to tell whether he or
his mother was the prouder over this satisfactory result of the boys’
first efforts as a bread-winner.
During the long, happy talk that they had after supper, their one
regret was that the father was not there to share their joy, but they
spoke hopefully of his coming, and the future looked brighter to
them than it had for many a day. Mrs. McCloud was greatly
interested in what Breeze had to tell her of his adventure with the
New York jeweller who had opened the golden ball. They both
examined it minutely, but could discover no joint amid the delicate
tracery of its surface. After it had been again restored to its place,
Mrs. McCloud cautioned the boy to always guard it carefully, as she
felt more than ever certain that some day it would prove of great
value to him.
About eight o’clock Breeze started up, saying that he must go
back to the schooner after Wolfe Brady. He had invited him to come
home to supper and spend the night, but Wolfe had begged for a
little time in which to purchase some very necessary additions to his
scanty wardrobe, and Breeze had promised to meet him on board
the Albatross soon after eight o’clock. Since then he had told his
mother all that he knew of the young stranger, and so excited her
interest in him that she now sent him an invitation to stay with them
as long as he should remain in port.
Kissing his mother good-by, and promising to be back very soon,
Breeze left the house; and taking her sewing, Mrs. McCloud sat
down to await his return.
Neither Wolfe Brady nor anybody else was to be seen on the
Albatross when Breeze reached her. Near by lay the Fish-hawk, to
which he had transferred his dunnage that afternoon, but she too
was deserted. On the opposite side of the wharf lay a shabby-
looking old schooner, named Vixen, on which several men were still
at work, evidently getting her ready for sailing. Breeze asked them if
they had seen anybody answering Wolfe’s description about there
recently.
“Yes,” answered one of them, “I seen a young feller like that
hanging round here ’bout half an hour ago. He came over here and
got talking with Hank Hoffer, one of our men, and they walked off
uptown together. I expect they’ll be back directly.”
“Did you hear them say where they were going?”
“No; seems to me, though, I did hear Hank say something ’bout
Grimes’s. Shouldn’t wonder if they’d gone up there to get a drink.”
Breeze started at the mention of Grimes’s, for he knew it to be
one of the lowest and very worst drinking-dens in the town. Such
places are not permitted by law to exist in Gloucester, but
occasionally they escape the vigilance of the police for a short time,
and in them many a sturdy fisherman is tempted to squander the
money he has risked his life to earn.
Captain McCloud had seen so much of the pitiful misery and
sorrow caused by drink that he had brought Breeze up to regard it
with horror. As soon as the boy was old enough to realize what he
was doing, he had promised his father that, so long as he lived, he
would never touch a drop of any intoxicating liquor. He had never
signed a pledge, nor had his father asked him to; for although
Breeze was slow to make promises, he would as soon cut off his
hand as to break one that he had made, and his father trusted him
implicitly.
Now, although he was neither a prig nor a goody-goody boy it
distressed Breeze to think of any one whom he called friend visiting
Grimes’s. His one hope was that, being a stranger in town, Wolfe did
not know what sort of a place it was, and that he would leave it and
come back as soon as he discovered its character.
In this hope he waited for half an hour longer, and then, as Wolfe
still failed to appear, he determined to go in search of him. He knew
pretty nearly where Grimes’s was, and walked in that direction. Very
soon he saw several men come out from a dark passage-way and
turn down the street, talking and laughing loudly. He followed them
until satisfied that Wolfe was not among them, and then returned
and waited until another party came out from the same passage-
way. His friend did not appear this time, and he felt that he must go
in and either satisfy himself that Wolfe was not there, or persuade
him to come away if he was.
 He walked back and forth several times before he could make up
his mind to go in. At last, feeling that he was acting the part of a
coward, he entered the passage, and finding a closed door at its
farther end, tried to open it. The noise that he made was evidently
heard inside, for a slide in one of the upper panels of the door was
pushed back a few inches, and a bright light flashed full in his face.
“Who are you?” asked a voice through the opening.
“No matter who I am,” replied Breeze. “I come to look for a friend
and I want to be let in.”
“Well, you can’t come in until you’ve told me your name, and
whether you are alone or not.”
“My name is Breeze McCloud, if you must have it, and I am alone,”
answered the boy.
“That’s all right; I recognize you now,” said the voice, and the next
moment the door was thrown open.
Just then two figures came through the dimly lighted hall-way that
the open door disclosed, and in the voice of one of them Breeze
recognized that of Wolfe Brady.
He waited until they got to where he was standing, and then,
taking hold of his friend’s arm, he said, “I’ve been looking for you,
Wolfe, and waiting to take you home with me.”
“Hello, Breeze!” exclaimed the other, huskily; “glad to see you, old
boy. You’re just in time to go back and have a drink with us.”
“No, thank you,” replied Breeze; “I never drink anything. I only
came here to find you, and now I want you to go home with me.”
“Oh, come along in,” said Wolfe’s companion, in a disagreeable
tone. “You ain’t afraid, are you?”
“No,” said Breeze, “I’m not afraid; but now that I’ve found my
friend there’s no reason why I should go in, and I don’t choose to do
so.”
“Well, you needn’t put on any of your high and mighty airs with
me,” exclaimed the other, threateningly. “This gentleman is as much
my friend as he is yours, and I’m going to prove it by taking him
inside again. Come back in, old pard,” he added, grasping Wolfe’s
other arm as he stood balancing himself unsteadily between the
two.
 “No,” said Breeze, decidedly, “he sha’n’t go back;” and with this he
endeavored to pull Wolfe through the still open door-way into the
street.
Here the door-keeper, who had watched the scene impatiently,
interfered, and saying, “I can’t have any disturbance here,
gentlemen; you’ll have to settle this business outside,” assisted
Breeze to such purpose that the next moment all three were in the
street, and the door was closed behind them.
This excited Wolfe’s anger so that he began to kick the door, at
the same time screaming to be let in.
“Oh, come, this won’t do!” exclaimed Wolfe’s companion. “This
racket’ll bring the police down on us in no time. You see now what a
fix you’ve got us into, don’t yer?” he asked, turning to Breeze.
“I see what a fix you’ve got this poor fellow into by bringing him
to such a place,” replied the latter, indignantly, “and I hope you feel
as ashamed of yourself as you ought to be.”
“None of your preaching!” cried the other, fiercely, “or you and I’ll
have a bigger score to settle than we’ve got now. Take hold of him,
can’t you? and let’s get away from here before we get nabbed.”
Together they succeeded in pulling Wolfe from the door, and in
directing his unsteady steps down the street in the direction of the
wharf.
While Breeze was wondering what on earth he should do with his
friend in this wretched condition, Wolfe’s intoxication assumed a new
form, and he began to yell and sing at the top of his voice.
“Stop that noise, or I’ll take you all in,” shouted a gruff voice
behind them.
“Shut up, can’t yer?” exclaimed Wolfe’s companion to him, angrily.
“Don’t you hear the police?”
But Wolfe only yelled the louder, and began to revile the police,
and dare them to come and get him.
“We must cut for it,” said Hank Hoffer, for this was the name of
Wolfe’s companion. “Grab him tight and run him. We’re pretty near
there.”
Almost carrying Wolfe between them, the others hurried him along
at such a pace as to quite take his breath away and put a stop to
any further outcries.
As they reached the wharf Hank said, “Quick, now! let’s get him
aboard this schooner. I belong here, and it’ll be all right. We’ll get
him below, and put him in a bunk, where they’ll never notice him.
Hurry, they’re coming!”
In the excitement of the moment Breeze did not stop to think
whether this was a wise thing to do or not; and, only anxious to
shield his friend from the consequences of his own folly, he blindly
obeyed these instructions.
Wolfe stumbled on the deck of the schooner and fell, striking his
head against the wheel. When they got him below he seemed
stupid, and blood was flowing from a gash on his forehead.
 “QUICK, NOW! LET’S GET HIM ABOARD
THIS SCHOONER.”

Pulling forward a bucket of water, and handing Breeze a rag, Hank

said, “You sponge him off, and keep him quiet while I go on deck
and see whether the police have followed us down here or not.”
Without waiting for an answer, he sprang up the companion-way
and pulled the slide over it. Then he went forward, and began to talk
in a low tone to the skipper of the schooner, who, with several other
men, was on deck. The police had evidently given up the chase
some time before, for none were in sight on the wharf.
What Hank Hoffer said to the skipper was, “I’ve brought you a
couple of first-class hands, and they’re both drunk down in the
cabin; but they’ll be all right to-morrow. They were making such a
racket in the streets that the police gave us a run for it. I’m afraid
they’ll come after us yet; so, as long as we’re all ready, why don’t
you cast off, drop out into the stream, and make a start.”
Now, this skipper was not much liked by those who knew him, nor
was his old schooner a popular boat; so he had found it somewhat
difficult to get a crew for the trip she was about to make to the
Newfoundland Banks. He had, however, succeeded in shipping all
but two of the necessary number, and now that these two had come
aboard of their own free-will, he saw no reason why he should not
take Hank Hoffer’s advice and make a start.
The motion of the schooner was so gentle as she drifted away
from the wharf that Breeze, busily bathing his friend’s head, did not
notice it. When, however, those on deck began to hoist the sails, he
recognized the sound quickly enough, and springing up, tried to
push back the companion-way slide. It was locked. Then he began
to pound on it furiously, and to shout for somebody to come and
unfasten it; but no attention was paid to his outcries.
“It’s only those drunken fellows in the cabin,” explained Hank
Hoffer to the rest of the crew; “they’ll quiet down directly.”
So Breeze McCloud and Wolfe Brady sailed away in the old
schooner Vixen for Grand Bank, while in the little cottage on the
eastern hill an anxious woman sat and waited for their coming.
 CHAPTER IX.
KIDNAPPED.--THE PROMISE.

Finding that no notice was taken of his shouts to be released from

the cabin, Breeze finally sat down on the transom beside the bunk in
which Wolfe was now sleeping heavily, and tried to puzzle out the
meaning of what had taken place. At first he thought it might be a
sort of a practical joke, and perhaps the Vixen was only being
carried out in the bay to get a good position for an early start in the
morning. In that case he did not doubt but he would be allowed to
return to the city when she came to anchor. As time wore on, and
the schooner still continued to move rapidly through the water, even
this hope began to disappear. At last the motion of the vessel
convinced him that she had passed out of the bay, and was now
riding the long, regular swells of the open sea.
He now remembered that the Vixen had been fitting for a trip to
the Grand Bank, and realized that she had really begun the long
voyage that might last for months. If he could only have bidden his
mother good-by, and told her where he was going! Now the thought
of her distress at his unexplained absence completely overcame him.
Throwing himself at full length on the hard transom, he buried his
face in his hands and sobbed as though his heart would break.
Finally, tired out by his long, hard day’s work, his recent excitement,
and the strength of his emotions, he fell into a troubled sleep.
Soon afterwards the companion-way slide was pushed back, and
the skipper, Hank Hoffer, and another man entered the cabin and
tumbled into their bunks, but without waking the prisoners.
“Sleep sound enough, don’t they?” remarked the skipper.
“Yes,” answered Hank Hoffer. “Drunken men always do.”
 It was broad daylight when Breeze awoke, cramped and stiff from
lying so long on the bare boards of the transom. As he sat up and
looked about him, his thoughts were in such confusion that he could
not for a moment recall where he was. Seeing Wolfe Brady asleep in
the bunk beside him brought back the events of the preceding
evening with a rush, and starting up, he went on deck. There a
single glance showed him that they were out of sight of land and
heading to the eastward.
A young man whose face looked somewhat familiar to him was at
the wheel, though he could not recollect where he had seen it.
“Hello!” exclaimed this individual. “Turned out, have yer? Feel any
better than you did last night?”
Breeze started at the sound of the voice. It was that of Wolfe
Brady’s companion of the night before, of whose face he had not at
any time obtained a good view, but whom he now recognized.
“What do you mean,” he asked, stepping up to the young man, “by
playing such a trick on me? How dared you lock us into that cabin
and bring us off in this way?”
“Ho, ho!” laughed the other, “I dare do almost anything. As for
what I meant by it, I told you a while ago that I’d get even with you
for laughing at me when that mackerel seine broke and pitched us
all overboard. I’ve only kept my word.”
Now it flashed across Breeze where he had seen the face before.
It was while on his trip in the Curlew, and this young man had been
one of the crew of the Rockhaven schooner--the one who had
shaken his fist and threatened him for laughing at their ridiculous
mishap.
“I laid up another grudge agin you yesterday,” continued Hank
Hoffer. “When I went to Captain Coffin and asked for a chance on
the Fish-hawk, he said he had just engaged you and your mate, and
didn’t want any more hands. So I had to ship on this old packet.
When I found your mate hanging around alone last evening, I saw a
chance to fix him, and thought I’d get even with you that way. Then
you had to come along, like the greenhorn that you are, and walk
right into the trap too. I tell you what, young feller, you won’t never
gain nothing by running afoul the hawse of Hank Hoffer! So put that
in your pipe and smoke it, and see that you remember it too.”
It was all plain enough to Breeze now, and he turned away angry
and heart-sick, to think that his own carelessness should have led
him into such a predicament. He thought he could not feel any
worse than he did, but a minute later he found himself confronted
by a new trouble, beside which the other became insignificant.
As he re-entered the cabin he found the skipper awake, and at
once began to charge him with having kidnapped them, and to
threaten that if they were not set aboard the first homeward-bound
vessel they met, he would have him arrested the moment they again
reached Gloucester.
The skipper listened to all this in amazement, and when Breeze
had ended said,
“You’d better be careful in your choice of words, my young friend,
or you may get yourself into trouble. I never kidnapped you or
anybody else in my life, and I don’t know what you mean. You came
aboard this vessel of your own free-will just as she was about to
start. Your friend on deck there told me that you wanted to ship with
us for the pleasure of sailing in his company. I took his word for it
instead of talking with you, because you were too drunk to--”
“I drunk!” interrupted Breeze, excitedly. “I never drank a drop of
liquor in my life, and anybody who says I was drunk last night lies;
that’s all.”
“Oh, come now,” said the skipper, beginning to get angry in turn,
“that’s too thin. Didn’t you come stumbling aboard last night as no
sober man would have done? Didn’t you raise particular Cain down
here in the cabin for a while, and then fall into such a heavy sleep
that nothing could wake you from it? Don’t your eyes show that you
have been drinking? Wasn’t the smell of whiskey almost strong
enough to knock a man down when I came into the cabin to turn in,
and nobody’d been here but you and your mate? Besides all this,
didn’t I see you myself hanging round Grimes’s not more than half
an hour before you came aboard? Don’t tell me again you wasn’t
drunk. There’s nothing I despise so much as a sneak that tries to
crawl out of a scrape by lying about it. Now wake up that partner of