Basic Theory and Practical Considerations in a Current Transformer

Mehdi Yahyavi, Farshid Brojeni, Mohammad Vaziri, Member IEEE

Abstract: In this paper, a brief discussion about the theory and II. CURRENT TRANSFORMER IN THEORY
the governing fundamentals of a Current Transformer (CT) is Like any transformer, a CT can be modeled as having
presented. A classical modeling of the CT identifying the primary and secondary windings and a magnetizing core.
essential parameters is introduced and the basic formulas Many CTs of medium and low voltage rating, called
relating the CT voltage, current, burden, and their
relationships have been discussed. Practical procedures for
“Window” type or Bushing type, don’t have a built in
measuring the various burdens connected to a typical primary wiring. Instead, the conductor passing through them
distribution circuits are analyzed. ANSI and IEC standards is considered as the primary winding. As shown in figure-1,
regarding CT types, accuracy class, characteristics, and the primary current “IP” magnetizes the iron core and
burdens are compared. CT saturation has been addressed and induces a transformed voltage “Vs” in the secondary
examples showing simple analyses have been provided. winding of the CT. This voltage produces the “IS” current in
Dynamic characteristics of a CT for generalized transient secondary that is proportional to the primary current “IP” by
analyses have been introduced. Concluding remarks regarding the windings turn ratio as shown by equation 2.1. Turn ratio
practical approximations and guiding principles have been “N” in a bushing type CT equals to the number of turns in
presented.
the secondary winding.
Index terms: Current Transformer, CT, Saturation, ANSI,
IEC, CT Burden, Excitation, Knee Point, Characteristics. IP
N=IP/IS
I. INTRODUCTION IS
Current Transformers have basically extensive use in 1 : N-turns
measuring of the currents in electrical circuits either for
Metering or for Protection applications. M
Like any instrument, a CT involves certain values of error in Vs
measuring of the current. The accuracy class of a CT is B S
R
main parameter to determine the range of error and accuracy
in a CT. In this paper, definitions of accuracy class
according to different standards and the concept of
Composite Error is discussed. Major parameters of the CT
will be discussed in this paper and we will show how the Fig. 1 Current Transformer
accuracy class of the CT is related to the two other main
parameters of the CT: knee point voltage and the burden. The fundamental transformation equation 2.2 relates this
CT performance during normal fault conditions can be voltage to the product of system frequency, transformer
simply analyzed considering the linear region of the CT turns ratio, magnetic field density, and the cross- section of
characteristic. However, this linear region ultimately ends the core.
up to a non-linear region known as saturation region on the IS=IP /N , VS=4.44 F.N.B.S. 10-8 Volts (2.1)
CT curve discriminated by the knee point. A common where:
method to ensure that the CT does not get in saturation is to IP Primary current
calculate the secondary voltage for the maximum fault IS Secondary current
currents considering all the connected burden to the CT, and Vs Secondary Voltage
determine the knee point voltage so that to be above this F System frequency in Hertz
operating voltage. N Number of turns (Turn ratio)
This method of considering steady state component of the B Flux density in Lines per square inch
system can be acceptable in most cases where the time S Core area cross-section in square inch
constant of circuit is relatively small. However, for the There is a limit for the magnetic field density “B” in the
stiffer networks with relatively large time constant and high core due to saturation effects. In normal condition, the
level of fault duties this method may be inadequate because secondary current has a linear relationship with the primary
of the dc offset that trends to saturate the CT within the first current. As the CT moves into saturation, the secondary
few cycles after fault inception. This problem may cause current will no longer have that linear relationship and
miss operation in the protection systems due to type and errors in the CT ratio increase.
connection of the relays. Therefore, The secondary circuit of a CT cannot be opened, due to the
In this paper, we will discuss the practical methods to flashovers caused by the induced voltage appearing across
calculate CT secondary voltage and study the CT the opened CT terminals. The closed CT secondary voltage
performance for the current operating point implying CT “VS” is an essential parameter that provides both the
excitation curve. Finally, we will consider definitions excitation current “IE” required for the magnetizing field,
definition of these parameters due to ANSI/IEEE, IEC and and supports the measuring current “IM” that passes through
the BS standards. meters and relays (Fig. 2).

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 III. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THE CT
The equivalent circuit of a CT is shown in Figure 2, with the d) Calculate the Leadwires Impedance ZL by estimating
following parameters: physical distance between CT and relays, considering the
IP: Primary Current ZCT: CT Winding Impedance conductor size as per approximate formula 3.3 bellow [4]:
IS: Secondary Current ZB: CT Connected Burden ZL=e(0.232G – 2.32) (3.3)
VS: Secondary Voltage ZL: Leads Impedance
In this equation, ZL is the lead impedance in milliohm per
IM: Measuring Current ZR: Relay and Meter Burden
foot, and G is the copper conductor size. For instance,
IE: Excitation Current ZE: Excitation Path Impedance
ZL=e(0.232*12 – 2.32)= 0.0016 ohm/feet for 12AWG, 0.0006
NR: Rated (nominal) Ratio ZT: CT Total Burden
ohm/feet for 8AWG and 0.0003 ohm/feet for 6AWG
NA: Actual (effective) Ratio
conductor.
e) Finally, having total burden ZT and secondary currents
IP IS IM IM, the Secondary Voltage VS maybe calculated from
ZCT ZL
IE equation 3.2 for steady state and transient fault currents.
ZT

ZR
V Despite the fact of the values being vectors, for ease of
ZE

TOTAL BURDEN
N
ZB
CONNECTED
calculations they may be considered as scalars. Also note
BURDEN
that the excitation current maybe determined from the
excitation curve using the calculated value of the secondary
voltage.
Fig. 2 CT Equivalent Circuit
Example 1: Secondary Voltage Calculations
From the equivalent circuit, the following fundamental
A multi-ratio CT with 400, 800, 1200/5 taps is connected on
equations are derived:
in its middle tap 800 to a 3-phase system shown in figure 3.
IM = IS – IE (3.1)
CT is Wye connected at the CT terminals 180 feet far from the
VS= IM ZT (3.2)
relay panel. The connecting leads are 12AWG-Cupper
where: IS= IP / NR , IM= IP / NA ,
conductor. Impedance of the CT Winding is specified as
ZT = ZCT + ZB , ZB = ZL + ZR
0.00155 ohm-per-turn by manufacturer. CT is connected to
Before any estimation on the CT performance, it is required
electromechanical phase and ground relays. Ground relay is
to calculate the secondary voltage of the CT for normal
set at the tap=1 where its setting range is: 0.5-4 and its
operation and fault conditions. The secondary voltage VS
burden at minimum pickup is 4.15ohm. Phase relay is set at
and other parameters can be calculated using the equivalent
the tap=5 where its setting range is: 2.0-16 and its burden at
circuit and the basic equations 3.1 and 3.2 above:
minimum pickup is 0.335ohm.
a) Ignoring the relatively small value of IE , we can
assume IM=~IS and calculate the Secondary Fault Current by ZL ZRP
CT nominal ratio: IS= IP / NR
b) CT Winding Impedance; Considering the relatively ZL ZRP
low reactance, we can approximate ZCT to RCT proportional
ZL ZRP
to the CT ratio. Therefore, winding resistance of the
connected tap can be calculated from secondary ohm/turn
values provided by the CT manufacturer. Note that the
secondary winding is not distributed linearly along the core,
but it can be adequately assumed as linear.
c) CT Connected Burden, ZB is calculated considering the
ZL ZRG
impedances of all relays, meters, and the lead-wire. Table 1
shows some typical burdens to consider for different fault
conditions, where ZRP and ZRG are phase and ground relay
Fig. 3 CT connection in a 3Ph system with single phase fault
impedances respectively.

Table 1: Typical Connection Burdens a) Determine the CT secondary current for a 13120A
CT connection 3Ph or 2Ph Fault Ph-to-Ground Fault Line-to-Ground symmetrical fault:
• NR=800/5 =160 (secondary winding turns)
Wye at CT- terminal ZB = ZL + ZRP ZB = 2ZL + (ZRP + ZRG) • IS ~=IM =IP/N=13150/160=82.2A<100A
Wye at Switchboard ZB = 2ZL + ZRP ZB = 2ZL + (ZRP + ZRG) b) Calculate CT burdens for a 9644A Line-to-Ground
Delta at CT- terminal ZB = 3ZL + 3 ZRP ZB = 2ZL + 2(ZRP + ZRG) symmetrical fault :
• ZCT =160×0.00155=0.25 ohm
Delta at Switchboard ZB = 2ZL + 3ZRP ZB = 2ZL + 2(ZRP + ZRG)
• ZL = 180’×0.0016= 0.29 ohm

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 • ZRG = 4.15×(0.5/1)2=1.04ohm
• ZRP = 0.33×(2/5)2=0.05 ohm In the region beyond the knee point the equivalent
• ZR = ZRG + ZRP = 1.04+0.05 =1.09ohm impedance of the magnetizing path in the CT core ZE is not
• ZB =2ZL + ZR =2×0.29+1.09=1.67 ohm linear and drops significantly. Therefore, in saturation
• ZT =ZCT + ZB =0.25+1.67=1.92 ohm region, higher excitation current is needed to maintain the
voltage produced by the magnetic flux of the iron core, and
c) Determine the CT secondary voltage for this fault: therefore error is increased.
• VS= IM ZT = 82.2×1.92=157.8V
Z CT IE
A
IV. EXITATION CURVE AND THE CT ERRORS Open VS Variable
CT Excitation curve represents the characteristic of a current Primary AC-
V

ZE
transformer. This curve shows a linear region followed by a non- Voltage
linear curved region known as knee point (Fig. 4). Characteristic
of CT beyond the knee point (K) can be approximated by a line,
which crosses the first line at the point K1 near to the knee point.
CT secondary voltage at saturation region VA can be calculated Fig. 5 Test Circuit of the CT
from equation 4.1 below:
4.1 Ratio Error in the CT
VK= ZE × IK , VA= VK + (IA-IK) × ZE/ µr (4.1) Ratio Error in the CT arises from the fact that the measured
secondary current is not exactly proportional to the primary
In these formulas VK and IK are the secondary voltage and
current since a portion of this current (IE) is being used to
current at the knee point, VA and IA are the secondary voltage
produce magnetizing field in the CT core. IE is negligible in
and current of a saturation state beyond the knee point, ZE is the
normal operation. However, the produced error becomes
CT core excitation impedance (ZE= RE +jXE) in it’s non-
more significant near the knee point and beyond as the
saturated state, and ZE/µr determines impedance of the CT core
exciting current increases. This gives rise to the differences
in saturated state where µr is the permeability of the iron core.
between effective ratio NA and rated ratio NR. The Ratio
The excitation curve, depicting condition of CT saturation, is Error ER can be calculated utilizing equations 3.1 and 4.1 as
usually provided by CT manufacturers for different taps, while follows:
the curve represented here shows the CT characteristic at its ER=( NA -NR) / NR
maximum tap. However, such a curve can independently be ER = (IE / IM ) or: ER % = (IE / IM )x100 (4.2)
generated by testing CT in an open circuit configuration as
shown in figure 5. 4.2 Error in different taps of the CT
The error in a CT varies as the CT tap changes within its
According to this curve, the excitation current IE is negligible in
tap range. This variation is inversely proportional to the
the linear operating region and the current IM measured at CT
square of tap ratios. That is, the error of a CT at its middle
secondary is almost equal to the secondary current IS as shown
tap is four times more than its errors in the full tap.
in figure 2. But for the regions beyond the knee point where the
To demonstrate this fact, we can look at secondary voltage
CT goes into saturation, the exciting current increases drastically
Vs in two paths in figure 2, and bring the current ratio in
without an appreciable increase in the voltage.
equation 4.2 as following:
VS
1000
Vs= IM . ZT= IE . ZE => ER =IE / IM= ZT / ZE (4.3)
VA Assuming negligible core resistance, of XE maybe
Excitation Voltage (Secondary Voltage -VS)

K1 A substituted for ZE ;
Vk
K XE= µrN2A/l => ER = ZT / XE= ZT .l / µr A.N2 (4.4)
100 In this formula, ZT is the CT total burden (ZT=ZB+ZCT ), µr
VS
S is permeability of the iron core, A is the effective area cross
section and l effective length of the core in the CT.
All parameters except N in equation 4.4 remain unchanged
10
for a certain burden by changing the CT tap. Hence,
comparing CT error in two taps 1 and 2, we can conclude
that:
1
ER1 / ER2 = (N2 /N1 )2 or:
ER2 = ER1 × (N1 /N2 )2 (4.5)
To estimate the CT accuracy from the excitation curve, one
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
can find the secondary voltage VS at operating point (S)
Exciting Amperes IE
Fig. 4 CT Excitation Curve

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 from the excitation curve for the appropriate tap. If this less than 10%. CT in this case is dimensioned such that the
point is below the knee point, the CT is suitable for that Ratio Error does not exceed a value of 10%, when the
operation. CT may still be acceptable for points above the secondary current range is within 1 to 20 time of nominal
knee point if the Ratio Error calculated from equation 4.2 is current. The accuracy class definition of CX00 (i.e.: C200)
less than pre-determined criteria (i.e. 10% by IEEE criteria). states the secondary terminal voltage that the CT delivers
when it is connected to a standard burden (i.e. 2 ohms) at 20
Example 2: Ratio Error Calculations times rated secondary current (i.e. 100A) without exceeding
In the same circuit as example 1, excitation current IE a 10% Ratio Error. This is also in accordance with IEC.
obtained from the CT characteristic curve is 0.16A at the
connected tap (800/5). b) IEC/BS
These standards are basically similar regarding definition
a) Determine the errors in measuring current and effective for accuracy class. In this respect, IEC60044-1 [2] provides
CT ratio at connected tap: definition for Class-P accuracy that applies for the steady
• ER1 %= IE / IM ×100=(0.16/82.2) x100=0.2% state response of CT. Also BS3938 [3] brings up the Class-
• NA =(ER× NR)+ NR =(0.002×160)+160=160.32 X definition, the main use of which applies to CT
specification for high impedance differential protection
b) Calculate maximum secondary or Saturation voltage application. According to IEC60044-1, the designation of
(VA) beyond that the error will exceed 10%: the CT is done by specifying the maximum error at the rated
• IE-Max= 82.2A × 10%=8.22A current followed by the letter P (which stands for protection)
• VA=160V (Saturation voltage) as well as the accuracy limit factor. That is, CT accuracy
expressed as “xPy” means that the CT may have “x” percent
c) Determine CT error at the full tap (1200/5): error for a secondary current equal to “y” times the rated
• N1 /N2 = 800/1200=0.67 secondary current. For instance, 5P20 refers an accuracy of
• ER2 = ER1×(N1 /N2)2 =0.2%×0.672=0.088~0.1% 5% error for 20 times rated secondary current or 100A
where the nominal secondary rated current is 5A. The
current transformer dimension in this case is selected such
V. CT PARAMETERS PER VARIOUS STANDARDS that it provides a defined accuracy for fault current up to a
threshold current known as Limit Accuracy current “ILA” at
Main performance parameters are accuracy class, knee the rated connected burden. The Accuracy Limit Factor
point, and burden. These parameters are interrelated and “ALF” is expressed as a multiple of the nominal current:
can be obtained from the CT characteristics. Meanwhile, CT ILA = ALF. IN (5.1)
parameters may have different interpretations as defined by
different standards. These differences are basically apparent As per IEC the main parameters of current transformers for
between two families of the American standards the steady state condition are:
(ANSI/IEEE) and European standards (IEC and BS). • Rated CT ratio
• Rated power, the power provided by the CT on the
5.1 Accuracy Class secondary side at rated current and rated burden. Rated
a) ANSI/IEEE burden is not a parameter that IEEE defines as a CT
The ANSI accuracy as classified by ANSI/IEEE C57.13, data; IEEE has standard values for the burden based on
refers to the capability of a CT in producing a certain each accuracy class.
secondary voltage (100, 200, 400 or 800 Volts) without • Accuracy limit factor: 5P or 10P
exceeding 10% Ratio Error. That means, when the CT is • Accuracy limit factor, ALF: e.g. 10, 15 or 20. This
connected to a standard burden (1, 2, 4 or 8 ohm at 0.5 multiple of the rated current, with DC component can
power factor), for a secondary current value of 20 times the be transformed within the defined accuracy, with the
rating (20×5A =100A) the excitation current IE will not connected burden equal to the rated burden.
exceed 10A to produce more than10% error. • Secondary winding resistance: RCT in Ohm.
ANSI accuracy class provides a basis for a rough estimate According to this standard, ALF of the CT only applies
of the CT capability by determining the CT burden and its when the rated burden is connected. If a smaller burden
knee point. For instance, C200 means that the CT nominal is connected, an increased operating ALF will result:
burden (ZBN) is equal to 2 ohm standard impedance, and its P + PN R + RN
ALF ′ = ALF . i = ALF . CT (5.2)
knee point voltage is around 200V at CT’s highest tap. Pi + PB RCT + RB
Thus, if the connected burden is less than 2 ohm then the
operating voltage with a current equal to 20 times rated In these formulas, PN is the Rated CT burden,
current (20X5=100A) will not exceed 200 volts (about the Pi is Internal CT burden due winding resistance:
knee point voltage) and the Ratio Error is guaranteed to be
Pi = RCT .I 22N

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 PB is the Actual connected burden: test Nominal burden of the CT as defined by
PB = R B .I 22N , RB = RL + RR manufacturer should be sufficient and more than
RL is the Burden resistance of the connected cable connected burden of the CT. According to IEC
RR is the Burden resistance of the connected relays. standard, nominal burden is one of the CT design data
and expressed in VA.
5.2 Knee Point
a) ANSI/IEEE It is evident from all these definitions that the accuracy
As per ANSI standard, manufacturer always defines knee class, knee point, and burden of a CT vary linearly by CT
point of the CT based on the highest tap. In this case for ratio. It should be noticed that for the multi ratio CTs, these
instance the knee point voltage of a C400 class CT is about parameters should be considered for each connected tap.
400V at full tap. For the lower taps the knee point voltage
should be proportionally deemed lower than nominal knee Example 3: CT Parameters Calculation
point. In a multi ratio CT, knee point voltage varies almost In the same circuit as examples 1 and 2, if the CT accuracy
linearly to tap ratio. That is, if the knee point voltage for a class is determined as C200 per ANCI/IEEE standards,
CT is 1000 Vat tap 2000/5, it will be 500V for 1000/5 tap. a) Determine accuracy class, knee-point voltage, and the
One method to determine knee point on the curve as nominal burden of the CT for the connected tap 800/5.
described by IEEE –C37.110-2000 refers to the point where • 200 × (800/1200)= 133.3 =>200C Accuracy
the tangent to the curve is at 45o to the abscissa, as shown • VK= 200 × (800/1200)=133.3 V
by K1 in figure 4-b above. Another definition specifies the • ZBN= 2 Ohms × (800/1200)= 1.33 Ohms
knee point as the cross section of continuation of the two
linear parts of the CT curve as shown by K2 in figure 4-b. b) Determine the equivalent class of the full-tap CT as
This definition is more applicable when using equation 4.1 “xPy” as per IEC/BS standards:
to determine parameters of CT characteristics. • x=Ratio Error for 100A current=10
• y=100A/5=20
b) IEC/ BS • Equivalent IEC class= 10P20
These standards define the knee point as the point on the
magnetizing curve where a 10% increase in the voltage c) Determine nominal burden of the CT as “VA” per
corresponds to a 50% increase in the magnetizing current. IEC/BS standards for full-tap:
CT data related to our discussions in this case are as follow: • VANominal= ZBurden×IS2= 2 Ohm ×(5A)2=50VA
• Rated Knee point voltage
• Magnetizing current
• Resistance of the secondary winding. VI. DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC OF THE CT

5.3 Burden The fault current during first few cycles contains both “ac”
a) ANSI/IEEE and “dc” components as illustrated in figure 6. Dc offset as
The Standard burden in “Ohms” refers to the value for shown in this picture is a transient component that instantly
which the voltage generated by 20 times the rated current is makes the fault current asymmetrical and decays over the
below a level where the Ratio Error is within 10%. time [5]. Time constant for this transient is proportional to
IEEE C35.110 defines burden as the property of the circuit the X/R ratio where X is the reactance and R is resistance of
connected to the secondary winding that determines the that primary system at the fault location.
active and reactive power of the secondary terminals. This
burden is expressed either as total Ohmic impedance, or as 2

the total volt-amperes and power factor of the secondary

devices including the leads at the operating frequency [1].
1
Currentt (Per Unit)

b) IEC/BS
IEC60044-1define two different burdens for current 0 dc
ac
ac+dc
transformer:
i) Connected burden that is the sum of all the impedances
-1
(ZB) connected to the terminals of CT.
ii) Nominal burden (as identified by IEC) that is the
maximum connected burden which will not create an -2
overload or temperature rise above the limitations. Time (Cycle)

Nominal Burden of the CT is usually defined by the

Fig. 6 Fault current “ac” and “dc” components
manufacturer and can be verified by temperature rise

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 The ac component of the fault is a symmetrical sinusoidal fault current can potentially rich to X/R+1 times of the ac
current that is restored after the dc component is vanished. fault voltage (I0ZT) where X and R determines system
Using superposition principle, 6.1 and 6.2 maybe written as: parameters at the fault location. In this sense, the knee point
voltage of the selected CT should be X/R+1 times greater
i(t)= Idc + Iac =I0 .e-(R/X) ω t + I0 .Sin(ωt+ Ø) (6.1) than ac component of the fault voltage to avoid CT
v(t)= ZT . I(t)= ZT I0.[e-(R/X) ω t + Sin (ωt+ Ø)] (6.2) saturation. To accommodate this, the CT must have a
substantially increased dimension. If the total fault duration
In these equations, I0 is the pick value of fault current, ω is requires saturation-free transformation, then the CT must be
angular speed (2пf), Ø is the phase-angle, and ZT is the total dimensioned for a maximum flux as identified by this ratio.
CT burden that is: ZT =ZCT + ZB . There are different To design a CT for such a fully offset fault current and
approaches to determine Asymmetrical values of the fault expecting the CT not to enter saturation region for the whole
current. Here, we briefly discuss different methods. period of fault duration, will resulting an extremely large
and expensive CT [5]. If we consider the ratio of saturation
6.1 CT saturation per Flux density increase voltage VA to secondary voltage VS as saturation factor KS,
Flux density is a limiting factor regarding saturation of the its maximum value can be expressed as maximum safety
CT iron core. The induced flux density of the CT (B) is margin for a CT:
proportional to the integral of the secondary voltage across
the magnetizing inductance of the CT: KS-Max= VA-Max /VS= X/R+1 (6.6)
dØ
V = N. , Ø =S.B In reality, X/R ratio in most cases is such a large number
dt (i.e. 10 or more) that it is impractical to use a large enough
Where S is core cross-section and N is the turn ratio, then: size CT proportional to this value. In this case, as
N.S.dB=V.dt and: recommended by IEEE-C37.110-2000, a CT with 50% (or
75%) accuracy class margin can be selected, that is a CT
with the knee point two times larger than the secondary fault
N .S .B = ∫ V (t ).dt = ZT ∫ I (t ).dt or: voltage [2]. This justification is based on the fact that the
ZT asymmetrical current is always lower than two times the

N .S ∫
B= I (t ).dt (6.3) symmetrical fault value.

Now, substituting formulas 6.2 in 6.3, we will have: 6.2 CT saturation per Effective asymmetrical current
t R
⎡ − ω .t ⎤ A less conservative and more practical method is to consider
N .S .B = Z T ∫ I 0 ⎢(e
X
+ Sin(ωt + φ )⎥ dt a 50% margin for the knee point. Here the safety margin is
0 ⎣ ⎦ based on the effective ratio of Asymmetric-to-Symmetric
t values of fault current which is a function of the system X/R
R
⎡ X − X ω .t 1 ⎤
N .S .B = I 0 Z T ⎢− e − Cos(ωt + φ )⎥ ratio at fault location. From figure 6 and equation 6.1 it can
⎣ Rω ω ⎦0 be seen that the value of fault current during the first cycle
t
can be as high as two times the peak value of the steady-
R
X − t state component. The rms or Effective value of current (or
N .S .B.ω = I 0 Z T e X + Cos(ωt + φ ) voltage) is given by:
R 0 (6.4)
T
1 2
T ∫0
This equation shows the voltage induced by magnetic flux I rms = i dt = I = I0 (6.7)
as a function of time that corresponds to the area blow the rms
2
current curve (Fig. 6.1) [4]. Here the CT voltage for
different values of phase-angle Ø gets its maximum where In this formulas “T” is time interval, “i ” is current as a
the exponential part in the equation 6.4 equals to X/R and function of time “t ” and “I0” is the Peak (or amplitude) of
the cosine term equals unity. Hence: sinusoidal current value. Applying 6.7 to 6.1, an rms
equivalent value for asymmetrical fault current “Ґ ” maybe
X
VMax = V0 ( + 1) (6.5) obtained as follows:
R
According to these formulas, the maximum allowable
[ ]
T 2
1
voltage that identifies capability of the CT concerning its I '= I 0e − ( R / X )ω .t + I 0 Sin(ωt + φ ) dt
saturation is proportional to physical parameters of the CT T ∫0
such as turn ratio N, cross section of iron core S, flux I0 then:
I rms =
density B, and the system frequency. Also equation 6.5 2
shows that the maximum voltage induced by dc offset of

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 [ ]
2
⎡
( K S − 1) ⎤
T
2 − ( R / X )ω .t
I' = e + Sin(ωt + φ ) dt (6.8)
Ts = −T1 × ln ⎢1 − ⎥
I rms T ∫0 X
(6.9)
⎢ ⎥
⎣ R ⎦
As this Formula shows, the ratio of effective Asymmetrical- X
to-Symmetrical currents (Ґ / Irms) in a certain period “T” can Where; T1 = and: KS =VA /VS
be determined as a function of “X/R”. In this case, the
ωR
Here, T1 is the primary system time constant and KS is the
plotted function maximized with respect to the phase-angle
saturation factor defined as the ratio of saturation voltage VA
Ø as a parameter will show an S-shape curve as
to excitation voltage IE .ZE that equals to secondary voltage
demonstrated in fig. 7 [7].
VS (see figures 2 and 4). Formula 6.9 indicates that TS in a
Utilizing this experimental curve, one can easily obtain the
CT for any fault will depend on KS. That is, the higher is
maximum asymmetrical value of the fault current for any
secondary voltage VS, the lower will be KS and consequently
X/R value. In this case Ґ / Irms can be used as the minimum
the faster the CT enters into full saturation for a fixed X/R
safety margin to select the appropriate CT. It should be
ratio. On other hand, TS also depends on the time constant
noted that this minimum margin maybe insufficient for
of the system (X/R ratio). Hence, the higher is the X/R ratio,
some case and a more detailed analysis maybe required.
the longer for dc offset to decay, and the faster for the CT to
fully saturate. Time-to-Saturate (TS) in a CT is an important
factor from the perspective of relay operating time. In other
words, when a relay detection time is shorter than the TS of
the CT, the relaying scheme may have enough time to
operate properly. Many of the microprocessor relays are
capable of operating before the saturation time of the CT.

Example 4: CT saturation regarding dc offset Calculation

In the same circuit of the above examples, the X/R ratio of
the system for the same fault is 4.5.
a) Determine the maximum safety margin for a
saturation-free CT due to dc- offset:
• KS-Max =X/R+1=4.5+1=5.5
• VA= KS-Max VS = 5.5×157.8=868V>>200
Fig. 7 Plot of maximum ratio of Ґ / Irms vs. X/R ratio CT to be replaced with a larger one 2000-5, and larger
accuracy C400.
6.3 CT dimension and Time-to-Saturate b) Consider tap 1200/5 and 50% safety margin:
To design for the worst condition, renders an extremely • KS =VA /VS =100/50%=2
large and expensive CT. On the other hand if the CT is • VS2=VS1×(N1 /N2)=157.8(160/240) =105.2
expected to perform accurately up to the instant of tM, then • VA2= KS VS2 = 2×105.2=210.4 >200
t = tM must be applied. tM depends on the design and type of CT to be re-placed with a larger C400.
each relay. The basis for calculating CT dimensions are the
recommendation provided by the manufacturer for each c) Calculate minimum safety margin per effective
relay. asymmetrical fault and determine appropriate CT class:
As we already discussed, the dc component of fault currents • K=IAsym/ISym=1.45 for X/R=4.5 (Fig. 7)
trends to significantly increases the flux in the CT magnetic • Vs1-Asym=VS×K=157.8×1.45 =228.8A>200
core. The CT flux in this case can potentially increase to • Vs2-Asym= 28.8×(800/12000)=192.5A>200
1+X/R times the flux resulting from the sinusoidal or ac CT can be re-tapped to full tap 1200/5.
component.
d) Assuming very high speed microprocessor relays
This can cause a sever CT saturation. However, it takes a with 2ms operating time, determine the appropriate CT
finite time for the magnetic core of the CT to go into full accuracy class for this fault.
saturation. In this respect, the lower the value of X/R at fault • T1=X/Rω=4.5/(2×3.14×60)=0.012
location, the longer it takes for the CT to fully saturate. • KS= VA /VS =315/157.8=2
Time to saturate TS in a CT, as specified in IEEE • TS=-0.012×ln(1-1/4.5)=3.02ms>20ms
publications C37.110-2000 and CH1130-4 PWR, can be Connected tap can be acceptable since the connected
represented as a function of X/R ratio of the primary system relays operate about 1.5 times faster than the time
at fault location expressed as: takes for CT to saturate.

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 VII. CONCLUSIONS Mehdi Yahyavi holds a BS degree in Electrical
Engineering from Tehran University, Iran. Mehdi's work
In this paper, the basic theory governing the operation of a experience covers over 25 years in a wide range of
CT and some practical considerations for selection of a Electrical engineering in different fields of control,
proper CT has been presented. Despite the differences in protection, distribution, transmission, and application
the various standards, the main performance parameters of engineering. He has been working as a Protection Engineer
“Accuracy Class”, “Knee Point”, and “Burden” are for Power System Planning support and strategic direction
considered similarly by all. It has been shown, through for distribution and network products. Mehdi is a registered
several examples that simple models and basic equivalent professional engineer in the state of California and his
circuits maybe used for estimation of the generated research interests rather than electrical engineering are in
secondary voltage, Ratio Error, and address performance the areas of science and mathematics. Mehdi has authored
adequacies of a CT. Although dynamic analysis of the CT and presented several of papers and articles internationally.
performance would require detailed modeling and analyses,
it has been shown that estimated values using X/R ratio may Farshid Vahedian Brojeni, received his BS in
be adequate for most practical situations. For many
Electrical Engineering from University of Tehran, Iran. He
applications, the speed of new microprocessor based relays
may be faster than Time-to-Saturate (TS) ensuring proper has worked as Electrical Engineer and Senior Electrical
operation. Design Engineer for Tavanir, the main Power Generation
and Transmission organization in Tehran. Mr. Brojeni has
also worked as a Senior Consulting electrical engineer for
Siemens and later for the State Of California Department Of
References Transpiration. Mr. Brojeni has authored and presented
[1] IEEE Power System Relaying Committee, Guide for technical papers in Europe, Asia, and US. He is currently
the application of current transformers used for working, as a Senior Protection Engineer at PG&E. Mr.
protective relaying purposes, Sponsor, IEEE /ANSI Brojeni is a registered professional engineer in the State of
C.37.110-2000 California
[2] IEC60044-1 (1996-12) Standard for the steady state
response. Mohammad Vaziri received BS EE- 1980, MS EE -
[3] BS 3938 (1982): Current Transformers 1990, and Ph.D. EE - 2000 degrees form UC, Berkeley,
[4] Jeff Roberts and Stanley E. Zocholl, Setting CTs to CSU, Sacramento, and WSU, Pullman
optimize relay performance, SEL(Schweitzer WA, respectively. He has 18 years of professional
Engineering Laboratories, Inc., ….. Protective Relay experience at PG&E, and CA ISO, and over 12 years of
Conference,….2005. academic experience teaching at CSU Sacramento, and
[5] Sethuraman Ganesan, Selection of current WSU Pullman, has authored and presented technical papers
Transformers & Sizing in Substations, ABB Inc.,….. and courses in US, Mexico, and Europe. He is an active
Protective Relay Conference,….2005. member and serves on various IEEE and other technical
[6] Dr. Gerhard Ziegler, Numerical Differential Protection, committees. Currently, he is a Supervising Protection
Siemens Inc, March 2005 Engineer at PG&E, and a part time faculty at CSU
[7] Cooper Power System, Electrical Distribution System Sacramento and San Francisco. Dr. Vaziri is a registered
Protection Manual (Pages 38-to-42), Cooper professional engineer in the state of California, and his
Industries. research interests are in the areas of Power System Planning
and Protection.

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