Chapter 2: Data Warehousing and

OLAP Technology: An Overview

◼ What is a data warehouse?

◼ A multi-dimensional data model

◼ Data warehouse architecture

◼ Data warehouse implementation

◼ From data warehousing to data mining

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 1

 What is Data Warehouse?
◼ Defined in many different ways, but not rigorously.
◼ A decision support database that is maintained separately from
the organization’s operational database
◼ Support information processing by providing a solid platform of
consolidated, historical data for analysis.
◼ “A data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant,
and nonvolatile collection of data in support of management’s
decision-making process.”—W. H. Inmon
◼ Data warehousing:
◼ The process of constructing and using data warehouses

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 2

 Data Warehouse—Subject-Oriented

◼ Organized around major subjects, such as customer,

product, sales
◼ Focusing on the modeling and analysis of data for
decision makers, not on daily operations or transaction
processing
◼ Provide a simple and concise view around particular
subject issues by excluding data that are not useful in
the decision support process

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 3

 Data Warehouse—Integrated
◼ Constructed by integrating multiple, heterogeneous data
sources
◼ relational databases, flat files, on-line transaction

records
◼ Data cleaning and data integration techniques are
applied.
◼ Ensure consistency in naming conventions, encoding

structures, attribute measures, etc. among different

data sources
◼ E.g., Hotel price: currency, tax, breakfast covered, etc.
◼ When data is moved to the warehouse, it is
converted.

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 4

 Data Warehouse—Time Variant
◼ The time horizon for the data warehouse is significantly
longer than that of operational systems
◼ Operational database: current value data
◼ Data warehouse data: provide information from a
historical perspective (e.g., past 5-10 years)
◼ Every key structure in the data warehouse
◼ Contains an element of time, explicitly or implicitly
◼ But the key of operational data may or may not
contain “time element”

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 5

 Data Warehouse—Nonvolatile
◼ A physically separate store of data transformed from the
operational environment
◼ Operational update of data does not occur in the data
warehouse environment
◼ Does not require transaction processing, recovery,
and concurrency control mechanisms
◼ Requires only two operations in data accessing:
◼ initial loading of data and access of data

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 6

 Data Warehouse vs. Heterogeneous DBMS

◼ Traditional heterogeneous DB integration: A query driven approach

◼ Build wrappers/mediators on top of heterogeneous databases

◼ When a query is posed to a client site, a meta-dictionary is used

to translate the query into queries appropriate for individual
heterogeneous sites involved, and the results are integrated into
a global answer set

◼ Complex information filtering, compete for resources

◼ Data warehouse: update-driven, high performance

◼ Information from heterogeneous sources is integrated in advance

and stored in warehouses for direct query and analysis

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 7

 Data Warehouse vs. Operational DBMS
◼ OLTP (on-line transaction processing)
◼ Major task of traditional relational DBMS
◼ Day-to-day operations: purchasing, inventory, banking,
manufacturing, payroll, registration, accounting, etc.
◼ OLAP (on-line analytical processing)
◼ Major task of data warehouse system
◼ Data analysis and decision making
◼ Distinct features (OLTP vs. OLAP):
◼ User and system orientation: customer vs. market
◼ Data contents: current, detailed vs. historical, consolidated
◼ Database design: ER + application vs. star + subject
◼ View: current, local vs. evolutionary, integrated
◼ Access patterns: update vs. read-only but complex queries
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 8
 OLTP vs. OLAP
OLTP OLAP
users clerk, IT professional knowledge worker
function day to day operations decision support
DB design application-oriented subject-oriented
data current, up-to-date historical,
detailed, flat relational summarized, multidimensional
isolated integrated, consolidated
usage repetitive ad-hoc
access read/write lots of scans
index/hash on prim. key
unit of work short, simple transaction complex query
# records accessed tens millions
#users thousands hundreds
DB size 100MB-GB 100GB-TB
metric transaction throughput query throughput, response

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 9

 Why Separate Data Warehouse?
◼ High performance for both systems
◼ DBMS— tuned for OLTP: access methods, indexing, concurrency
control, recovery
◼ Warehouse—tuned for OLAP: complex OLAP queries,
multidimensional view, consolidation
◼ Different functions and different data:
◼ missing data: Decision support requires historical data which
operational DBs do not typically maintain
◼ data consolidation: DS requires consolidation (aggregation,
summarization) of data from heterogeneous sources
◼ data quality: different sources typically use inconsistent data
representations, codes and formats which have to be reconciled
◼ Note: There are more and more systems which perform OLAP
analysis directly on relational databases
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 10
 Chapter 3: Data Warehousing and
OLAP Technology: An Overview

◼ What is a data warehouse?

◼ A multi-dimensional data model

◼ Data warehouse architecture

◼ Data warehouse implementation

◼ From data warehousing to data mining

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 11

 From Tables and Spreadsheets to Data Cubes
◼ A data warehouse is based on a multidimensional data model which
views data in the form of a data cube
◼ A data cube, such as sales, allows data to be modeled and viewed in
multiple dimensions
◼ Dimension tables, such as item (item_name, brand, type), or
time(day, week, month, quarter, year)
◼ Fact table contains measures (such as dollars_sold) and keys to
each of the related dimension tables
◼ In data warehousing literature, an n-D base cube is called a base
cuboid. The top most 0-D cuboid, which holds the highest-level of
summarization, is called the apex cuboid. The lattice of cuboids
forms a data cube.
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 12
 Cube: A Lattice of Cuboids
all
0-D(apex) cuboid

time item location supplier

1-D cuboids

time,location item,location location,supplier

time,item 2-D cuboids
time,supplier item,supplier

time,location,supplier
3-D cuboids
time,item,location
time,item,supplier item,location,supplier

4-D(base) cuboid
time, item, location, supplier

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 13

 Conceptual Modeling of Data Warehouses

◼ Modeling data warehouses: dimensions & measures

◼ Star schema: A fact table in the middle connected to a
set of dimension tables
◼ Snowflake schema: A refinement of star schema
where some dimensional hierarchy is normalized into a
set of smaller dimension tables, forming a shape
similar to snowflake
◼ Fact constellations: Multiple fact tables share
dimension tables, viewed as a collection of stars,
therefore called galaxy schema or fact constellation

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 14

 Example of Star Schema
time
time_key item
day item_key
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name
month brand
quarter time_key type
year supplier_type
item_key
branch_key
branch location
location_key
branch_key location_key
branch_name units_sold street
branch_type city
dollars_sold state_or_province
country
avg_sales
Measures

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 15

 Example of Snowflake Schema
time
time_key item
day item_key supplier
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name supplier_key
month brand supplier_type
quarter time_key type
year item_key supplier_key

branch_key
branch location
location_key
location_key
branch_key
units_sold street
branch_name
city_key
branch_type
dollars_sold city
city_key
avg_sales city
state_or_province
Measures country

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 16

 Example of Fact Constellation
time
time_key item Shipping Fact Table
day item_key
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name time_key
month brand
quarter time_key type item_key
year supplier_type shipper_key
item_key
branch_key from_location

branch location_key location to_location

branch_key location_key dollars_cost
branch_name
units_sold
street
branch_type dollars_sold city units_shipped
province_or_state
avg_sales country shipper
Measures shipper_key
shipper_name
location_key
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques shipper_type 17
 Cube Definition Syntax (BNF) in DMQL

◼ Cube Definition (Fact Table)

define cube <cube_name> [<dimension_list>]:
<measure_list>
◼ Dimension Definition (Dimension Table)
define dimension <dimension_name> as
(<attribute_or_subdimension_list>)
◼ Special Case (Shared Dimension Tables)
◼ First time as “cube definition”

◼ define dimension <dimension_name> as

<dimension_name_first_time> in cube
<cube_name_first_time>

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 18

 Defining Star Schema in DMQL

define cube sales_star [time, item, branch, location]:

dollars_sold = sum(sales_in_dollars), avg_sales =
avg(sales_in_dollars), units_sold = count(*)
define dimension time as (time_key, day, day_of_week,
month, quarter, year)
define dimension item as (item_key, item_name, brand,
type, supplier_type)
define dimension branch as (branch_key, branch_name,
branch_type)
define dimension location as (location_key, street, city,
province_or_state, country)

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 19

 A Concept Hierarchy: Dimension (location)

all all

region Europe ... North_America

country Germany ... Spain Canada ... Mexico

city Frankfurt ... Vancouver ... Toronto

office L. Chan ... M. Wind

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 20

 View of Warehouses and Hierarchies

Specification of hierarchies
◼ Schema hierarchy
day < {month <
quarter; week} < year
◼ Set_grouping hierarchy
{1..10} < inexpensive

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 21

 Multidimensional Data

◼ Sales volume as a function of product, month,

and region
Dimensions: Product, Location, Time
Hierarchical summarization paths

Industry Region Year

Category Country Quarter

Product

Product City Month Week

Office Day

Month
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 22
 A Sample Data Cube
Total annual sales
Date of TV in U.S.A.
1Qtr 2Qtr 3Qtr 4Qtr sum
TV
PC U.S.A
VCR

Country
sum
Canada

Mexico

sum

All, All, All

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 23
 Cuboids Corresponding to the Cube

all
0-D(apex) cuboid
product date country
1-D cuboids

product,date product,country date, country

2-D cuboids

3-D(base) cuboid
product, date, country

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 24

 Browsing a Data Cube

◼ Visualization
◼ OLAP capabilities
◼ Interactive manipulation
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 25
 Typical OLAP Operations
◼ Roll up (drill-up): summarize data
◼ by climbing up hierarchy or by dimension reduction
◼ Drill down (roll down): reverse of roll-up
◼ from higher level summary to lower level summary or
detailed data, or introducing new dimensions
◼ Slice and dice: project and select
◼ Pivot (rotate):
◼ reorient the cube, visualization, 3D to series of 2D planes
◼ Other operations
◼ drill across: involving (across) more than one fact table
◼ drill through: through the bottom level of the cube to its
back-end relational tables (using SQL)

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 26

Fig. 3.10 Typical OLAP
Operations

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 27

 A Star-Net Query Model
Customer Orders
Shipping Method
Customer
CONTRACTS
AIR-EXPRESS

ORDER
TRUCK
PRODUCT LINE
Time Product
ANNUALY QTRLY DAILY PRODUCT ITEM PRODUCT GROUP
CITY
SALES PERSON
COUNTRY
DISTRICT
REGION
DIVISION
Location Each circle is
called a footprint Promotion Organization
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 28
 Chapter 3: Data Warehousing and
OLAP Technology: An Overview

◼ What is a data warehouse?

◼ A multi-dimensional data model

◼ Data warehouse architecture

◼ Data warehouse implementation

◼ From data warehousing to data mining

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 29

 Design of Data Warehouse: A Business
Analysis Framework
◼ Four views regarding the design of a data warehouse
◼ Top-down view
◼ allows selection of the relevant information necessary for the
data warehouse
◼ Data source view
◼ exposes the information being captured, stored, and
managed by operational systems
◼ Data warehouse view
◼ consists of fact tables and dimension tables
◼ Business query view
◼ sees the perspectives of data in the warehouse from the view
of end-user
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 30
 Data Warehouse Design Process
◼ Top-down, bottom-up approaches or a combination of both
◼ Top-down: Starts with overall design and planning (mature)
◼ Bottom-up: Starts with experiments and prototypes (rapid)
◼ From software engineering point of view
◼ Waterfall: structured and systematic analysis at each step before
proceeding to the next
◼ Spiral: rapid generation of increasingly functional systems, short
turn around time, quick turn around
◼ Typical data warehouse design process
◼ Choose a business process to model, e.g., orders, invoices, etc.
◼ Choose the grain (atomic level of data) of the business process
◼ Choose the dimensions that will apply to each fact table record
◼ Choose the measure that will populate each fact table record
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 31
 Data Warehouse: A Multi-Tiered Architecture

Monitor
& OLAP Server
Other Metadata
sources Integrator

Analysis
Operational Extract Query
DBs Transform Data Serve Reports
Load
Refresh
Warehouse Data mining

Data Marts

Data Sources Data Storage OLAP Engine Front-End Tools

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 32
 Three Data Warehouse Models
◼ Enterprise warehouse
◼ collects all of the information about subjects spanning

the entire organization

◼ Data Mart
◼ a subset of corporate-wide data that is of value to a

specific groups of users. Its scope is confined to

specific, selected groups, such as marketing data mart
◼ Independent vs. dependent (directly from warehouse) data mart
◼ Virtual warehouse
◼ A set of views over operational databases

◼ Only some of the possible summary views may be

materialized
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 33
 Data Warehouse Development:
A Recommended Approach
Multi-Tier Data
Warehouse
Distributed
Data Marts

Enterprise
Data Data
Mart Mart Data
Warehouse

Model refinement Model refinement

Define a high-level corporate data model

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 34
 Data Warehouse Back-End Tools and Utilities
◼ Data extraction
◼ get data from multiple, heterogeneous, and external
sources
◼ Data cleaning
◼ detect errors in the data and rectify them when possible

◼ Data transformation
◼ convert data from legacy or host format to warehouse
format
◼ Load
◼ sort, summarize, consolidate, compute views, check
integrity, and build indicies and partitions
◼ Refresh
◼ propagate the updates from the data sources to the
warehouse
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 35
 Metadata Repository
◼ Meta data is the data defining warehouse objects. It stores:
◼ Description of the structure of the data warehouse
◼ schema, view, dimensions, hierarchies, derived data defn, data
mart locations and contents
◼ Operational meta-data
◼ data lineage (history of migrated data and transformation path),
currency of data (active, archived, or purged), monitoring
information (warehouse usage statistics, error reports, audit trails)
◼ The algorithms used for summarization
◼ The mapping from operational environment to the data warehouse
◼ Data related to system performance
◼ warehouse schema, view and derived data definitions

◼ Business data
◼ business terms and definitions, ownership of data, charging policies
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 36
 OLAP Server Architectures
◼ Relational OLAP (ROLAP)
◼ Use relational or extended-relational DBMS to store and manage
warehouse data and OLAP middle ware
◼ Include optimization of DBMS backend, implementation of
aggregation navigation logic, and additional tools and services
◼ Greater scalability
◼ Multidimensional OLAP (MOLAP)
◼ Sparse array-based multidimensional storage engine
◼ Fast indexing to pre-computed summarized data
◼ Hybrid OLAP (HOLAP) (e.g., Microsoft SQLServer)
◼ Flexibility, e.g., low level: relational, high-level: array
◼ Specialized SQL servers (e.g., Redbricks)
◼ Specialized support for SQL queries over star/snowflake schemas
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 37
 Chapter 3: Data Warehousing and
OLAP Technology: An Overview

◼ What is a data warehouse?

◼ A multi-dimensional data model

◼ Data warehouse architecture

◼ Data warehouse implementation

◼ From data warehousing to data mining

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 38

 Efficient Data Cube Computation

◼ Data cube can be viewed as a lattice of cuboids

◼ The bottom-most cuboid is the base cuboid
◼ The top-most cuboid (apex) contains only one cell
◼ How many cuboids in an n-dimensional cube with L
levels? n
T =  ( Li +1)
i =1
◼ Materialization of data cube
◼ Materialize every (cuboid) (full materialization), none
(no materialization), or some (partial materialization)
◼ Selection of which cuboids to materialize
◼ Based on size, sharing, access frequency, etc.
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 39
 Cube Operation

◼ Cube definition and computation in DMQL

define cube sales[item, city, year]: sum(sales_in_dollars)
compute cube sales
◼ Transform it into a SQL-like language (with a new operator
cube by, introduced by Gray et al.’96) ()
SELECT item, city, year, SUM (amount)
FROM SALES (city) (item) (year)

CUBE BY item, city, year

◼ Need compute the following Group-Bys
(city, item) (city, year) (item, year)
(date, product, customer),
(date,product),(date, customer), (product, customer),
(date), (product), (customer) (city, item, year)
()
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 40
 Iceberg Cube
◼ Computing only the cuboid cells whose
count or other aggregates satisfying the
condition like
HAVING COUNT(*) >= minsup
◼ Motivation
◼ Only a small portion of cube cells may be “above the

water’’ in a sparse cube

◼ Only calculate “interesting” cells—data above certain

threshold
◼ Avoid explosive growth of the cube

◼ Suppose 100 dimensions, only 1 base cell. How many

aggregate cells if count >= 1? What about count >= 2?
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 41
 Indexing OLAP Data: Bitmap Index
◼ Index on a particular column
◼ Each value in the column has a bit vector: bit-op is fast
◼ The length of the bit vector: # of records in the base table
◼ The i-th bit is set if the i-th row of the base table has the value for
the indexed column
◼ not suitable for high cardinality domains

Base table Index on Region Index on Type

Cust Region Type RecIDAsia Europe America RecID Retail Dealer
C1 Asia Retail 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
C2 Europe Dealer 2 0 1 0 2 0 1
C3 Asia Dealer 3 1 0 0 3 0 1
C4 America Retail 4 0 0 1 4 1 0
C5 Europe Dealer 5 0 1 0 5 0 1
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 42
 Indexing OLAP Data: Join Indices
◼ Join index: JI(R-id, S-id) where R (R-id, …)  S
(S-id, …)
◼ Traditional indices map the values to a list of
record ids
◼ It materializes relational join in JI file and

speeds up relational join

◼ In data warehouses, join index relates the values
of the dimensions of a start schema to rows in
the fact table.
◼ E.g. fact table: Sales and two dimensions city

and product
◼ A join index on city maintains for each

distinct city a list of R-IDs of the tuples

recording the Sales in the city
◼ Join indices can span multiple dimensions

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 43

 Efficient Processing OLAP Queries
◼ Determine which operations should be performed on the available cuboids
◼ Transform drill, roll, etc. into corresponding SQL and/or OLAP operations,
e.g., dice = selection + projection
◼ Determine which materialized cuboid(s) should be selected for OLAP op.
◼ Let the query to be processed be on {brand, province_or_state} with the
condition “year = 2004”, and there are 4 materialized cuboids available:
1) {year, item_name, city}
2) {year, brand, country}
3) {year, brand, province_or_state}
4) {item_name, province_or_state} where year = 2004
Which should be selected to process the query?
◼ Explore indexing structures and compressed vs. dense array structs in MOLAP
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 44
 Chapter 3: Data Warehousing and
OLAP Technology: An Overview

◼ What is a data warehouse?

◼ A multi-dimensional data model

◼ Data warehouse architecture

◼ Data warehouse implementation

◼ From data warehousing to data mining

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 45

 Data Warehouse Usage
◼ Three kinds of data warehouse applications
◼ Information processing
◼ supports querying, basic statistical analysis, and reporting
using crosstabs, tables, charts and graphs
◼ Analytical processing
◼ multidimensional analysis of data warehouse data
◼ supports basic OLAP operations, slice-dice, drilling, pivoting
◼ Data mining
◼ knowledge discovery from hidden patterns
◼ supports associations, constructing analytical models,
performing classification and prediction, and presenting the
mining results using visualization tools

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 46

 From On-Line Analytical Processing (OLAP)
to On Line Analytical Mining (OLAM)
◼ Why online analytical mining?
◼ High quality of data in data warehouses

◼ DW contains integrated, consistent, cleaned data

◼ Available information processing structure surrounding

data warehouses
◼ ODBC, OLEDB, Web accessing, service facilities,

reporting and OLAP tools

◼ OLAP-based exploratory data analysis

◼ Mining with drilling, dicing, pivoting, etc.

◼ On-line selection of data mining functions

◼ Integration and swapping of multiple mining

functions, algorithms, and tasks

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 47
 An OLAM System Architecture
Mining query Mining result Layer4
User Interface
User GUI API
Layer3
OLAM OLAP
Engine Engine OLAP/OLAM

Data Cube API

Layer2
MDDB
MDDB
Meta Data

Filtering&Integration Database API Filtering

Layer1
Data cleaning Data
Databases Data
Data integration Warehouse Repository
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 48
 Chapter 3: Data Warehousing and
OLAP Technology: An Overview
◼ What is a data warehouse?

◼ A multi-dimensional data model

◼ Data warehouse architecture

◼ Data warehouse implementation

◼ From data warehousing to data mining

◼ Summary
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 49
 Summary: Data Warehouse and OLAP Technology

◼ Why data warehousing?

◼ A multi-dimensional model of a data warehouse
◼ Star schema, snowflake schema, fact constellations
◼ A data cube consists of dimensions & measures
◼ OLAP operations: drilling, rolling, slicing, dicing and pivoting
◼ Data warehouse architecture
◼ OLAP servers: ROLAP, MOLAP, HOLAP
◼ Efficient computation of data cubes
◼ Partial vs. full vs. no materialization
◼ Indexing OALP data: Bitmap index and join index
◼ OLAP query processing
◼ From OLAP to OLAM (on-line analytical mining)

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 50

 References (I)
◼ S. Agarwal, R. Agrawal, P. M. Deshpande, A. Gupta, J. F. Naughton, R. Ramakrishnan,
and S. Sarawagi. On the computation of multidimensional aggregates. VLDB’96
◼ D. Agrawal, A. E. Abbadi, A. Singh, and T. Yurek. Efficient view maintenance in data
warehouses. SIGMOD’97
◼ R. Agrawal, A. Gupta, and S. Sarawagi. Modeling multidimensional databases. ICDE’97
◼ S. Chaudhuri and U. Dayal. An overview of data warehousing and OLAP technology.
ACM SIGMOD Record, 26:65-74, 1997
◼ E. F. Codd, S. B. Codd, and C. T. Salley. Beyond decision support. Computer World, 27,
July 1993.
◼ J. Gray, et al. Data cube: A relational aggregation operator generalizing group-by,
cross-tab and sub-totals. Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, 1:29-54, 1997.
◼ A. Gupta and I. S. Mumick. Materialized Views: Techniques, Implementations, and
Applications. MIT Press, 1999.
◼ J. Han. Towards on-line analytical mining in large databases. ACM SIGMOD Record,
27:97-107, 1998.
◼ V. Harinarayan, A. Rajaraman, and J. D. Ullman. Implementing data cubes efficiently.
SIGMOD’96

July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 51

 References (II)
◼ C. Imhoff, N. Galemmo, and J. G. Geiger. Mastering Data Warehouse Design: Relational
and Dimensional Techniques. John Wiley, 2003
◼ W. H. Inmon. Building the Data Warehouse. John Wiley, 1996
◼ R. Kimball and M. Ross. The Data Warehouse Toolkit: The Complete Guide to
Dimensional Modeling. 2ed. John Wiley, 2002
◼ P. O'Neil and D. Quass. Improved query performance with variant indexes. SIGMOD'97
◼ Microsoft. OLEDB for OLAP programmer's reference version 1.0. In
http://www.microsoft.com/data/oledb/olap, 1998
◼ A. Shoshani. OLAP and statistical databases: Similarities and differences. PODS’00.
◼ S. Sarawagi and M. Stonebraker. Efficient organization of large multidimensional arrays.
ICDE'94
◼ OLAP council. MDAPI specification version 2.0. In
http://www.olapcouncil.org/research/apily.htm, 1998
◼ E. Thomsen. OLAP Solutions: Building Multidimensional Information Systems. John Wiley,
1997
◼ P. Valduriez. Join indices. ACM Trans. Database Systems, 12:218-246, 1987.
◼ J. Widom. Research problems in data warehousing. CIKM’95.
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 52
July 31, 2023 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 53