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Introducing English Syntax

Introducing English Syntax provides a basic introduction to syntax for students

studying English as a foreign language at university. Examining English phrase
and sentence structure from a descriptive point of view, this book develops
the reader’s understanding of the characteristic features of English sentence
construction and provides the necessary theoretical apparatus for engaging
with the language.
Key features include:

•• A unique framework combining theoretical and practical approaches to

provide an insight into the intricacies of English syntax;
•• An accessible and clear style which guides the learner through analysis,
application and practical construction of sentences;
•• A range of exercises at the end of each chapter and a brand new e-resource
housing answers and commentaries to these exercises.

This book requires no previous knowledge of linguistics and is essential reading

for students and teachers of applied linguistics and EFL/ESL, as well as those who
seek a basic grounding in English sentence structure.

Peter Fenn is a lecturer in English language and linguistics at the Ludwigsburg

University of Education, Germany.

Götz Schwab is Professor of Applied Linguistics and EFL teaching methodology

at Karlsruhe University of Education, Germany.
Introducing English Syntax
A Basic Guide for Students of English

Peter Fenn and Götz Schwab

First published 2018
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
 2018 Peter Fenn and Götz Schwab
The right of Peter Fenn and Götz Schwab to be identified as authors of
this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections
77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other
means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Fenn, Peter, author. | Schwab, Götz, author.
Title: Introducing English syntax : a basic guide for students of English /
by Peter Fenn and Götz Schwab.
Description: Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY :
Routledge, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017027525| ISBN 9781138037489
(hardback : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781138037496 (pbk. : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781315148434 (e-book)
Subjects: LCSH: English language—Syntax—Study and teaching. |
English language—Syntax—Problems, exercises, etc. | English
language—Textbooks for foreign speakers.
Classification: LCC PE1375 .F46 2017 | DDC 428.2/4—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017027525

ISBN: 978-1-138-03748-9 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-03749-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-14843-4 (ebk)

Typeset in Goudy
by Swales & Willis Ltd, Exeter, Devon, UK

Visit the eResource: www.routledge.com/9781138037496

Contents

List of symbols and abbreviations viii

Introduction 1
0.1 Who this book is for 1
0.2 What this book does 1
0.3 What is syntax? 3
0.4 The role of meaning 4
0.5 The connection to language teaching and training 5

1 Basic elements of grammatical structure 6

1.0 Structure 6
1.1 What are word-classes or ‘parts of speech’? 6
1.2 The phrase 8
1.3 What word-classes are there, and what are their characteristic
features? 10
1.4 Phrase, clause and sentence 28
Exercises 32

2 The simple sentence and its grammatical functions 34

2.0 Structure and function 34
2.1 Sentence functions explained 35
2.2 Verb complementation 43
2.3 Functions in the sentence 44
Exercises 48

3 Structural variations of the simple sentence and

functional consequences 50
3.0 Basic sentence operations 50
3.1 Questions (the interrogative) 50
3.2 Voice: active to passive 54
vi Contents
3.3 Negation 57
3.4 Commands (the imperative) 60
Exercises 62

4 Phrases and their structure (I) 64

4.0 Phrases 64
4.1 The noun phrase 64
4.2 The prepositional phrase 79
4.3 The adjective phrase 82
4.4 The adverb phrase 87
Exercises 94

5 Phrases and their structure (II) 96

5.1 The verb phrase 96
5.2 Effects of negative, interrogative and passive on the verb phrase 103
5.3 Auxiliary pro-forms 107
5.4 Two- and three-part verbs 108
Exercises 120

6 The multiple sentence 122

6.1 Co-ordination 122
6.2 Further aspects of co-ordination 123
6.3 Subordination 127
6.4 Subordination without conjunctions 138
Exercises 139

7 Non-finite clauses in the complex sentence (I): the infinitive 141

7.0 Non-finite clauses 141
7.1 The infinitive clause 141
7.2 The infinitive clause as verb complementation 143
7.3 The subject of an infinitive clause 146
7.4 Some special cases in complementation by infinitive clause 149
7.5 The infinitive clause as subject 152
7.6 Semantics: implicative meanings of catenatives with infinitives 154
7.7 Tense and aspect 155
Exercises 158

8 Non-finite clauses in the complex sentence (II): the gerund 161

8.0 The gerund 161
8.1 The gerund clause 162
 Contents vii
8.2 The semantics of the gerund 167
8.3 The gerund clause as catenative complementation 169
8.4 Questions of tense and aspect 181
8.5 The action nominal 184
Exercises 186

9 Non-finite clauses in the complex sentence (III): the participles 188

9.0 The participles 188
9.1 The present participle and its clause 189
9.2 The past participle and its clause 201
Exercises 207

10 The complex phrase (I): the complex noun phrase 209

10.0 The complex phrase 209
10.1 Postmodifiers: the relative clause 211
10.2 Postmodifiers: other structures as reduced relative clauses 221
10.3 Postmodifiers: apposition 224
Exercises 228

11 The complex phrase (II): complex prepositional and

adjective phrases 231
11.0 Complex prepositional and adjective phrases 231
11.1 The complex prepositional phrase 232
11.2 The complex adjective phrase 234
Exercises 244

12 Selected clause constructions 246

12.0 Return to sentence-level: particular clause constructions 246
12.1 Extraposition 246
12.2 False subject constructions 248
12.3 Existential sentences 251
12.4 Cleft sentences 253
12.5 Nominal relative clauses 255
12.6 Interrogative clauses 258
Exercises 259

Bibliography 261
Index 262
Symbols and abbreviations

Symbols
[ ] square brackets are used to indicate a subordinate clause at
sentence level.
/ / slants are used to show subordinate clauses inside phrases (i.e. at
phrase level).
Ø indicates omission of a certain element.
indicates that the particular unit could be analysed further.
arrows indicate a general connection between two items (as
discussed in the accompanying text).
a kinked left-pointing arrow indicates the relation of a clause inside
a phrase to the head of the phrase.
» indicates a relation of presupposition between two elements.
→ indicates an implicative relation between two elements.
→ indicates the negation or destruction of a former implicative relation.

Sentence function
S Subject
P Predicator
Oi Indirect object
Od Direct object
A Adverbial
Cs Subject complement
Co Object complement
 Symbols and abbreviations ix
Other abbreviations
ELT English Language Teaching
EFL English as a Foreign Language
ESL English as a Second Language

Reference abbreviations
LGSWE Biber, D. et al. (1999). The Longman Grammar of Spoken and
Written English. Harlow: Longman.
Fenn, P. (2010). A Student Advanced Grammar of English.
SAGE 
Tübingen: Narr Francke Attempto.
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Introduction

0.1 Who this book is for

This book is intended for both teachers and learners of English. Though
primarily aimed at non-native speakers, it will be of interest also to native
speakers who are professionally involved in the ELT field or in general linguis-
tics, and to those who simply wish for an overview of the central characteristics
of English phrase and sentence structure. It is not a practical grammar, though
it does give advice to the learner on various points of difficulty in using the
language. The book is oriented to a general international readership within
an applied linguistics and ELT framework. The core material was developed
within the European context of higher education with special emphasis on
language teacher training. Though it deals with many basic issues and concepts
‘bottom up’, the book is aimed at the intermediate and advanced student in
university training, as well as at the practising teacher.
It can be used:

•• as a textbook for seminars in syntax and linguistics;

•• as a reference work;
•• as a self-study course;
•• to supplement existing practical courses in English grammar;
•• as a first introduction to fields of language dealt with more theoretically in
model-based linguistic studies (such as generative grammar);
•• for purposes of general reading on the nature and character of English.

No previous knowledge of linguistics is necessary.

0.2 What this book does

The book examines English phrase and sentence structure from a descriptive point
of view. The object of study, that is, is the language itself and its central syntac-
tic characteristics, in particular as far as they potentially affect language-learning
processes. In other words the treatment here is applied linguistic in nature, and
is not intended as a contribution (nor indeed as opposition) to any particular
2 Introduction
theoretical model of syntax (for example, transformational-generative grammar,
the Minimalist Program, the Lexical-Functional Approach, Generalised Phrase
Structure Grammar, cognitive linguistic approaches, construction grammar, etc.).
Nevertheless, the approach does have certain theoretical points of origin and pre-
supposes one or two basic principles that need mentioning briefly. These are set
out below, together with other goals we are pursuing and aspects of content that
are dealt with.

•• The type of analysis used here is what we call structural-functional, since

it takes as a starting point the two parallel levels of grammar and language
function, i.e. the systematic relations between form and meaning within a
sentence.
It is based on concepts that are traditional in talking about language, such
as word-classes and functional roles. However, they are more clearly defined
and more consistently applied here than in many traditional treatments.
•• Essentially, the ‘system’ is based in its modern form on that used by Quirk,
Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik in their epoch-making descriptive work A
Grammar of Contemporary English (1972) and its various sequel publications,
in particular A University Grammar of English (1973). It is further developed,
analysed and refined in Fenn, A Student´s Advanced Grammar of English
(SAGE) (2010), but is presented here for the first time in a specific intro-
duction to syntax. The latter was used as a reference source whenever it was
felt that detailed information might be necessary. Further reference is made
in the text to another standard grammar of English based on Quirk et al.
(1972), The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (LGSWE) by
Biber et al. (1999). Rooted in corpus linguistics, this provides further infor-
mation on the use and scope of a wide range of grammatical phenomena
discussed here.
•• The theoretical approach to sentence functions is in principle semantic.
It is rooted in the conception of real-world ‘roles’ in events, such as agent,
patient, recipient, etc. and regards these as reflected in functions like subject
and object.
•• Besides providing the reader with a solid basis for analysing and categoris-
ing sentences and their parts, the book also aims to give both practical
and theoretical insight into many of the key structures (e.g. non-finite
verb forms) which influence sentence and clause patterns in English. It
thereby contributes significantly to the furtherance of high-level language
awareness in the learner.
•• There is thorough definition and explanation of standard concepts used in
talking about syntax, and of the principles of their application. Exercises are
provided at the ends of sections or chapters.
•• Although we do not distinguish between written and oral codes in detail, we
do in places take into account the fact that oral communication has to some
extent its own grammatical features (Biber et al. 1999, 2002), which can
deviate from standard written forms of the language.
 Introduction 3
•• The book has a definite, though flexible, course structure. Chapters 1, 2
and 3 address the basic questions of form and function in grammar, so that
the reader can quickly grasp the rudiments of sentence-functional analysis
and apply them to simple sentences. Not until after this do we go into the
details of phrase structure (Chapters 4 and 5), which we conceive of as a
second level of analysis below that of the sentence. The reader now has
all the tools required for the analysis of simple sentences and the phrases
composing them. In Chapter 6 we return to the functional level of the
sentence, expanding the object of analysis from the simple to the complex
sentence, and dealing with the issues of co-ordination and subordination
at sentence level. Chapters 7, 8 and 9 address themselves to non-finite
clauses, and Chapters 10 and 11 look at complex phrases. In Chapter 12,
finally, we focus on specific kinds of clause and sentence construction.

0.3 What is syntax?

Syntax describes how words ‘hang together’: that is, the rules and principles
that underlie their combination in sentences and phrases. First of all, as a field,
syntax should be seen together with its ‘neighbours’ in language studies: mor-
phology and semantics. And also, to add two more to those, with phonetics and
phonology, which examine the sounds of speech. These are the different areas
of study in the scientific examination of language and languages. But the terms
also mean the characteristics of language itself, both generally and specifically.
For instance, we can talk about the phonetics of English (in other words, the
kinds of speech sounds used), or the semantics of a particular phrase or sentence
(i.e. its meaning), or the morphology of this or that individual word: that is, its
grammatical form.
These, then, are the different ‘departments’ of language and language study,
and syntax is one of them.
Syntax has an especially close relationship to morphology. Both these fields
concern rules about forms and structures. Together, they make up the larger area
that we normally call grammar. Grammar therefore has two major components:
the grammar of individual words (morphology) and the grammar of joining them
into larger units like sentences (syntax). For illustration let us apply the two fields
to a sentence example:

(1) Amy enjoys watching sad films.

Picking out examples of ‘grammar’ here we can say, for instance, that the verb
enjoy has the third person singular ending, the verb watch is in the gerund, and
the noun films is in the plural. What we have now described is the morphology
of those words, i.e. the particular grammatical form in which they appear in this
sentence. Morphology, then, is what we might call word grammar. But the sen-
tence does not consist of just isolated words, of course. In every sentence there
is a grammatical relationship between the different words. This second level of
4 Introduction
grammar (‘beyond the word’) is what we call syntax. When we say, for example,
that Amy is the subject of the sentence, watching sad films is the direct object
of enjoys and sad films is the direct object of watching, then we are referring to
the grammatical level of syntax. Other syntactic points we might observe could
concern word order: this type of sentence conveys a statement (in contrast, for
instance, to a question) and therefore has to have declarative word order, with
the subject Amy in front of its verb enjoys. Another point is that here the adjec-
tive sad has to precede the noun that it describes. And so on.
What must also be taken into account is the connection between syntax and
morphology: the grammatical form of a word often depends on its relationship
to other words. The reason for the third person singular -s-ending on the verb
enjoy, for example, is that it has to agree grammatically with its subject Amy, a
noun that also has the morpho-semantic characteristic of third person singular.
Or take the gerund form of watching. This is triggered by the verb enjoy in front
of it. With some other verb, e.g. want, we would need an infinitive, i.e. a differ-
ent morphological form of watch:

(2) Amy wants to watch sad films.

The syntax of a sentence, then, can affect the morphology of the individual
words. On the other hand, the morphology of the words often tells us some-
thing about their actual or possible syntactic relationships to other words in the
same sentence. When we look at enjoys, say, we know that it has to have a third
person singular noun as subject before it. A clause with a gerund verb, like watch-
ing sad films, is a typical direct object. Other possible positions would be as subject
(Watching sad films is Amy´s favourite hobby), or following a preposition (Amy is
always for watching sad films). The morphology of a word can therefore indicate its
syntactic role and position in a given or possible sentence.
So, although they deal with different areas of grammar, syntax and morphology
are really two sides of the same coin and have a two-way relationship:

(3) Grammar

Syntax Morphology

0.4 The role of meaning

Our diagram in (3) covers the form side of things, i.e. the shapes of words and the
relations between them when they are linked in sentences. This is normally all
that we think of when we think of grammar. But actually this leaves a further very
important component out. Grammar also reflects meaning. Consider example
(1) again. The morphology of enjoys that connects it syntactically to Amy is not
just part of an internal code programme. The syntactic connection represents a
 Introduction 5
meaning: it refers to a link between a person and an action. Specifically it tells
us that the person carries out an action and has a particular emotional attitude
towards this. Similarly, the tense and aspect morphology of enjoys (present tense,
simple form) conveys the idea of a present habit or regularity. Syntax and mor-
phology are therefore partly responsible for the semantics of a sentence, i.e. its
meaning content. So we should add this to our grammar diagram as follows:

(4) Grammar

Syntax Morphology

Meaning (Semantics)

Note that here too we have a two-way relationship. The grammar conveys the
meaning, but the intended meaning also determines the grammar.
Though this book is specifically about syntax, we will often refer to its close
relation to morphology and semantics.

0.5 The connection to language teaching and training

Our own long experience in the realm of ELT and EFL teacher training shows
that many advanced students, and even teachers of English, have only a rather
hazy idea of some of the central concepts in applied syntax. Limited cognitive
awareness of key characteristics of English sentence structure also means limited
ability to grasp and deal with pedagogical issues involved in learning, teaching
and using the language. This book aims to fill the gaps. It attempts to provide a
comprehensive frame of reference and a fund of systematic descriptive knowl-
edge, supporting both student and teacher in the development of an informed
and reflective professional practice.
1 Basic elements of grammatical
structure

1.0 Structure
The term structure is used in this book to cover the following:

•• any kind of morphological feature: plural/singular of nouns, verb categories

like tense, aspect or person, verb forms like gerund/infinitive, etc., adjective
features like comparative/superlative, and so on. (This is just a small selection
of examples.)
•• any kind of syntactic construction: the of-genitive, do-support, negation,
declarative, the interrogative, the imperative, the passive, relative clauses,
cleft sentences, extraposition, etc.
•• grammatical categories of words known as word-classes or parts of speech:
nouns, verbs, adjectives, prepositions, etc.

All this concerns grammatical characteristics of words and groups of words that
are permanent and individual, and do not depend on particular sentences. What
contrasts with structure is the idea of function (subject, object, etc.), which, as
we will see later, is a sentence-dependent concept. For the moment we will stay
with structure. Function is discussed in the next chapter. The aspect of structure
that we want to look at more closely now is the word-class, which needs some
detailed explanation.

1.1 What are word-classes or ‘parts of speech’?

Word-classes are a good example of how morphology, syntax and semantics inter-
act with each other. The basis in this case is morphology. Words of the same
class have the same grammatical forms. Verbs, for instance, change according to
the type of subject they have (= person: I am, you are, he is), and the time they
refer to (= tense: present tense, I am; past tense, I was). Nouns have number,
i.e. singular and plural forms (woman → women), Adjectives and adverbs have
the category of comparison: slow → slower → slowest; slowly → more slowly →
most slowly. And so on. Many members of particular word-classes also show typi-
cal endings, e.g. -ive, -ible/-able for adjectives (massive, respectable), -ion and -ity
 Basic elements of grammatical structure 7
for nouns (station, integrity), -ise and -ate for verbs (realise, compensate), -ly for
adverbs (slowly, quickly), etc. This means that members of one word-class can be
converted into members of another (a morphological process called derivation):
sensitive (adjective) → sensitivity (noun), nation (noun) → nationalise (verb), etc.
However, although the external features of word-classes are morphological, it
is syntax that shows their real purpose. A word-class comprises members that do
the same job syntactically. Members of the same class occur in the same places in
a sentence and have similar relationships to members of other word-classes. For
instance, we typically start a declarative sentence with a noun or pronoun and
follow it with a verb. Sometimes, depending on the verb, this is enough:

(1) noun + verb

Jenny   
drinks.

To say more, we might follow this with another noun and extend this further
with an adverb:

(2) noun + verb + noun + adverb

Jenny   drinks    tea   regularly.

But the options are restricted. The second noun cannot swap positions with the
verb (*Jenny tea drinks regularly)1 and an adjective could not replace the adverb
(*Jenny drinks tea regular). On the other hand, there is nothing to be said against
putting adjectives before the nouns:

(3) adjective + noun + verb + adjective + noun + adverb

Young    Jenny    drinks     green     tea    regularly.

This is not just about position. Some word-classes are more closely associated
than others. Adjectives, we can see here, relate typically to nouns, whereas
adverbs relate to verbs and verb sequences. Further examples of close neighbours
are articles and nouns, and prepositions and nouns. Conjunctions, on the other
hand, combine the larger parts of sentences that we call phrases and clauses
(see 1.4 below for a detailed discussion of these terms).
So we can see that word-classes tell us a great deal about what goes where in
a sentence.
Finally, semantics also plays a large role in the character of word-classes.
Traditionally, in fact, it is meaning, rather than syntax or morphology, that is
used to define word-classes, especially in the teaching of children. This is not sur-
prising, as meaning is more easily understood by young learners than grammar. In
this approach, nouns, e.g. are said to refer to things and people, verbs are labelled
‘doing words’, signifying actions, and adjectives are thought of as ‘describing
nouns’. Linguists have often criticised descriptions of this kind as vague and unre-
liable. And it is true that they can easily be contradicted. For instance, abstract
nouns (such as love and hate) do not really mean ‘things’. Words like action and
8 Basic elements of grammatical structure
movement refer, obviously, to ‘actions’, yet they are not verbs. On the other hand,
verbs are not just ‘doing words’: they can mean states (Vanessa strongly resembles
her sister) or experiences (Alan caught a cold).
Nevertheless, there is a lot of truth in semantic characterisation. It is not
enough for a full definition, but gives us a good indication of typical cases or
prototypes. Not all nouns refer to ‘things’ or people, certainly. But the reverse is
usually true, i.e. that almost all words referring to things or people do belong to
the class of nouns. Similarly, the typical meaning of a verb is that it refers to an
event or state, even though a few nouns do the same thing. Furthermore, verbs
always link other elements in the sentence together as participants in the event
or state. This is not only a grammatical relationship, but a semantic one. For
instance, in

(4) John kissed Mary

the verb tells us that John and Mary became involved with each other, and
moreover in a certain general way: John caused what happened and he caused it
to happen to Mary. This is what we call in semantics an agent–patient relation-
ship. It is not exclusive to verbs, nor is it always present when verbs are used,
but it is prototypically part of verb meaning in sentences that have the pattern
Noun + Verb + Noun. This shows generally that when we use grammar, we also
think meaning. In the more detailed discussion of the individual word-classes
further below, we will therefore examine matters from both grammatical and
semantic perspectives. The next section, meanwhile, introduces the important
concept of phrase, an analytical category closely allied to word-class.

1.2 The phrase

The sentences in the examples (1)–(4) look as if they are composed simply of
strings of individual words in sequence. This is not the whole story, however.
We said above that certain word-classes associate particularly closely with each
other, e.g. articles and adjectives with nouns. Certain words, that is, form groups.
If we want to show word relationships in sentences more accurately, we have to
take account of this. A more exact portrayal of (3) above, for instance, could look
like this:

(5) (adjective + noun) + verb + (adjective + noun) + adverb

(Young   Jenny)   drinks  (green     tea) regularly.

Young and Jenny on the one hand, and green and tea on the other, belong
together. The verb drinks and the adverb regularly are just single words. But we
could expand these too (grammatically speaking, that is) into groups, e.g. has
drunk and quite regularly:

(6) (Young Jenny) (has drunk) (green tea) (quite regularly).

 Basic elements of grammatical structure 9
Such groupings as now shown in the brackets in (6) are vital building-blocks of
the sentence, and are known as phrases. Each one acts as a unit. If a phrase is
moved to another part of the sentence (for stylistic reasons, say, or because the
sentence construction changes syntactically), it must be the whole phrase that
moves, and not just a part of it, as, e.g. with the passive:

(7) (Green tea) (has been drunk) (quite regularly) (by (young Jenny)).

Though there are certain exceptions to this rule, phrases in principle remain
together and act as a group. This applies particularly to sentence functions
(discussed in detail in Chapter 2), which relate to phrases as a whole: for instance,
the subject of (6) is Young Jenny and the direct object green tea, which becomes
the subject in the passive version in (7). It is phrases, therefore, rather than indi-
vidual words, that comprise the first level of sentence organisation.
Notice that each phrase has a main word (respectively Jenny, drunk, tea and regu-
larly). This is called the head of the phrase. The word-class of the head gives its
name to the phrase. As Jenny and tea are nouns, young Jenny and green tea are noun
phrases. The phrase quite regularly has the adverb regularly as its head, and is there-
fore an adverb phrase. The verbs in a sentence form the verb phrase, here has drunk
(with drunk as the head). Similarly, there are adjective phrases (e.g. very big, with
the adjective big as the head), and prepositional phrases (e.g. in the house, with the
preposition in as the head). Phrases can also include others, as shown in (7) by the
prepositional phrase by young Jenny, which contains the noun phrase young Jenny.
The concept of being ‘included’ or ‘contained’ within a particular unit of sen-
tence organisation is expressed by the linguistic term constituent, which refers to
component elements of larger units. Words are therefore constituents of phrases
and phrases can be constituents of sentences or of other phrases.
A final word must be said on single words: drinks and regularly in (5) above
were ‘expanded’ into units of more than one word. We did this in order to
explain the term phrase and demonstrate its central features. In actual fact,
however, linguistics treats single words already as phrases. It does so precisely
because they are capable of extension into a multi-word unit with themselves
as potential heads. Looked at from the opposite point of view, most multi-word
phrases can be reduced syntactically to their heads alone and the phrase struc-
ture of the sentence will remain intact. Drinks and regularly, then, represent
phrases (a verb phrase and an adverb phrase respectively), i.e. phrases with only
one constituent. And by the same token the single-word constituents of (1), (2)
and (4) can now be described, more accurately in a syntactic sense, as phrases:

(8) noun phrase + verb phrase

Jenny    drinks.
(9) noun phrase + verb phrase + noun phrase + adverb phrase
Jenny     drinks      tea       regularly.
(10) noun phrase + verb phrase + noun phrase
John      kissed     Mary.
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10 Basic elements of grammatical structure
1.3 What word-classes are there, and what are their
characteristic features?
If you look a word up in a dictionary, you will find that its word-class (part of
speech) is given before the meaning. For instance:

house, noun: A building for human habitation

make, verb: to construct, build, or create, from separate parts

This underlines a point made above: that word-class is a permanent feature of a

particular word, i.e. part of its individual character.
We generally distinguish between the following main word-classes: nouns,
pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, conjunctions, determiners.
We will now point to basic features that identify each word-class, using the
three different perspectives of semantics, morphology and syntax. The func-
tional aspect of syntax will not be discussed here, however, as functions are not
introduced until the next chapter. Under the ‘syntax’ heading we will confine
ourselves for the moment to other kinds of relationship between words.

1.3.1 Nouns
•• Semantics:
Nouns denote entities, i.e. living things (person, woman, plant, animal),
objects (table, road, car), other physical phenomena (weight, distance, elec-
tricity, rain, wind), and abstractions like concepts and ideas (wish, religion,
memory, economics, friendship). Names such as Peter, London, Christianity,
Communism are called proper nouns and are spelt with capital letters.
Nouns have further semantic features that not only identify them as nouns
but also influence their morphology and syntax. Many can be counted, but
others cannot. Those referring to persons can imply male or female identity
(i.e. sex or gender).
•• Morphology:
An important feature of nouns is what we call number: that is, they can be
singular or plural. The singular is the ‘normal’ or unmarked form (cat) and
the plural is marked, usually just by adding the ending -s (cats). There are
various irregular plural forms, e.g. internal change of vowel (man→ men,
goose→ geese), same form as singular (sheep→ sheep), etc.
Another important feature related to this is countability. Most nouns
are what we call count nouns, i.e. they appear in the singular and plural
with numbers (one girl, ten girls). But there are also many non-count nouns.
These cannot appear with numbers. Some are only singular (tea, wheat, infor-
mation), others are only plural (surroundings, clothes).
And finally, a third central feature of nouns is their person status. This is a
wholly semantic factor, but it has a kind of ‘sleeping’ morphological charac-
ter that appears grammatically in the relationship to other word-classes like
pronouns and verbs. Consider the sentence:
 Basic elements of grammatical structure 11
(11) Our neighbour is celebrating in her garden, but although we like her, she
has not invited us.

Note that the noun neighbour ‘controls’ the choice of any following pronoun
that refers back to it. As the garden belongs to the (apparently female) neigh-
bour we have to say her garden and not *our garden, followed by we like her
(and not, for instance, *We like them), and she has not. . . (rather than *You
have not. . .). This is the morphology of a category that we call person. It
forces pronouns to correspond in certain ways to their ‘parent’ nouns (i.e.
their antecedents), which can only be referred back to by he, she, it or they.
As these are known grammatically as third person pronouns, nouns are also
regarded as having third person status. (The division of person status into
three sub-categories numbered first, second and third is explained fully under
Pronouns below). Example (11) also shows us that pronoun choice (in the
singular at least) is further restricted by whether the noun refers to a thing
or a person and in the case of a person whether the person is male or female.
This is known as gender, and is differentiated according to masculine (he), for
male persons, feminine (she), for female persons, and neuter (it) for things.

•• Syntax:
Nouns
{{ can be preceded by determiners, such as articles (see below), and also

by adjectives:
The big cat.
These accompanying words form a unit with the noun that we call a
noun phrase.
Nouns
{{ occur (alone or in a phrase) before and after verbs:
The dog followed the boy.
{{ occur (alone or in a phrase) after prepositions:
On the table; in anger; under a large tree.

1.3.2 Pronouns
Pronouns are specialised semantic and morphological variants of nouns. They
are not really a separate word-class, but form a sub-division of nouns. Basically,
they are used to stand for nouns, i.e. represent them, in certain grammatical and
communicative contexts.
•• Semantics:
Pronouns step in as substitutes for full nouns that speakers cannot use, or do
not wish to use, in particular circumstances. The most general reason is to
avoid repeating a noun (and more usually a whole noun phrase) which has
already been mentioned:
(12) The milkman usually comes around 11 o’clock, but today he´s very late.
Maybe his cart has broken down. That was the reason why he was late on
one day last week. The cart is an old one that he’s been driving for years.
12 Basic elements of grammatical structure
Back-reference to previous elements of texts and dialogues is known
generally as anaphora. The back-referring item is called the anaphor.
Pronouns are one of the most common examples of anaphor. In (12) the
pronouns printed in bold type all show this anaphoric relationship. Note,
however, that what they refer back to is different in each case. That is,
each pronoun here represents a particular sub-category with its own dis-
tinct kind of use:

he anaphor for the milkman

[personal pronoun]

his anaphor for the milkman, but in the

[possessive pronoun] genitive and showing
possession (i.e. really a
replacement for the
milkman’s)

that anaphor for the content of the second

[demonstrative pronoun] sentence, which could be
expressed by a noun like
event or occurrence, and
is referred to by the
pronoun with emphasis.

one anaphor for cart

[‘prop’ pronoun] replacing a single noun
inside a noun phrase.

that anaphor for the prop pronoun one in a

[relative pronoun] following relative clause
that describes one (and
thereby cart, of course)
more closely.

Further pronoun types are: reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself, himself,

etc.), interrogative pronouns (who?, what?, which?, etc.), and indefinite pro-
nouns (somebody, anybody, no-one, etc.). Numerals (one, two, three. . .) and
quantifiers (much, many, some, any, etc.) can also do duty as pronouns, even
though that is not their basic job and not their primary word-class. This does
not exhaust the list, but what we have mentioned so far is enough to illustrate
the general meaning of the word-class, and at the same time the individual
semantic variety among its members. At its most extreme this can be seen with
the indefinite pronouns, which unlike the other types are not anaphoric. They
do, nevertheless, have a kind of representation function semantically.
 Basic elements of grammatical structure 13
•• Morphology:
Corresponding to the semantic variety, the different pronoun types all
have their own individual and specific morphological features. Most prom-
inent are the personal pronouns. These dominate the pronoun scene, so
to speak. They are the most common type, and when we think of pronouns
we tend automatically to think of personal pronouns as a prototype. They
are also closely related to two other groups: the possessive pronouns and
the reflexive pronouns.
{{ Personal pronouns are sub-divided into persons, as mentioned above,
and distinguished also in terms of number:

Person Singular Plural

First I we
Second you you
Third he, she, it they

A point to note is that gender is marked only in the third person singular. A
further point is that, unlike full nouns, the personal pronouns are marked for
case. That is, their syntactic status in a sentence (position and function) is
marked morphologically. There are two case forms, subject (= those in the
box above), and object, as follows:

Person (object forms) Singular Plural

First me us
Second you you
Third him, her, it them

The category of person originates in the social situation of speech, i.e.

has to do with what we call pragmatic meaning. It belongs to the more
general pragmatic category of deixis (= speaker-related meaning). In
personal deixis speakers do three things: they refer to themselves as
speakers (first person: I/we); they refer to the people they are address-
ing (second person: you); and they refer to third parties, i.e. people
and things not involved in the I–you exchange (third person: he/she/
it/them). This explains why nouns have the morphological idea of per-
son attached to them, since full nouns are always used in the sense of
third parties to a conversation. Third person pronouns are basically the
only ones that are directly anaphoric. First and second persons can be
regarded as representatives of proper nouns, i.e. the names of the speaker
and the addressee: but they do not really ‘refer back’ to them, except
perhaps in a rather abstract way.
14 Basic elements of grammatical structure
{{ Possessive pronouns follow the pattern of the personal pronouns:

Person Singular Plural

First my our
Second your your
Third his, her, its their

Possessive pronouns are not pronouns syntactically, however (see below

under Syntax). If we want to use them as ‘real’ pronouns, i.e. standing
alone, they have to be in their ‘pronoun possessive’ forms, as in:

(13) This book is mine, not yours.

This is the complete table of pronoun possessives:

Person Singular Plural

First mine ours

Second yours yours
Third his, hers theirs

{{ Reflexive pronouns follow partly the possessive pronouns and partly

the object forms of personal pronouns, adding the ending -self/-selves
to them. Semantically, reflexive constructions mean literally that the
subject does something ‘to itself’, as in

(14) She has hurt herself.

Reflexive pronouns therefore have to signal person agreement with the

subject pronoun:

Person Singular Plural

First myself ourselves

Second yourself yourselves
Third himself, herself, itself themselves

Demonstrative pronouns are marked for number, i.e. they have separate
forms for singular (this/that) and plural (these/those). The same applies to the
prop pronoun: one (singular), ones (plural).
The relative pronouns who, which and that are differentiated in use
according to semantic criteria, which we will not discuss further here (see
Ch. 10.1, on relative clauses). Who has an object form (whom) and a geni-
tive (whose). Note that who and which can also be interrogative pronouns.
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Title: Juhannustulilla: Laulunsekainen kansanpila

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JUHANNUSTULILLA: LAULUNSEKAINEN KANSANPILA ***
 E-text prepared by Tapio Riikonen

JUHANNUSTULILLA
Laulunsekainen kansanpila

Kirj.

LARIN KYÖSTI

Porvoossa, Werner Söderström, 1900.

HENKILÖT:

HAKALA, talonisäntä.
HENNA, hänen tyttärensä.
MANU, nuori talonpoika.
SAMPPA, viuluniekka.
MIIHALA, reppuri.
LASSI, pomon poika.
SUNTION TAAVA.
1:n, 2:n TYTTÖ.
1:n, 2:n POIKA.
Kylän kansaa.

(Näyttämö: kisanurmi kallion kyljessä. Peräseinämällä mäntyjä ja

katajoita, joiden takana syrjässä kokkopaikka. Vasemmalla keinu.
Oikealla luonnon muodostama lehtimaja sekä kanto.)

(HENNA keinuu. MANU istuu yksin kannolla. Pojat ja tytöt istuvat

nurmella solmien arpaheinää ja laulavat)

Ja nythän on taasen juhannus,

ilon aika se meille koittaa,
 limokujassa linnut veisailee,
ja karjankellot ne soittaa,
nyt on juhannus,
suvijuhannus,
nyt on leikin ja lemmen aika!

Kedon sirkat ne viulua vinguttaa,

kun ahvenet polskivat vettä,
vesiperhot, hyttyset piiriin käy
ja mettiset etsivät mettä,
nyt on juhannus,
suvijuhannus,
nyt on leikin ja lemmen aika!

Pojat tuomenterttuja kantaa saa,

kuka painuisi pirtin loukkoon,
nyt laulelemaan, nyt naurelemaan
iloparvessa tyttöjen joukkoon,
nyt on juhannus
suvijuhannus,
nyt on leikin ja lemmen aika.

1:n POIKA (Tyttöjen ja poikien veikatessa lyö Manua olalle.) Mitäs

sinä, Manu, täällä niin yksinäsi oleilet? Ethän piirissäkään pysynyt.

MANU. Mitäs minä siellä…?

1:n POIKA. Älä hullujasi! Katsos tuolia se Hakalan Henna yksinään

keinulla kiikkuu ja sinua odottaa!

MANU. Minuako? He, ei! Muissa kai sen mieli pyörii!

 1:n POIKA. Näytäpäs sukkiasi! Hoi, hoi, mustat ovat! Tule
joukkoon! (Vetää käsikynkästä Manua.)

2:n POIKA. Ei se polkka polkalle tunnu ilman soittoa. Missähän se

viulu-Samppakin saapastaa? Pitäisihän sen pillipiiparin jo täällä olla.

1:n POIKA. Ettei vain taas eksynyt ryyppyreissulle.

2:n POIKA. Mies on hiukan viinaan menevä, mutta sanansa se

pitää, kun kerran lupaa.

1:n POIKA. Ja reima se on soittaja ja kelpo puhemies.

2:n POIKA. No, senhän minä puhekumppanikseni otan, kun näitä

meidän kylän tyttöjä järjestään kosaisemaan käyn.

1:n TYTTÖ. Ja lopulta jäät vallan ilman ja haistelet tyhjää ilmaa

kuin entisen kasakan hevonen, jolta kaurat vietiin.

2:n POIKA. Mikäs on valitessa, tässäkin poikia kuin aidanseipäitä,

naimahaluisia ja nuoria.

2:n TYTTÖ. Mutta eipäs huolita, eipäs huolita! Tämä Suntion Taava
se kyllä — — hym, hym — ottaisi miehen kuin leivän vartaalta, mutta
me ollaankin toista maata, me!

1:n POIKA. No älä sinä Taavaa moiti, ihminen se on sekin, vaikka

on pieni suu. (Taava mielistelee suu naurussa.)

2:n TYTTÖ. Voi sun poikia! Tuuman pituisia, korttelin korkuisia,

piimäsuita, pökköpuita!

2:n POIKA. Kas, kas, sitä naista! Sillä on kieli kuin lankakerä. Kun
kerran sen auki päästää, vierii se pitkäksi kuin nälkävuosi! Tuollainen
pieni, punainen lankakerä, hahhaa!

(Pojat nauravat.)

1:n POIKA (Taempaa huudahtaen.) Hih, tuolla se tuli jo loimottaa

naapurikylän harjulta!

2:n POIKA. Kuulkaahan, pojat, pannaan mekin kokko palamaan

niin että roikaa!

1:n POIKA. Ja tytöt kahvin hakuun! Vehnät ja sokerit tuokaa

jusevasti niin, että suu sulaa. Kyllähän me korpirojua sekaan
juotetaan, öhöh… (Yskii kuin viina menisi väärään kurkkuun.)

2:n POIKA. Ja sitten sitä lähdettiin!

(Pojat, Manu mukana, lähtevät laulaen:)

POJAT.

Ja pojat ne metsähän läksivät, ne läksivät, pyypyssyt olalla

häilyi, tytöt kaivolla kauan nyökkyivät, ne nyökkyivät, ja
silmissä kyynel päilyi.

TYTÖT.

Ei meill' ole ikävä ollenkaan, ei ollenkaan, vain halli se

oravaa itkee, tytöt luhdin solassa nauraa vaan, ne nauraa
vaan ja pellaita pellosta kitkee.

POJAT ja TYTÖT.
 Ja silloin se illalla laulu soi, se laulu soi, kun lauhtuu laaksot
ja vuoret, kun toverina toisensa nähdä voi nuo tän kylän
salskeat nuoret.

1:n TYTTÖ. Kuulkaahan, tytöt, mennään me korsia sitomaan,

sittenhän sen juhannuksen jälkeen näkee, kenelle sulhanen tulee
tänä vuonna! Punainen nauha tietää rakkautta, valkoinen rikkautta,
keltainen rukkasia ja musta nauha hautajaisia!

2:n TYTTÖ. Ja yöksi yljänyrtti pään alle, että unissa sulhasensa

näkee.

TAAVA. Voi, voi, tästä tulee lystiä, ja sitten me kierrämme kaivoa

yhdessä yhdeksän kertaa, niin ylkä vastaan tulee.

2:n TYTTÖ. Niin, aina sinä olet miehen otossa, mutta et koskaan
saa! Taikuri-Sannankin luona olet käynyt sen seitsemän kertaa.

TAAVA. Piti, piti piikaa! Ole sinä olevinasi, kiekailet ja keikailet

itsekin kuin västäräkki.

1:n TYTTÖ. Anna sinä Taavan olla rauhassa! Mennään nyt vain,
etteivät pojat näe, sillä silloin olisi peikko pelissä!

TAAVA. Etteikö sitten sulhasta saataisikaan!

1:n TYTTÖ. Hahhahhaa, ei, mennään nyt jo!

2:n TYTTÖ. Mutta hiljaa kuin hiiret!

KAIKKI TYTÖT. Hiljaa, hiljaa!

(Lähtevät.)
 TAAVA (Pysähtyen.) Etkö sinä Henna tule?

HENNA. Enpä taida tulla!

TAAVA. Etkö sinä kosijapoikaa haluakaan?

HENNA. Keinunhan vain tässä.

TAAVA. Ai, ai, taitaa olla se mielitietty jo niinkuin varma.

Tiedetäänhän se, että sinulle pitäjän sulhasia tulee.. Voi, kuinka sinä
olet onnellinen! Voi, voi, kunpa minäkin saisin tuollaisen, joka
tuttuna kainalooni kapsahtaisi, hihi! Mutta kyllä minä temput tunnen.
Menenpä jo, mutta en noiden joukkoon; kiusaavat kuin ampiaiset.
Hihhihi! kai häihisi pääsen! (Lähtee.)

HENNA. Niin, niin, muilla on iloa, mutta ei minulla. Manu se kiertää

ja kaartaa kuin se tietäisi niistä isän hankkeista, joista ei kukaan
mitään varmaa tiedä. Puhui se isä kautta rantain… Harvasanainen isä
on ja hyvä, enkä minä usko, että hän niin tosissaan vieraalle työntää.
Eikä työnnä. Tahdon taas olla iloinen. (Laulaa.)

Heilu keinuni korkealle, linnut, ne viettävät häitä, minä olen

nuori kuin päivänkukka, en muistele murheita näitä!

Heilu keinuni korkealle,

nythän on juhannusilta,
mesimarja paistaa ja tuomi tuoksuu,
ja kuulas on taivahan silta!

Heilu keinuni korkealle,

rintani riemuja laulan,
kedon helyt kullalle kuiskien poimin
ja solmin sen vihreän paulan!
 Missähän se Manu nyt on? — — Mutta, kas, tuolta hän tuleekin
kokolta!
En ole huomaavinani.

(Manu tulee.)

MANU. Henna!

HENNA. Kas, sinäkö siinä? Mihin sinä?

MANU. Miksi sitä kysyt?

HENNA. Ei kysyvä tieltä eksy. Tyttöjäkö haet? Enpä sano, missä

ovat!

MANU. En kysy tyttöjäsi… Kuule, Henna, kylässä liikkuu huhuja,

että…

HENNA (Keskeyttäen.) Niin, arvaas, millainen loukko-Jussi

sinustakin vanhemmiten tulee? Vanha nuuskavaari, niin, jonka
haudalle pystytetään risti, jossa on kirjoitus: "Tässä vanhapoika
makaa, joka oli naimaton ja vakaa".

MANU. Ei mutta kuule… sanotaan, että…

HENNA. Sanotaan, mitä sanotaan. Huhulla on pitkät siivet.

MANU. Etkö sinä…?

HENNA. En, en! Hm! Ei, kuule, Manu, kyllä sinun täytyy muuttaa
tapojasi, kuljet muuten lopulta nolona kuin nokikolari!

MANU (Ilostuen.) No jo nyt tahtoisin olla sileä ja sulava kuin

kupernyöri! Kuinkahan sen asian alkuun niinkuin pääsisi, että tuota…
 HENNA. Sinun pitää olla viini ja almassantti, kuten on tapana
sanoa.

MANU. Millaista se on?

HENNA. No esimerkiksi, kun se vieras ryökkinä tulee Helsingistä

meidän pappilaan ja yrttitarhassa istuu sen pappilan maisterin
kanssa kiikkulaudalla, niin se maisteri… ole sinä nyt maisterina, niin
minä olen ryökkinänä, niin sitten… No, nyt sinä kumarrat ja…

MANU. Ja sitten?

HENNA. Tarjoat kätesi.

MANU. He… no ja entä sitten?

HENNA. Käsket keinuun, se on kohteliasta sellainen.

MANU. Tus nyt sitte keinuun, Henna!

HENNA. Ja sitten sinä keinutat. (Manu keinuttaa.) No sillä lailla!

Niin tekivät, sen näin aidanraosta.

MANU. No ne nyt siellä! Mitä ne sen jälkeen?

HENNA. Eivät puhuneet luotua sanaa, keinuivat vain.

MANU. No osataanhan tuota!

(Pitkähkö äänettömyys.)

MANU. Eikö se muuta sitten maisteri osannutkaan?

 HENNA. Niin. (Erikseen.) Nyt panen pojan kiikkiin. (Ääneen.) Niin,
sitten maisteri painoi päänsä alas ja otti ryökkinää vyötäisiltä kiinni.

(Manu aikoo tehdä saman liikkeen, mutta Henna hypähtää

keinusta ja alkaa juosta keinupaalujen ympäri. Manu samoin
vastakkain.)

HENNA. Piti, piti! Saitkos kiinni! Hahhaa!

MANU. Mutta kuule nyt, eihän se siihen loppunut!

HENNA. Niin, ei maisterin eikä ryökkinän ilo, mutta meidän…

MANU. Mutta Henna kulta!

(Juoksevat taas ja seisahtuvat, kun reppuri tulee laukku selässä

laulaen.)

Luodogan meren randamill' mie kasvoin briha nuori,

paimoivirsie lasna lauloin, miut muamo mierohon shuori.
Karjalanmaill' kuldakäköset kukkuu, monasterj yösess'
loistuab, taljanka illoin tanssiloih kutshuu, kannel kaihoij
toistuab.

Siell' on kaunis kandajain, siell' mielitiettyni tshoma, kylän

kekri-illatshuist' on viety mutshoni oma. Karjalanmaill' j.n.e.

Kuljeksin mie kumarass',

ah, mieross' kuljin kauan,
omiin pihoin mie vaan tahon,
vierass' on mieronsauva.
Karjalanmaill' j.n.e.
 Hohoo, kylän rahvas kemuiss kuhisuop. Lehtmajoi pihoill köhöttiä,
pirttilöin sillat ylen kauniiks somistettu. Ivanan päivyt, pruasnik.
Kuhunkas nuor kansa kupsaht? Ahaa! Briha, nuorikko, briha lie
morsion kera. Terveytt, terveytt, hyvä pruasnik, äijy rihkama, iso
talo, äijy lapsii, äijy, äijy!

HENNA. Iltaa, Miihala, iltaa! Mistä se Miha nyt pyyhkäisee?

REPPURI. Vieruskyläst matkuan, brihat ei huonoiks heittyneet,

silkit, korvarenkaat, kaikk tytöill työnsiit. Ivanan päivyn vietost
erkanin, heityin tielle, jätin tulet, dantsut hylkäsin, tänne ehätin
kaupitsemahan.

HENNA. Kävitkö kirkolla päin?

REPPURI. Ei miun anna loitota bogostall, vallingsman iskyö kii.

Ylen huonot ajat, ruplan suat, kaks mänyö, kuomasein, maha
puolenuo, tyhjäks heittyy.

MANU. Et sitten tainnutkaan nähdä viulu-Samppaa?

REPPURI. A täss muistan: viulu kerall kärriss mies ajoa jiehatti, a

toinen ohjiss tempoi, lie kossoimies, ken ties mikä olj.

MANU. Senkin vilkas veijari, ettet vain petä taas!

REPPURI. Kuin pagitset? Ei miestä petä, jollei kukkaro petä.

Sinnuu, Hakalan Henna, tulj kosimaan, kylän kassapäihin sie kuulut,
talon parahih sie uot. Ka kihlasilkit suat kelt uskot suavas paremmat
ku miult, parahat miun silkit on, parahat koko Vennään muass.
Kiinan keisarin muast ne haitut ollah!

HENNA. Miksi juuri minua tulisi kosimaan?

 REPPURI. Hepo kiäntyi Hakalan veräjäst pihhaa, sinne katosit
brihat, viuluniekka da kossoimies.

MANU ja HENNA. Hakalaanko?

REPPURI. A tuattois portahill seisoi, hevon talliin talui. Kossoimies,

kossoimies, äveriäs ku bajari, ison talon briha se niin levviist liikkuu.

HENNA (Itsekseen.) Jokohan lie Hutilan Lassi, josta isä on

kertonut?

REPPURI. Dengill suap ja dengill piäsööp hojt kuhunka. Ku hopioit

vilahutat, niin mualima joutuu pystyyn tai pyllylläh.

MANU. Mistä sen tiedät, että rikas naimamies on? Puhut ohi suusi!

REPPURI. Ota laukku da hengi, jos sanan viäristän. Äveriäs

kossoimies, äijy dengii. Rengilt mie kysäsin, jott ken taloon niin
komiast kohaht? Hutilan talon brihoi kuului olleen, sanoi…

MANU. Vai Hutilan Lassi se tässä Hakalaan ajoikin. Sen arvasin.

HENNA. Mutta minä en siitä huoli, vaikka hän olisi rikas kuin Kiinan
keisari!

REPPURI. Soo, etkä piätäsi aijan rakuo työnnäh, ku Lassiin

takerrut, huolta ei niin mitänäh, illatsut ihanat, kiänteleit vuan pirtin
sillall da vuotat kaunist säätä.

HENNA. Ennemmin menen vaikka kaivoon!

REPPURI. A älä sie kaivoon työnnäyvy!

 HENNA (Itku rinnassa.) Voi minua, jota ventovieraalle tahdotaan!
Olenko minä, onneton, vain kulkutavaraa, johon kuka tahansa
puumerkkinsä saa piirtää?

(Itkee.)

MANU. Henna kulta, älä itke! Eihän se isäsi niin kovakourainen lie.
Kyllähän minä miehen mielen tunnen.

(Kiertää kätensä Hennan vyötäisille.)

REPPURI. A pyhä Petru, nyt en tolkkua. Pagise mitä pagise, mie

lähen tuliloill kaupitsemahan!

MANU. Kuulehan, Miha, ostan ehkä sinulta kihlakaluni!

REPPURI. Hyvät suat da halpa hinda. Iloisii häit, a et, Henna,

äveriäst yllättänyt, se siu assiis, ku lembi välliin tulj. Jiäkää
terveheks!

(Lähtee kokolle.)

MANU. Kas niin, Henna, ole kuin tutun turvassa ainakin!

HENNA. Mutta voi, mitähän ne siellä kotona…?

MANU. Älä hyvä Henna ole levoton!

(Kuuluu viulun ääntä.)

HENNA. Mitä se oli? Joko tulevat? Voi kun pääsisin pois!

MANU. Hei, Samppa se siellä jo viuluaan soittaa!

 (Samppa tulee vasemmalta viulu kainalossa, pieni viinapullo
taskussa, laulaa hiukan iloisella tuulella.)

Minä se olen soittajapoika ja laulelen aamusta asti,

kummina mull' oli kulkuri-ukko, ja vallaton pappi mun kasti.

En minä itke mun köyhyyttäin

eikä sydäntäni pistä pilkka,
kunhan mulla on viuluni vain
ja leilissä viinantilkka.

Talkoissa, häissä ma soittelen ja silloin on kirkas mieli,

korvani juuressa kuiskuttaa mulle muistoja viulunkieli.

Suutari, soita naskalipolskaa! Suutariksi olen minä kasvatettu ja

soittajaksi olen minä luotu. Hipp ja heijaa! Kyllä kelpaa, kun on
miehellä kaksi hyvää virkaa, lestivirka ja pillivirka. Ihmisiltä minä
soitan pois puolianturat ja sitten minä ne paikkaan taas yhteen. Ei
surulla minua ruokita eikä murheen siloja ole niskassani. Kanan
villat! Täällähän minun pitäisi liirutella ja luikutella, enkä näe yhtä
hamettakaan.

HENNA. Samppa, Samppa!

SAMPPA. Kuka huuteli? Kas Hennaa ja Manua, ä, ä, ä täälläkös te

kahden hyttysiä tapatte, vai!

MANU. No sinä, Samppa, ajelit vapaalla kyydillä!

SAMPPA. Ota piru tai pelimanni ruuheesi, niin saat sen rannallekin
soutaa.

MANU. Ja vallan suuren pomon ruuhessa soutelitkin.

 HENNA. Reppuri jo siitä Lassista kertoi.

SAMPPA. Tuossa keskipäivän aikaan se ajaa karahdutti mökilleni,

lupasi uuden paidan, jossa on viisitoista taskua, joka taskussa
viisitoista penninkiä. Lupasi se piiskaryypyt ja sen semmoiset, jos
puhemieheksi rupeaisin Hakalan Hennalle.

MANU. Ja sinä lupasit.

SAMPPA. Lupasinhan minä, kun tiesin pääseväni tänne

juhannustulille.
Yksi tie ja kaksi asiaa.

HENNA. Millainen se oikein on miehiään se Lassi?

SAMPPA. Hohoh! Oletko koskaan nähnyt mullikkaa, joka puskee

omaa varjoaan? Tietäkää, kun koko tällä taipaleella ei muusta
puhunut kuin navetoista, sarvipäistä ja morsiamesta. Ja minä kun
tempasin viuluni ja soitin niin, että virstantolpat tanssivat, niin minä
aina kotonanikin teen, kun muija alkaa minua paasata.

HENNA. Hakalassako se nyt…?

SAMPPA. Siellä se nyt teidän talon portailla pöllyttelee rettinkin

savuja ja minua odottaa. Ja sinusta, Henna, tulee nyt morsian.

HENNA. Pysyköön vain erillään, sen minä sanon!

SAMPPA. Tui, tui, pelästyikö sokerini? Pysy sinä vain Manun

kupeilla, ettei se ilmaan lennä! — Ei ole puskevalle sarvia annettu,
näet, se Lassi on minulle aina ollut koppava ja pöyhkeä kuin
siltavouti, mutta Manu se paiskaa kirkolla kättä ja Henna on höyli ja
ovela ja haarikkaoltta on hän monesti soittaessa janooni tuonut.
 HENNA. Kaikkea sinä, Samppa, katsot viulunsilmän läpi, mutta
Jumala tietää, kuinka tämä asia päättyy.

SAMPPA. Vielä on metkut mielessä minullakin! (Laulaa.)

Kettu se lähti naimateille ja lauleli iloissansa, rakensi raudan

lemmetön kyttä ja polulle viritti ansan. Veisti se kettu puiset
kengät ja punaista polkua juoksi, huuteli, kuunteli
kuutamossa ja heilahti heilinsä luoksi.

Niin, kuulehan Manu, voitko sinä olla suulas ja sukkela mies?

MANU. No ehkä kotitarpeiksi hiukan verran.

SAMPPA. Mene sinä, Henna, juhannuskukkia poimimaan, sillä

aikaa kuin minä tätä Manua ripitän!

HENNA. Mitä salattavaa teillä?

SAMPPA. Ei tytön kuullen sovi kaikkea puhua — näin ennen häitä.

(Henna lähtee nauraen, Manu ja Samppa siirtyvät lehtimajan

ääreen.)

SAMPPA. Kuulehan mies, osaisitko sinä tyttönä tepastella?

MANU. No, vielä minä mitä! Tyttönäkö?

SAMPPA. Hyst! Sieppasin tullessani suntion luhdista Taavan

kirkkovaatteet, pistin ne piiloon "Kissan kiven" alle. Tule sinä sitten
niissä vempeleissä tänne keinulle, niin Lassin toimitan samaan iloon!
Joko yskän ymmärrät?
 MANU. Kaikki sinun päähäsi pälkähtääkin, mutta jos sotken koko
asian.

SAMPPA. Älä inttaile! Olithan sinä poikana aika silmänkääntäjä.

Muistanhan minä vielä, kuinka sinä eräänäkin Hiiva-Nuuttina tulit
hameissa Hakalan pirttiin muka olkia ostamaan, eikä Hennakaan
sinua tuntenut.

MANU. No sinulla niitä on juonia! Entäpä, jos Hakala suuttuu?

SAMPPA. Ei suutu, usko minua! Hennalle ei sanaakaan tästä! Ja

mitä Lassiin tulee, niin sinua parratonta miestä se ei tunne, vaikka
kanttorin nenälasit päässä heiluisi. Kaadan tätä mökä-öljyä pojan
hernelaukkuun, niin enpä ole Samppa enkä isäni poika, jollei asiat
luonnista. Sinä puolestasi kimahuta ääntäsi kuin akat kirkossa, ole
sulava kuin hunaja ja keisarinnan kuva, niin tästä, kanan villat, tulee
sellainen juttu, että hevosetkin nauravat!

MANU (Nauraen.) No olkoon menneeksi, tuli mitä tuli!

SAMPPA. Kaikki käy kuin naulaan. Ja nyt minä menen katsomaan,

joko se minun naimamieheni on tulossa. Muista nyt, nyytti on
"Kissan-kiven" kolossa!

(Lähtee.)

MANU. Kunhan pääsisin tästä ehein nahoin! Pentele, tuossahan

Henna on!

HENNA (Laulaen vasemmalta.)

Tässä on neito kuin

omenakukka
 ja moni raukka itki,
kirkolta pojat kurkistaa
ja pihatöitä pitkin,

MANU. Ohoh, hoo, jopa jotakin, vai pihatöitä pitkin!

MANU (Laulaa.)

Missä ma pyörin, niin suuta

ma suikkaan,
ja liikkuu kengänkärki,
ei sua muut ole katselleet
kuin vanha palokärki!

HENNA.

Ohoh, hoo, jopa jotakin, vai vanha palokärki!

HENNA.

En minä huoli rikkahista en maantien kulkureista, sorjan

pojan kainalossa tahdon aina seista.

MANU.

Ohoh, hoo, jopa jotakin, vai tahdot aina seista!

YHDESSÄ.

Tule, tule oma kultasein!

HENNA. Mitä senaatin asiaa te täällä pohditte, kun sitä niin kauan
kesti?
 MANU. No, ei sen kummempia. Minä tässä…

HENNA. Mikä sinua vaivaa? Tule nyt tänne istumaan!

(Menee lehtimajaan.)

MANU (Itsekseen.) Hitto vie, kun pääsisin "Kissan-kivelle".

(Lehtimajassa.) Niin katso, Henna, älä ole huolissasi sen Lassin takia!
Pian saan talon hallitukset käsiini. Kamarin minä talon kylkeen
veistän ja sinne sinut helykruunussa vien. Sitten se elämä alkaa,
minä kaskessa huhdon ja sinä kujalla huutelet karjaasi. (Katsellen
ympärilleen.) Mutta ehtiihän siitä vielä puhua.

HENNA. Ja minä sinulle talvipuhteella ryijykangasta kudon ja sinä

höyläpenkin ääressä lastuja lennätät.

MANU. Niin, niin, liekun lastuja… Mutta älä nyt hätäile!

(Levottomana.) Taidan tästä lähteä ensin…

HENNA. Ja pyhäisin saamme vieraita, kahvi popottaa tulella ja

havut tuoksuvat lattialla ja isä peltoja katsoo ikkunasta ja piippua
polttaa.

MANU. Niin, oikein pitkää merenvahapiippua, noin pitkää piippua.

— — Mutta katso, Henna, ilta-aurinkoa, mikähän sitä vaivaa, niinhän
se on punainen kuin reppurin paita!

HENNA (Rientää hiukan syrjään. Manu pujahtaa pois oikealle.) Ja

kuinka ne Hakalan ikkunat kiiltävät! (Katsoo ympärilleen.) Mihinkä se
Manu katosi? Manu, Manu!

(Pois oikealle.)
 TAAVA (Hiipien varovasti.) Ei ketään ole täällä! Tuossahan on
helkanurmi ja ristipolku. Nyt on mittumaarin aatto ja aurinko on
laskussaan, silloinhan ne suuret sulhaset liikkuvat! (Käki kukkuu.)
Käki! (Hyräilee.)

Sano, sano kultarinta, sano mulle sulhasia, kuku, kuku

kumppania, jotta joutuis tänä vuonna, jos sen sanot
suotavaksi, kuku, kuku kultarinta, kuku kolmasti minulle!

(Käki kukkuu kolme kertaa.) Voi, voi, kaikki käy hyvin! (Taputtaa
käsiään.) Ja tässä on se Taikuri-Sannan taikapussi. Siinä on kalman
kukka avonaiselta haudalta, tuossa hiiden kivi, joka löydettiin
Hakalan pellosta, tuossa lepakonluita, suolaa, tuhkaa ja
leivänmuruja. (Tekee taikatemppuja.) Noin, noin!

(Kulkee piirissä ja ripottelee tuhkaa ja suoloja olkansa yli lausuen.)

Nouse, lempi, lehvän alta, varastaite vastan alta, yli kuuden

kirkkokunnan, läpi seitsemän pitäjän! Heitä hentun tentturia,
heitä pois herjan juonet! Nouse, lempi, liehumahan nouse
ilman noitumatta, sydäntä sytyttämähän, miesten mieltä
kääntämähän, tämän tyttären tyköhön, tämän lapsen
lantehille! Tulkohon Turusta sulhot, hienot herrat Hämehestä
kihlakalut kainalossa, silkit silkkiset povessa, — — Heitä
hentun tentturia, heitä pois…

(Kuuluu ääniä.) Huh, kun pelästyin!

(Vasemmalta kuuluu keskustelua.)

SAMPPA. Tule pois vain, älä sumeile!

TAAVA (Iloisesti.) Herrajesta, nyt ne tulevat!

 LASSI. Niinkuin se onkin, sano!

SAMPPA. Voi, kanan villat, etkö nyt pääse!

LASSI. Sano.

TAAVA. Ne suuret sulhaset tulevat, voi, voi, voi! (Siistii pukuaan.)

(Samppa tulee edellä. Lassi jäljessä. Lassilla on samettilakki

päässä, punaiset liivit; hopeiset kellonvitjat riippuvat kaksin
kerroin liivintaskuista, takin ylätaskusta näkyy "rettinki"-
laatikko ja savuke palaa suussa.)

SAMPPA. Älä häikäile! (Huomaa Taavan.) Peijakas! Hyst, ollaan

hiljaa, niin saadaan hiiri ja ison talon rotta samaan loukkuun!

LASSI (Huomaamatta.) Mutta sen minä sanon, Samppa, että

köyhästä en huoli, sano!

SAMPPA. Ole huoleti, rikas se on! Kaikki minä hyvin päin käännän,
kun vain pysyt aisoissasi. Lupaatko sen?

LASSI. Lupaan, sano, lupaan minä, sano.

SAMPPA. No käännä päätäsi!

LASSI. Sekö se on, se Hakalan Henna, sano?

SAMPPA (Matkien.) Sano, sano, ole rohkea kuin rakuuna, sanon

minä!

LASSI. Odota nyt, sano!

SAMPPA. Jollet sinä… niin minä jätän sinut oman onnesi nojaan.
 (Tuuppaa Lassia Taavaa kohden.)

LASSI (Päätään raapien.) Sano… Illaksi, sano!

TAAVA. Illaksi, illaksi! Voi herrajesta! Tuota noin… Voi, voi, mikä
sattuma! Illaksi, Samppa!

SAMPPA (Kuiskaten.) Se on sen rikkaan Hutilan poika. Minä tässä

vain niinkuin puhemiehenä. (Erikseen.) Menköön syteen tai saveen!

LASSI. Minä, sanon.

TAAVA. Niin, no aivan niinkuin minäkin. Voi, voi, kun tämä on

lystiä!

LASSI. Minä, sano, olen nuorimies, sano…

SAMPPA. Eikä ole lapsia!

LASSI. Ja on paljon puuhaa, sano.

TAAVA. Niin, niin, tietäähän sen, että niin isossa talossa pää on
pyörällä vähemmästäkin.

LASSI. Kun, sano, meidän navettaan…

SAMPPA. Joka on kuin Vanajan kirkko.

LASSI. Mahtuu, sano, neljäkymmentä lehmää, kymmenen poikivaa

ja kymmenen vasikkaa…

SAMPPA. Hevosia, lampaita, mukuripäitä ja laiskoja piikoja. Mies ei

juo eikä palvele neljää kuningasta, ei soita suutaan ja käy kirkossa
joka toinen sunnuntai.
 LASSI. Tahtoisitko sinä, sano, niitä lypsää?

SAMPPA. Laiskoja piikoja, heh?

TAAVA. Herrajesta, no aivan kernaasti! Metsässä minä huutaisin,

kujalla kuiskaisin, veräjällä silittäisin ja taputtaisin kuin prinsessoja,
ja tarhassa minä pyrynä pyörisin ja laulaisin heleällä äänellä.

LASSI (Sampalle.) Kuule, sano, en minä osaa sen kanssa!

SAMPPA. Älä hellitä, kosi pois vain!

LASSI. Mutta sen kieli kieppuu, sano, niin, etten saa sanaa
suustani, sano.

SAMPPA. Älä kiipelissä!

LASSI. Tuota… sano.

SAMPPA. Tämä Lassi se vain, että… etkö tule hänen Pollellaan

ajelemaan?

TAAVA. No, herrajesta, siinä kirjavassa kiireessä, jahka vain saan

tämän pukuni vähän reilaan, ja mihinkä sitä sitten… jos niinkuin
kysyä saisi?

(Mielistelee.)

LASSI. He, pappilaan päin, sano.

TAAVA. Ettäkö vallan pappilaan! No sinnepäin minun on aina

mieleni tehnyt.
 SAMPPA. Tämä Lassi se vain… että olisi pastorillekin niinkuin asiaa,
kun talossakin on se emännän tapainen tarpeen.

LASSI. Ihan niinkuin se onkin, sano, tarpeen!

TAAVA (Innoissaan.) Ihan niinkuin se onkin, sano. Sellainen iso

talo, niin monta lehmää ja vasikkaa ja sellainen pulska, nuori isäntä.
Ihanhan se on kuin porsliiniparatiisi! Ja jos sikseen sopii, että… hihi,
Lassi minut on katsonut, niin enhän minä… Niin, niin, naisella on
naisen sydän. Olen vain yksoikonen piikalapsi, kokematon ja
koruton, mutta minulla on hempeä mieli ja siveä luonto. Näkisitte,
kuinka minä sitä meidän pikkupossua ruokin, niinkuin kummilastani
ikään!

LASSI. Tuota noin… sano, montako lehmää teillä taas olikaan,

sano?

TAAVA (Ihmetellen.) Eihän meillä ole kuin yksi lehmä vain, mutta
maidon se antaa maakalaisille ihmisille.

LASSI. Sano, sano, vai yksi lehmä vain! Soo!

TAAVA. Niin ja sitten se porsas.

LASSI (Sampalle.) Mutta, Samppa, sehän on rutiköyhä, sano!

SAMPPA. Niin, näet, talo on hiukan velkaantunut.

LASSI. Mennään pois jo!

TAAVA. Ja ota kultasi rattaille!

LASSI (Kädet puuskassa.) En, sano, en! En minä sinusta huoli.

Niinkuin se onkin, sano. Maklakka sinä olet, sano!
 TAAVA (On pyrskähtävinään itkuun.) Vai maklakka! Tiedä huutia!
Pilkkaako sinä minusta teetkin, senkin mullikka!

LASSI. Mullikka? Niinkuin se onkin, sano.

SAMPPA. Jo tuli itku ja irvistys!

LASSI. Ja sitten sinä räkätät kuin räkättirastas.

TAAVA. Vai vielä räkättirastas, senkin runtti! (Matkien.) Sano, sano,

sano! Mutta kyllä tämä kunnian kolistus sinulle maksaa. Vielä tässä!
Solvaista siveätä neitosta! Tässä on vierasmies, niin niin, ja tietäköön
sen koko pitäjä, että sinä olet kanssani naimiskauppoja hieronut.
Niin, niin, tästä tulee sellainen prosessi, että tuomarit verta sylkevät.
Ja tuommoinen taulahattu, taikinaherra, pellonpelätin, susi, saapas,
pelikaani! Tphyi!

(Töytää itkien pois ja tempaa taikapussin mukaansa.)

SAMPPA. Kanan villat! Pyy pyrähti!

LASSI. Kovinpa se oli äksy, sano!

SAMPPA. Mutta pahasti sinä sitä pitelit. Taitaa nostaa käräjäjutun

tästä naima-asiasta.

LASSI. Oikeinko totta, sano? Mutta aivan se oli peruton ja

pennitön, sano.

SAMPPA. Hjaa, minkä sille mahtaa.

LASSI. Mutta tämä on sinun syysi, sano, niinkuin se onkin, sano.