Engineering Thermodynamics

EMEC 3436

Chapter 7:
Entropy
Thermodynamics Entropy
*
: Science of Heat and

Dr. Ali Tarokh

Reference: Yunus Cengel and Michael Boles, Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, McGraw-Hill,9th
Edition (Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display)
1
 Objectives
• Apply the second law of thermodynamics to processes.
• Define a new property called entropy to quantify the second-law effects.
• Establish the increase of entropy principle.
• Calculate the entropy changes that take place during processes for pure
substances, incompressible substances, and ideal gases.
• Examine a special class of idealized processes, called isentropic processes,
and develop the property relations for these processes.
• Derive the reversible steady-flow work relations.
• Develop the isentropic efficiencies for various steady-flow devices.
• Introduce and apply the entropy balance to various systems.
 SQR-SWc =
dFc
that
Experiments indicate :

So 7–1 Entropy 1

2
.
δQ
The system considered in the T
≤0 δ WC = δ QR − dEC
development of the Clausius inequality. δQ R δQ δQ
= δ WC = TR − dEC
TR T T
δQ
WC = TR 
T
δQ
 T
≤0 Clasius inequality

 δQ 
  T  int rev = 0
δQ  Formal definition
dS =   (kJ / K)
 T int rev of entropy

 δQ 
2
∆S = S 2 − S1 =    # Definition of
1
 T  int rev Entropy
The equality in the Clausius inequality holds
for totally or just internally reversible cycles
and the inequality for the irreversible ones.
 7–1 Entropy 2

The net change in volume (a property)

during a cycle is always zero. Property: A quantity whose
cyclic integral is zero.
Entropy is an extensive
depends on
property of a system. mass

δQ 
  T  int rev = 0

 dV =0

 dV = ΔV
cycle =0
 7–1 Entropy 3

The entropy change between two specified states is the same whether the process
is reversible or irreversible. AS is the
same State dependently ,
* not path dependent

-
> needs more work
 7–1 Entropy 4

A Special Case: Internally Reversible Isothermal Heat Transfer

Processes

 δQ 
2 2  δQ  1 2
ΔS =    =   =  (δQ)
1
 T int rev 1
 T0 int rev T0 1 int rev

Q
ΔS = (kJ/K)
T0
This equation is particularly useful for determining the entropy changes of
thermal energy reservoirs.
 7–2 The Increase of Entropy Principle 1

δQ δQ 1  δQ 

2
A cycle composed of a reversible
and an irreversible process. T
≤0 1 T 2  T int rev
+   £0

δQ
+ S1 − S2 ≤ 0 S2 − S1 ≥ δ Q
2

2

1 T 1 T
δ Q The equality holds for an internally
dS ≥ reversible process and the inequality
T
for an irreversible process.
gen-generation
2 δQ
∆Ssys = S2 − S1 =  + Sgen
1 T
Sgen = ∆S total = ∆Ssys + ∆Ssurr ≥ 0

Some entropy is generated or created during an irreversible process, and this

generation is due entirely to the presence of irreversibilities.
The entropy generation Sgen is always a positive quantity or zero.
Can the entropy change of a system be negative?
 7–2 The Increase of Entropy Principle 2

A system and its surroundings form an

The entropy change of an isolated system
is the sum of the entropy changes of its isolated system.
components, and is never less than zero.

Q =
0

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

∆Sisolated ≥ 0
Sgen = ∆S total = ∆Ssys + ∆Ssurr ≥ 0

> 0 irreversible process


Sgen = 0 reversible process
< 0 impossible process
 The increase of entropy principle
 7–2 The Increase of Entropy Principle 3

Some Remarks about Entropy 1. Processes can occur in a certain

direction only, not in any direction. A
The entropy change of a system process must proceed in the direction
can be negative, but the entropy that complies with the increase of
generation cannot. entropy principle, that is, Sgen ≥ 0. A
process that violates this principle is
impossible.
2. Entropy is a nonconserved property,
and there is no such thing as the
conservation of entropy principle.
Entropy is conserved during the
idealized reversible processes only and
increases during all actual processes.
3. The performance of engineering
systems is degraded by the presence of
irreversibilities, and entropy generation
is a measure of the magnitudes of the
irreversibilities during that process. It is
Sgen = ∆S total = ∆Ssys + ∆Ssurr = 1 kJ/K also used to establish criteria for the
performance of engineering devices.
 7–3 Entropy Change of Pure Substances 1

Entropy is a property, and thus the value of entropy of a system is fixed once
the state of the system is fixed.

The entropy of a pure substance is determined

s = s f + xs fg (kJ/kg.K) from the tables (like other properties).
T -s Diagram
s@T , P ≅ S f @ T (kJ/kg.K)

Entropy change

∆S = m∆s = m( s 2 − s1 ) (kJ/K)
 7–3 Entropy Change of Pure Substances 2

# Exam Question Draw

diagram
:
Schematic of the T-s diagram for water. cycles on T-s
Chapter 9 tho--

:
sentropic constant
Entropy
:

const .

Volume
Const
, Pressure
 7–4 Isentropic Processes
Isentropic process: A process during which the entropy remains constant.

Isentropic process : ∆s = 0 or s2 = s1 (kJ/kg.K)

During an internally reversible, adiabatic
(isentropic) process, the entropy remains The isentropic process appears as a
constant. vertical line segment on a T-s diagram.

· No Area ,
adiabatic
No heat removed /transferred
 7–5 Property Diagrams Involving Entropy 1

δ Qint rev = T dS (kJ) On a T-S diagram, the area under the process
curve represents the heat transfer for internally
2 reversible processes.
Qint rev =  T dS (kJ)
1

δ Qint rev = T ds (kJ/kg)

⑭
2
qint rev =  Tds (kJ/kg)

Fr
1

qint rev = T0 ∆s (kJ/kg)

· AQ) //
 7–5 Property Diagrams Involving Entropy 2

Mollier diagram: The h-s diagram

For adiabatic steady-flow devices, the vertical distance Δh on an h-s diagram is a

measure of work, and the horizontal distance Δs is a measure of irreversibilities.

1h us IS

E
T
F

(measure
 7–5 Property Diagrams Involving Entropy 3

W net,out = QH − QL
The T-S diagram of a Carnot cycle (Example 7–6).

Qui

Cisothermal heat

a
Expansion
 7–6 What is Entropy? 1

The level of molecular disorder (entropy) of a

substance increases as it melts or evaporates. Boltzmann relation
S = k 1n W
W the total number of possible
relevant microstates of the system

Gibbs’ formulation

S = −k  p log p
i i

pi sum of all microstates’

uncertainties, that is probabilities

k = 1.3806 × 10−23 J/K

Boltzmann constant
 7–6 What is Entropy? 2

The third law of thermodynamics: A pure crystalline substance at absolute

The entropy of a pure crystalline zero temperature is in perfect order, and its
substance at absolute zero entropy is zero (the third law of
thermodynamics).
temperature is zero since there is no
uncertainty about the state of the
molecules at that instant.
The third law of thermodynamics
provides an absolute reference point
for the determination of entropy.
The entropy determined relative to
this point is called absolute entropy.
 7–6 What is Entropy? 3

Disorganized energy does not create much In the absence of friction, raising a weight
useful effect, no matter how large it is. by a rotating shaft does not create any
disorder (entropy), and thus energy is not
degraded during this process.
 7–6 What is Entropy? 4

The paddle-wheel work done on a gas During a heat transfer process, the net
increases the level of disorder entropy increases. (The increase in the
(entropy) of the gas, and thus energy entropy of the cold body more than offsets
is degraded during this process. the decrease in the entropy of the hot
body.)
 7–7 The T ds Relations 1

δ Qint rev − δ W int rev,out = dU # assumption , process is

reversible

δ Qint rev = Tds

δW int rev,out = P dV

T dS = dU + P dV (kJ)

*
T dS = dU + P dv (kJ/kg) The first T ds or Gibbs equation Tds = du + Pdy
Tds =
dif
Rule derivative
h = u + Pv → dh = du + Pdv + vdp  Chain
 T ds = dh − v dp
(Eq.7-23) → Tds = du + Pdv 
du P dv The second T ds equation
ds = +
T T
dh vdP Differential changes in entropy
ds = -
T T in terms of other properties
 7–7 The T ds Relations 2

The T ds relations are valid for both reversible and irreversible processes
and for both closed and open systems.

Open
System

for Both closed

Valid
and open systems.
 7–8 Entropy Change of Liquids and Solids
Liquids and solids can be approximated as incompressible substances since
their specific volumes remain nearly constant during a process.
du Pdv
ds = +
T T
Since dv ≅ 0 for liquids and solids
du c dT
ds = +
T T
since c p = cv = c and du = c dT
2 dT T
Liquids, solids : s 2 − s1 =  c(T) ≅ cavg 1n 2 (kJ/kg.K)
1 T T1
For and isentropic process of an incompressible substance
T2
Isentrtopic : s2 − s1 = cavg 1n =0 → T 2 = T1
T1
 7–9 The Entropy Change of Ideal Gases 1

From the first T ds relation From the second T ds relation

du Pdv (Gibb's Relation) dh vdP
ds = + ds = −
T T T T
du = cv dT Cideal Gas) dh = c p dT

P = RT / v v = RT / P
dT dv 2 dT P2
ds = cv + R s2 − s1 =  c p (T ) − R 1n
T v 1 T P1
2 dT v2
s2 − s1 =  cv (T ) + R 1n
1 T v1
 7–9 The Entropy Change of Ideal Gases 3

Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis)

2 dT v
s2 − s1 =  cv (T ) + R 1n 2
1 T v1
T2 v
s 2 − s1 = c v,avg 1n + R 1n 2 (kJ / kg.K)
T1 v1

2 dT P
s2 − s1 =  c p (T ) − R 1n 2
1 T P1
T2 P
s2 − s1 = cp,avg 1n − R 1n 2 (kJ/kg.K)
T1 P1

Entropy change of an ideal gas on a unit–mole basis

T2 v
s 2 − s 1 = cv,avg 1n + Ru 1n 2 (kJ/kmol.K)
T1 v1
T2 P
s 2 − s 1 = cp,avg 1n + Ru 1n 2
-
(kJ/kmol.K)
T1 P1
 7–9 The Entropy Change of Ideal Gases 4

Under the constant-specific-heat assumption, the specific heat is assumed to be

constant at some average value.

Use Table A-2 Charg,

First : Calculate
Targ ,

then use Table

 7–9 The Entropy Change of Ideal Gases 5

Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis)

We choose absolute zero as the reference temperature and define a function s° as
T
dT The entropy of an ideal gas depends on
s =  C p (T )
o
both T and P. The function s°
0
T represents only the temperature-
2 dT dependent part of entropy.
1
c p (T )
T
= s2o − s1o

On a unit–mole basis
P2
s2 − s1 = s2o − s1o − R 1n (kJ/kg.K)
P1
On a unit–mass basis
P2
s 2 − s 1 = s 2o − s 1o − Ru 1n (kJ/kmol.K)
P1
 7–9 The Entropy Change of Ideal Gases 7

Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases

Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis)
k −1 ideal Gas
T v  T2   v1 
s2 − s1 = cv,avg 1n 2 + R1n 2 =
0
  =  (ideal gas) isentropic
T1 v1  T1 s=const.  v2 
Setting this equation equal to zero, we get
( k −1) / k
T2 R v  T2   P2 
1n = − 1n 2   =  (ideal gas)
T1 cv v1  T1 s=const.  P1 
R / cv
 v1 
k
T2  P2   v1 
1n = 1n     =   (ideal gas)
T1  v2   1 s=const.  v2 
P

R = c p − cv , k = c p / cv Tv k -1 = constant
TP (1-k ) / k = constant
R / cv = k − 1
Pv k = constant
 7–9 The Entropy Change of Ideal Gases 9

Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases

Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis)
o oP2 o o P2
0 = s − s − R 1n
2 1 s = s + R 1n
2 1
P1 P1

Relative Pressure and Relative Specific Volume * Textbook #

P2 s2o − s1o  1 0  exp(s°/R) is the P2 exp( s2o / R )

= exp   =
P1 R  0 1  relative pressure Pr. P1 exp( s1o / R )

 P2  Pr 2
  =
 P1 s=const. Pr1
Pv
1 1 P2 v2 v2 T2 P1 T2 Pr1 T2 / Pr 2
= → = = =
T1 T2 v1 T1 P2 T1 Pr 2 T1 / Pr1

 v2  vr 2 T/Pr is the relative

  =
 v1 s=const. vr1 specific volume vr.
 7–10 Reversible Steady-flow Work 1

δ qrev − δ wrev = dh + dke + dpe

δ qrev = Tds (Eq.7-16) 

 δ qrev = dh − v dp
Tds = dh − v dp (Eq.7-24) 

−δ wrev = v dP + dke + dpe

2
wrev = −  v dp − ∆
-ke − ∆pe (kJ/kg)
1

2
wrev = −  v dp (kJ/kg) &
When kinetic and potential
1
energies are negligible
2
wrev,in =  v dp + ∆ke + ∆pe
1

%
w rev = −v( P2 − P1 ) − ∆ke − ∆pe (kJ/kg)
Bernoulli equation: Steady flow
V22 − V12
v( P2 − P1 ) + + g ( z2 − z1 ) = 0 of a liquid through a device that
2 involves no work interactions.
 7–10 Reversible Steady-flow Work 3

Air is compressed steadily by a reversible compressor from an inlet state of 100 kPa and
Fab 300 K to an exit pressure of 900 kPa. Determine the compressor work per unit mass for
(a) isentropic compression with k = 1.4, (b) polytropic compression with n = 1.3, (c)
isothermal compression, and (d) ideal two-stage compression with intercooling with a
polytropic exponent of 1.3.

2
wrev =  v dP ≅ v1 ( P2 − P1 ) (7 -
12)
1

 1kJ 
= (0.001043m3 /kg)[(1000 − 100) kPa]  3 
 1kPa.m 
= 0.94kJ/kg

Tds = dh − vdP ( Eq.7 − 24) 

 vdP = dh
ds = 0 (isentropic process) 
2 2
wrev ,in =  vdP =  dh = h2 − h1
1 1

wrev,in = (3194.5 − 2675.0)kJ/kg = 519.5kJ/kg

 Wren-jud =

KRIT = /
Wher = 1 . 4(0 207) 300K
.

1. 4 =

1
[(10-17 = 263 .
2
15

↑V" = Const .

: Wher =

S'vdp =
uR(T-Ti)
n -
1

Aside
Wrer
= ((
pr const Wrer
(13)0CO((1) 2
.
=

(f)
=
=

UK -V
=
=

Wrev
=I (% ) de
Pr = constr

In
Wher =

Jude =
RT(n(f) = 0 .
207(300)

Wher =
189 . 2
KJlky
 7–12 Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-flow Devices 1

The more closely the actual process approximates the idealized isentropic
process, the better the device performs.
Thus, it would be desirable to have a parameter that expresses quantitatively
how efficiently an actual device approximates an idealized one. This parameter
is the isentropic or adiabatic efficiency, which is a measure of the deviation
of actual processes from the corresponding idealized ones.
Isentropic efficiencies are defined differently for different devices since each
device is set up to perform different tasks.

The isentropic process involves no

irreversibilities and serves as the
ideal process for adiabatic devices.
 7–12 Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-flow Devices 2

Isentropic Efficiency of Turbines

The h-s diagram for the actual and For a turbine under steady operation, the
isentropic processes of an adiabatic inlet state of the working fluid and the
turbine. exhaust pressure are fixed.
The ideal process for an adiabatic
turbine is an isentropic process between
the inlet state and the exhaust pressure.

Actual turbine work wa

ηT = =
Isentropic turbine work ws
h1 - h2 a
ηT ≅
h1 - h2 s

M+ < 1 for Turbines

 7–12 Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-flow Devices 3

Steam enters an adiabatic turbine steadily at 3 MPa and 400°C and leaves at 50
kPa and 100°C. If the power output of the turbine is 2 MW, determine (a) the
isentropic efficiency of the turbine and (b) the mass flow rate of the steam
flowing through the turbine.

Yurb .

Was
=

= 3MPS STAblA :
N

S1
=

32317
P : 5T
=
6 9235 45/ky
.

S2 6 9235
Pe 50kia he 2602 & Killy
= Si = .

KJ/kg
Y
.
= , a =

* under the dome

T2 = 1000
St 1 092
=
.

, Sg =
705931T
 =6 9235-la
X2 3
= S2 s -
2
0 8
.
,
= .

Sg-Sf

has =
hf +
xhfy = 2407 .
9
151kg

hi hza 3231 7 - 2682 4

.

66 75
2
.

: = =
=
.

h1-hzis 3231 7.
- 2407 9
.
7–12 Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-flow Devices 4

Isentropic Efficiencies of Compressors and Pumps

Isentropic compressor work ws The h-s diagram of the actual and

ηc = = isentropic processes of an
Actual compressor work wa
adiabatic compressor.

h2 s − h1 When kinetic and potential

ηc ≅
h2 a − h1 energies are negligible

ws v( P2 - P1 )
⑪
w
For a pump
=

jude)
ηP = =
wa h2 a - h1

M < 1 for Compressors .

Pumps
 7–12 Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-flow Devices 6

Air is compressed by an adiabatic compressor from 100 kPa and 12°C to a pressure of
800 kPa at a steady rate of 0.2 kg/s. If the isentropic efficiency of the compressor is
80 percent, determine (a) the exit temperature of air and (b) the required power input
to the compressor.
0 0 Tr reduced
Mc =
. =

Pressure

Tc =
2

only for
↑ isentropic

= loca Tabl A-1 N

Pr
=

=
285S

1 1500
.
.
Fr = =

Prc =
1 .

1500) ,000) = 9 262

.
 : A-17

has = 517 Cisentropic Process)

Mc = has - h = 0 0 .
= 51-285 15 .

+
12a = 575 .

03
U2a-hi hz . a
-
285 14 .

Table
for he ,
a = 575 03 .
- Tra =
569K Anso
A -
17 *
-

b) Steady flow, (no heat transfer .

Q = 0
adabatic) SK = ye =

Cho information about

Speed, pipe size
Ein =
Font elevation
,

rih + Win = nila , a -

> Win = m(h2 ,
a
- hi)

Win =
0 .
2(575 03 .
-
205 .
1)

actual
W =
58 kW

key words : "Minimum

W Or 1) required
, or ideal compressor : Ws = m (has-hi) or M =
 7–12 Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-flow Devices 7

Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzles

The h-s diagram of the actual and
2
Actual KE at nozzle exit V isentropic processes of an adiabatic
ηN = = 2a
2
Isentropic KE at nozzle exit V 2s
nozzle.

If the inlet velocity of the fluid is small

relative to the exit velocity, the energy
balance is
V22a
h1 = h2 a +
2
S

h1 − h2 a Similar to
ηN ≅ -

h1 − h2 s Turbines

# Nozzles drop the pressure ,

,

increase
Velocity/speed
 7–13 Entropy Balance 1

Entropy balance: The entropy change of a system during a process is equal to

the net entropy transfer through the system boundary and the entropy
generated within the system.

 Total   Total   Total   Change in the 

 entropy  −  entropy  +  entropy  =  total entropy 
       
 entering   leaving   generated   of the system 
       

Sin − Sout + Sgen = ∆Ssystem

 7–13 Entropy Balance 2

Figure 7–56
Energy and entropy balances for a system.
 7–13 Entropy Balance 3

Entropy Change of a System, ∆Ssystem

Entropy change = Entropy at final state − Entropy at initial state

∆Ssystem = Sfinal − Sfinal = Sinitial = S 2 − S1

When the properties of the system are not uniform

Ssystem =  s δ m = ·
v
sp dV

m
x =

V
Sm =
pdf
 7–13 Entropy Balance 4

Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer, Sin and Sout

1 Heat Transfer Heat transfer is always accompanied by

entropy transfer in the amount of Q/T,
Entropy transfer by heat transfer: where T is the boundary temperature.
Q
Sheat = (T = constant)
T
δQ Qk
≅ 
2
Sheat = 
1 T Tk
 7–13 Entropy Balance 5

Entropy transfer by work

Entropy transfer by work: Swork = 0

No entropy accompanies work as it crosses the system boundary. But entropy may
be generated within the system as work is dissipated into a less useful form of
energy.
 7–13 Entropy Balance 6

2 Mass Flow
Entropy transfer by mass flow: Smass = ms

When the properties of the mass change during the process

Sɺmass =  s ρVn dAc and Smass =  s δ m =  Sɺmass dt

Ac ∆t

Mass contains entropy as well as energy, and thus mass flow into or out of a system
is always accompanied by energy and entropy transfer.
 7–13 Entropy Balance 7

Entropy Generation, Sgen

Sin − Sout + Sgen = ∆Ssystem (kJ/K)
   
Net entropy transfer Entropy Change
by heat and mass generation in entropy

Sɺin − Sɺout + Sɺgen = dSsystem / dt (kW/K)

    
Rate of net entropy Rate of entropy Rate of change
transfer by heat generation in entropy
and mass

( sin − sout ) + sgen = ∆ssystem (kJ/kg.K)

Mechanisms of entropy
transfer for a general system.
 Sgenz0
7–13 Entropy Balance 8

Entropy generation outside system The total entropy generated during a

boundaries can be accounted for by process can be determined by applying
writing an entropy balance on an the entropy balance to an extended
extended system that includes the system system that includes the system itself and
and its immediate surroundings. its immediate surroundings where
external irreversibilities might be
occurring .
The entropy change in this case is equal
to the sum of the entropy change of the
system and the entropy change of the
immediate surroundings.
 7–13 Entropy Balance 9

Closed Systems (for Internally

Reversible (

Qk :
Closed system :  T +-Sgen = ∆Ssystem = S2 − S1 (kJ/K) general
k

The entropy change of a closed system during a process is equal to the sum of
the net entropy transferred through the system boundary by heat transfer and
the entropy generated within the system boundaries. 0
·

Adiabatic closed system :

Q =
v
Sgen = ∆Sadiabatic system (I
System + surroundings : Sgen =  ∆S = ∆Ssystem + ∆Ssurroundings

∆Ssystem = m( s2 − s1 )

∆Ssurr = Qsurr / Tsurr

↓
Large surrounding
[unstant Temp
 7–13 Entropy Balance 10

Control Volumes
The entropy of a control
Qk
 T +  mi si −  me se + Sgen = (S2 − S1 )cv (kJ/K)
volume changes as a result of
k mass flow as well as heat
Qɺ k
transfer.
 T +  mɺ i si −  mɺ e se + Sɺgen = dSCV / dt (kW/K)
k
ɺ
Qk
Steady-flow: Sgen =  mɺ e se −  mɺ i si − 
ɺ
Tk
Steady-flow, single-stream:
Qɺ k
Sgen = mɺ ( se − si ) − 
ɺ
Tk

Steady-flow, single-stream, adiabatic:

Sɺgen = mɺ ( se − si )
 7–13 Entropy Balance 11

Qɺ k
T +  mɺ s -  mɺ s
i i e e + sɺgen = dSCV / dt (kW/K)
k

The rate of entropy change within the control volume during a process is equal
to the sum of the rate of entropy transfer through the control volume boundary
by heat transfer, the net rate of entropy transfer into the control volume by
mass flow, and the rate of entropy generation within the boundaries of the
control volume as a result of irreversibilities.
 Summary
~
• Entropy.
• The Increase of entropy principle. -
• Entropy change of pure substances. -
• Isentropic processes. -

• Property diagrams involving entropy. -

~
• What is entropy?
~
• The T ds relations.
• Entropy change of liquids and solids. ~
-
• The entropy change of ideal gases.
• Reversible steady-flow work. ~
• Minimizing the compressor work. · skipped (To be discussed Later)

• Isentropic efficiencies of steady-flow devices. ~

• Entropy balance. ~
End of Chapter 7