BSCESEP-T-3A

GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR

HIGHWAYS AND
RAILWAYS
GROUP 4
Almazan, Jaspher, Bongar, Jarmaine Kyle, Dimaranan,
PREPARED BY: Cedric, Manual, Ariane Kryzzle, Peña, Justine Mae,
Saranza, Mylene, Solatorio, Donita Rose
Geometric design for highways and
railways refers to the design of the
visible dimensions of such features as
horizontal and vertical alignments,
cross sections, superelevation, and
earthworks facilities.
The geometric design of The basic objectives in Geometric design is
roads is the branch of geometric design are influenced by the
highway engineering optimize efficiency and vehicle. driver, and
concerned with the safety while minimizing traffic characteristics.
positioning of the physical cost and environmental
elements of the roadway damage.
according to standards
and constraints.
Geometric design of highways involves optimizing the
physical elements of the roadway to achieve efficiency,
safety, and cost-effectiveness

1. Alignment
2. Profile
3. Cross section
ALIGNMENT
- The route of the road, defined as a series of horizontal tangent and curves.
PROFILE
- The vertical aspect of the road, including crest and sag curves, and the
straight grade lines connecting them.
CROSS SECTIONS
- Shows the position and number of vehicle and bicycle lanes and sidewalks,
along with their cross slope or banking. Cross sections also show drainage
features, pavement structure and other items outside the category of
geometric design.
To meet the objective of fitting the highway to site topography and yet
satisfy the safety, service and performance standards, the following
considerations have to be properly addressed in the design process.

Design speed Alignment, Superelevation, and Grades

Design traffic volume Cross section
Number of lanes Lane width
Level Of Service (LOS) Horizontal and vertical clearance
Sight distance
The design speed is defined as a selected rate of travel used to determine
the various geometric features of the roadway.
The basic purpose in using the design speed concept is to achieve
consistency in the various design elements that influence vehicle
operations.
 A "design vehicle" is a selected
motor vehicle whose weight,
dimensions, and operating
characteristics are used to
establish highway design
controls to accommodate
vehicles of a designated type.
For the purpose of geometric
design, design vehicle should be
one with dimensions and minimum turning radii larger than those of almost
all vehicles in its class.
Design criteria significantly affected by the type of vehicle include:
Horizontal and vertical clearances Turning roadway and intersection
Alignment radii
Lane widening curves Intersection sight distance
Shoulder width requirements Acceleration criteria
The roadway ahead that is visible to the driver.
Various sight distance criteria exist in highway
geometric design to provide drivers with sufficient
warning of potential obstacle or conflict ahead.
Future obstruction to sight distance that may
develop or be constructed should be taken into
consideration in the initial design. Areas outside of
the highway right of way that are not under the
highway agency’s jurisdiction should be considered
as points of obstruction.
 The distance ahead that a
motorist should be able to see
so that the vehicle can be
brought safely to a stop short of
an obstruction or foreign object
on the road.

The factors, which determine the minimum distance required to stop, include:
Vehicle speed Friction capabilities between the tires
Driver’s total reaction time and the roadway surface
Characteristics and conditions of Vertical and horizontal alignment of
the vehicle the roadway
Geometric Design of Railway Track should be such as to provide
maximum efficiency in the traffic operation with maximum safety
at reasonable cost.

Any departure of track from the level is known as

grade or gradient. The purpose of providing
gradient is provide uniform rate of rise or fall, to
reduce cost of earth work, to reach different
stations at different level.
1. Ruling Gradient
The steepest gradient allowed on the track section. It determines the max
load that the locomotive can haul that section. The steep gradient needs more
powerful locomotives, smaller train loads, lower speed, resulting in costly
hauling.
–In plains: 1 in 150 to 1 in 200
–In hilly regions: 1 in 100 to 1 in 15

2. Momentum Gradient
The gradient on a section which are steeper than the ruling gradient acquire
sufficient momentum to negotiate them are known as momentum gradient.
3. Pusher Gradient
As stated above a ruling gradient limits the maximum weight of a train which can
be hauled over the section by a locomotive. If the ruling gradient is so severe on
a section that it needs the help of extra engine to pull the same load than this
gradient is known as pusher of helper gradient.

4. Gradient at Stations
At stations gradient are provided sufficient low due to following reason:
To prevent movement of standing vehicle.
To prevent additional resistance due to grade.
On Indian railways, maximum gradient permitted is 1 in 400 in station yards.
A vertical section of the ground and roadway at right angles to the
centerline of the roadway, including all elements of a highway or
street from right-of-way line

i. Pavement surface characteristics v. Kerbs

ii. Width of Pavement or Carriageway vi. Road Margins
iii. Cross Slope or Camber vii. Width of Formation
iv. Median or Traffic Separator
Important surface characteristics of the pavements are:
Friction
Pavement unevenness
Light reflecting characteristics
Drainage of surface water

- It is total width of road on which vehicles are allowed to move.

- The width of pavement depends on width of traffic lane and number
of lanes.
- Width of lane is decided based on maximum width of heavy
commercial vehicle (HCV) which is legally permitted to use the
roadway.

These are the standard width of pavements for different classes of

roads.
Cross slope or camber is the slope provided to the road surface in the
transverse direction to drain off the rain water from the road surface.

Drainage and disposal of water from pavement is considered

important because of the following reasons:
1. To maintain stability, surface condition and increase life of
pavement.
2. To prevent stripping of bitumen from aggregates.
3. To prevent slipping of vehicles running at high speed
Median is provided between two sets of traffic lanes intended to divide
the traffic moving in opposite directions.

The main function of the median is to prevent head-on collision

between vehicles moving in opposite directions on adjacent lanes.

The traffic separators used may be in form of pavement markings,

physical dividers or area separators.

Kerb indicates the boundary between the pavement and median or
foot path or shoulder.

Kerbs may be mainly divided into three groups based on their

functions:
1. Low kerb
2. Semi-barrier type kerb
3. Barrier type kerb
The various elements included in the road margins are:
1. Shoulder 5. Cycle track
2. Guard rail 6. Parking lane
3. Foot path 7. Embankment slope
4. Drive way

Width of formation or roadway is the sum of widths of pavement or

carriageway including separators, if any and the shoulders.
The horizontal alignment is a series of horizontal
tangents (straight roadway sections), circular curves,
and spiral transitions used for the roadway’s geometry.
Operational Safety Environmental and Economic
Passenger Comfort Considerations
Track Durability and Design Flexibility for Different
Maintenance Road Types
Energy Efficiency Adaptation to Terrain and
Freight and Cargo Handling Geographical Features
Future Growth and Expansion
Safety Efficient Land Use
Vehicle Control and Stability Integration with Railway
Driver Comfort Networks
Traffic Flow and Efficiency Speed and Travel Time
Minimizing Wear and Tear on Long - Term Infrastructure
Vehicles Development
Road Durability and Maintenance
Horizontal curves depend on specific
values for a minimum radius (based
on speed limit), curve length, and sight
obstructions (sight distance). An
increased superelevation (bank) may
be required to assure safety for high
speed locations with small curve radii.
Roadway horizontal curve design is based on the laws of physics and driver reaction to
lateral acceleration. Any geometric alignment needs to address curve location; curve
sharpness; tangent lengths; and how they relate to the vertical profile. All of these
components should be balanced to operate at appropriate speeds under normal
conditions.
Elements of Curve Design:
• Curve radius
• Superelevation
• Side friction
• Assumed vehicle speed
On curves, the sight
distance is reduced
because objects along
the inside of the curve
obstruct the driver’s line
of sight.
Safety Visibility of Signs and Signals
Stopping and Braking Distance Design and Maintenance
Passing and Overtaking Considerations
Speed Control and Efficiency Environmental and Terrain
Passenger Comfort Constraints
For stopping sight distance S shorter than the length of the curve
L; the following equation applies

Where:
M = middle ordinate necessary to provide adequate stopping sight
distance (S) ≥ R(1−cos⁡θ)
R = Radius of the curve
For stopping sight distance S longer than the length of the curve L;
the following equation applies.

Where
M = middle ordinate necessary to provide adequate stopping sight
distance (S) ≥ R(1−cos⁡θ)
R = Radius of the curve
L = Length of the curve
In connecting two straight roads, the most common is using a
simple circular curve. Other options may be reverse curves,
compound curves, and spiral curves. Reverse curves are just two
simple circular curves that turn in opposite directions. Compound
curves are circular curves in succession. Spiral curves have a
continuously changing radius.
In designing a simple circular curve, the following factors are considered:
R = radius of the curve, usually measured to the centerline of the road, in meters
I = central angle of the curve, in degrees
T = tangent length, in meters
E = external distance, in meters
M = middle ordinate, in meters
PC = point of curve (beginning point of the horizontal curve)
PI = point of tangent intersection
PT = point of tangent (ending point of the horizontal curve)
L = length of curve, in meters
Another consideration is the degree of curve, D, which is the central angle subtended by
one station (20m).
The following equations are used in designing a simple circular curve:

Length of Tangent, T

External Distance, E

Length of long chord, L

Middle Ordinate, M

Length of Curve, Lc 1 Station = 20 m 1 Station = 100 ft

Degree of curve, D (Arc Basis)

1 Station = 20 m 1 Station = 100 ft
Degree of curve, D (Chord Basis
Half Station = 20 m

Half Station = 50 ft
A horizontal curve is to be designed with PI located at STA 23 + 00. The
radius of the curve is 500 meters and the length of its tangent is 100 m.
Determine the location of PT, external distance, middle ordinate, and
degree of curve. 1 station = 20 meters
Similar to horizontal alignment, the core of vertical alignment
consists of tangents that are smoothly connected by curves.
However, vertical alignment is displayed in the profile view and the
curvature has a parabolic shape instead of a constant radius.

The typical vertical curve is a symmetric, parabolic curve with a shape

defined by the parabolic equation.
For vertical alignment, distance measurements are made on the
horizontal plane, based on stationing from horizontal alignment; this
process is necessary to avoid creating an additional station for the
purpose of vertical alignment.

There are two general types of vertical curves:

(1) a crest curve, which has a concave down shape and
(2) a sag curve, which has a concave up shape.
The primary elements of a symmetric, parabolic vertical curve include:

Point of vertical intersection (PVI): The location where the entrance

grade, G1, and the exit grade, G2, intersect.
Algebraic difference in grades (A): This measures the difference in
grades between G1 and G2.
Point of vertical curvature (PVC): The point where the vertical curve
begins and the highway leaves the tangent.
Point of vertical tangency (PVT): The point where the vertical curve
ends and the highway returns to the tangent.
Curve length (L): The horizontal distance (not the distance along
the arc) between the PVC and PVT. With a symmetric, parabolic
vertical curve, the length is bisected by the PVI. The curve length is
expressed in stations.
Entrance grade (G1): The grade of the tangent leading into the
vertical curve. The grade is expressed as a percent.
Exit grade (G2): The tangent leading out of the vertical curve. The
grade is expressed as a percent.
The general equation for a second-degree parabola takes the form of:
Y = ax² + bx + c

The term x is used to denote any horizontal distance along the curve
and is bounded by 0, which would designate the PVC point, and the
length of the curve, which would designate the PVT point.

The high or low point, also known as the turning point, of a vertical curve
occurs when the slope of the highway is equal to zero.
Determine the elevation of the centerline of a highway at 50-ft
increments from the PVC of an 800-ft vertical curve that connects an
entrance grade of - 3.7% and an exit grade of 1.9%. The PVI of the
curve is located at station 146117.18 with an elevation of 314.22 ft.
Also determine the location and elevation of the low point.
Determine the minimum length of a vertical curve with an entrance
grade of 4.2% and an exit grade of - 3.2% that will provide 5 ft of cover
for a 54-in diameter concrete pipe that has a 3-in wall thickness. The
invert elevation of the concrete pipe is 874.51 ft and is located at
station 70 + 12.43. The PVC is located at station 65 + 29.94 at an
elevation of 871.73 ft.
Superelevation is a method of
infrastructure construction used in
roadway curves where the outer edge of
the pavement is raised above the inner
edge. An aspect of the vertical alignment or
“profile” of a road viewed in cross-section,
it’s an important safety element in the
design criteria of any road with curves.

Superelevation is more commonly known

as “cant” or “banking,” as in the banked
track of a racing speedway.
Superelevation works with several interacting forces of physics to help
drivers maintain speed and stay safely on the road through a curve. A
complex combination of centrifugal and centripetal force, friction, inertia,
weight, and velocity or speed all interplay to determine the need for
superelevation on a road or highway.
• Centripetal force
On the road, centripetal force pulls moving vehicles toward the inside edge of
pavement as they move through a curve.

• Centrifugal force
Pulls you away from the center and toward the outside edge (and also pushes you
into your seat) as your vehicle rounds a curve.

• Side or Lateral Friction

Friction in this case is the resistance created between your car’s rubber tires and
the road surface. Its action is to inhibit motion, slowing the car down by keeping it
in constant contact with the road (which also helps prevent it from sliding or
skidding).
• Speed or Velocity
Speed or velocity is also a factor, one
that can combine with moisture to
counteract friction on the road. This
counteraction is especially
pronounced on elevated highway
bridges, as it is on most types of
bridges, where cold air can turn the
moisture into ice.
Superelevation is a crucial element in roadway design. Without it, curves
have to be taken much more slowly for safety. Otherwise, skidding can
occur as friction fails to compensate for continued forward motion and
centrifugal force on a curve.

Another consequence of inadequate superelevation can be road damage

caused by poorly distributed load, with the result being higher costs to
maintain curved sections of roadways.
How and where superelevation is used can vary
based on several factors, many of which involve
how fast vehicles are likely to be moving.

For instance, with too great an angle of

superelevation, slower-moving vehicles might
slide down the slope of a curve on a wet or icy
road. For vehicles moving too fast on such
roads, by contrast, hydroplaning may occur.
The type of pavement is also worth considering. Rougher roads, where
vehicles would likely be moving more slowly, would employ less
superelevation.

The size of the vehicle involved is another factor to consider. Trucks, RVs,
heavy construction vehicles and others with high centers of gravity are
more likely to tip or roll over on curves that don’t have adequate
superelevation.
Axis of rotation — The lengthwise axis around which a roadway is rotated
to change horizontal alignment and create the desired superelevation.

Camber or cross slope — A lateral slope across a traveled way that drains
water away from the pavement down to the edges, often into ditches or
drains.

Crown — The highest point on a road’s surface. A centerline crown is a

slightly elevated point at the center of the road from which water sheds
in both directions.
Curve radius (also known as curvature) — Radius is measured by
envisioning a full circular curve, then measuring the distance from the
center of the circle to its outer edge. The smaller the radius, the more
centripetal force is invoked.

Full superelevation — The point in a curve when the entire segment of

roadway is subject to superelevation, usually at the curve’s apex.

Maximum superelevation rate — The highest percentage of angle

allowed to prevent the danger of vehicles overturning. Expressed in
formulas as e max.
Minimum superelevation — The lowest percentage of angle allowable for
road drainage purposes, especially on a large-radius horizontal curve.
Typically 2% to 4%.

Runoff length (also known as superelevation runoff length) — The

distance required to transition the outside lane of a roadway from a flat
cross slope to full superelevation. Usually runs from the end of the
tangent runout to the full superelevation section.

Side friction (also known as lateral friction) — The resistance between the
surface of the road and a vehicle’s rubber tires, which inhibits motion
and slows vehicles down.
Slope — A measurement of steepness, level of incline, or upward or
downward slant, as in pavement slope.

Spiral runoff – A section of highway that transitions the angle and width
between a section of tangent runout and a section of full superelevation,
making it easier for drivers to navigate the change in curvature and angle.

Superelevation rate — The degree of banking imposed on a horizontal curve

to safely counterbalance the centrifugal force of a vehicle on the curve.

Tangent runout — The distance needed to change from a normal crown

section of road to a point where the adverse cross slope is removed and the
outside lane is level.
When designing and building roadways, it’s imperative to calculate the correct
values for each aspect of the design. Of course, numerous formulas are
involved in this process, including those for minimum/ maximum
superelevation, the maximum design speed for safety, and necessary
superelevation transition length.

Here we depict the formulas for full superelevation and basic rate of
superelevation.
To calculate the formula for full
superelevation, you’ll need to know
the radius of the curve and the velocity
or speed a vehicle is likely to be
traveling. Also know the breadth of the
road (how wide it is), and the rate of
acceleration (which is a constant at 9.8
meters/second2).
Alternatively, the sum of the rate of
superelevation and the friction factor
is equal to the rate of velocity (or
speed) squared, divided by the total
you get from multiplying gravity’s rate
of acceleration by the radius of the
curve.
Calculate the super elevation required for road of 7 m wide on a curve of 250
m radius for permissible speed of 80 kmph. Let the coefficient of friction be
0.15.
Earthworks are engineering projects that involve altering the earth's surface
by processing large amounts of soil or unformed rock. This includes the
removal and placement of soil and other excavated materials during
construction. The goal of earthwork is to modify the land's topography to
meet the specified design levels.
Cutting
refers to the process of removing earth material from a site to achieve the
desired land elevation. Once the materials are gathered, they are loaded
and hauled to the area that is needed to be filled.

Filling
is the process of moving excavated material or additional soil to a
designated area to shape the land as planned.
Roadworks
Site Preparation
Cleaning and Grubbing
Excavation
Embankment filling
Railways
Irrigation project such as canals and dams.
In urban or flat rural projects, achieving a perfect cut and fill balance is
difficult due to limited topography, while uneven terrain makes it easier and
more cost-effective, although adjustments for various factors are still
necessary.

Stripping: The removal of top layers of soil or vegetation.

Photogrammetric bias: Potential inaccuracies in terrain measurements due
to aerial imaging techniques.
Unsuitable materials: The exclusion of materials that are not fit for
construction purpose.
Compaction or bulking factors: The change in material volume due to
compaction (shrinking) or bulking (expansion) when moved.

Topsoil removal: Adjusting for the depth of topsoil that must be stripped
before construction.
Earthwork quantities in geometric design refers to the volume of soil or
material that needs to be excavated, moved, or filled during the construction
of transportation infrastructure (such as roads, highways, railways), buildings,
or other projects.
Factors that affect earthwork quantities include:
Depth of topsoil to be removed before placement of fill (the stripping
depth).
The quantity of material that must be removed is essential to create a
stable base for pavement or embankment construction.
Unsuitable materials may be utilized for noise barriers or land shaping,
depending on construction specifications.
Material which is unsuitable for embankment construction including:
— topsoil and other material with organic content
— large boulders
— excavated hard rock which may be uneconomical to crush to a size
which can be compacted
— any unstable or expansive material to be carted to waste
Flattening embankment slopes beyond stability limits for safety and
maintenance.
Photogrammetric bias can be mitigated using ground surveys for enhanced
design accuracy.
Compaction Factor
Geometric Design contains guidance that provides road designers and other
practitioners with information that is common to the geometric design of road
alignments. Road designers have to consider many factors and disciplines that may
affect, or be affected by, the design of roads and intersections. It is essential to
ensuring transportation infrastructure safety, efficiency, comfort, and sustainability.
Properly designed systems improve user experience while minimizing costs and
environmental impact.
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