Original Article

Ongoing Innovations in Biomechanics and Materials for the

New Millennium
Robert P. Kusy, BS, MS, PhD

Abstract: Material innovations are reviewed within the context of ongoing biomechanical developments
that relate the critical contact angle of second-order angulation (uc) to the overall resistance to sliding (RS).
As a science in its embryonic stage of development, RS is partitioned into classical friction (FR), elastic
binding (BI), and physical notching (NO). Both FR and BI are defined in terms of normal forces (N) and
kinetic coefficients (mk). The angulation at which NO occurs (uz) is introduced as a second boundary
condition to uc. Given this scientific backdrop, material modifications are sought that reduce RS. Ap-
proaches include minimizing mk or N within the context of FR and u , uc, as, for example, by surface
modifications of archwires and brackets or by engineering novel ligation materials. Stabilizing u at u ø
uc should provide more efficient and effective sliding mechanics by developing innovative materials (eg,
composites) in which stiffness (EI) varies without changing wire or bracket dimensions. Between the
boundaries of uc and uz (ie, uc , u , uz), BI may be reduced by decreasing EI or increasing interbracket
distance (IBD), independent of whether a conventional or composite material is used. (Angle Orthod 2000;
70:366–376.)
Key Words: Binding; Coefficient of friction; Critical contact angle; Friction; Sliding mechanics

Glossary of Terms: For the reader’s convenience, a ENGAGEMENT INDEX 5 dimensionless constant
glossary of orthodontic terminology and abbreviations is equal to (SIZE/SLOT)
provided to facilitate comprehension throughout the text. FL 5 flats, which are right-hand circular cylinders that
AW 5 archwire are used to simulate a bracket
AW/BR 5 archwire-bracket combination, otherwise FR 5 classical friction
known in the science of friction as a couple I 5 area moment of inertia
BI 5 elastic binding caused by exceeding uc but less II 5 ion implantation, for example, using nitrogen (N1)
than uz or titanium (Ti1) ions
BR 5 bracket IBD 5 interbracket distance of contiguous teeth
BRACKET INDEX 5 dimensionless constant equal to IN 5 interlocking
WIDTH/SLOT mil 5 0.001 inch, which equals 0.025 mm
CLEARANCE INDEX 5 dimensionless constant equal N 5 normal or ligation force
to (1 2 ENGAGEMENT INDEX) NBI 5 the normal force associated with elastic binding
cN 5 centiNewton, which equals about 1 g force
(BI)
CR 5 center of resistance of a tooth
NC 5 designation for an appliance that has not been
DLC 5 diamondlike carbon coating
coated
E 5 modulus of elasticity, otherwise known in engi-
NFR 5 the normal or ligation force associated with clas-
neering as the ratio of stress to strain
sical friction (FR)
EI 5 stiffness, or the product of the modulus of elasticity
(E) times the area moment of inertia (I) NO 5 physical notching caused by exceeding uz
P 5 frictional force
PD 5 plasma deposition
a
Professor, Department of Orthodontics, Department of Biomedical PL 5 plowing
Engineering, Curriculum in Applied and Material Sciences, University RS 5 resistance to sliding
of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC.
(e-mail: [email protected])
SH 5 shearing
Contents presented at the XV SIDO Congress International, Rome, SIZE 5 the archwire dimension that engages the SLOT
Italy, December 1999. dimension of a bracket
Accepted: March 2000. Submitted: October 1999. SLOT 5 the bracket dimension that receives the SIZE
q 2000 by The EH Angle Education and Research Foundation, Inc. dimension of an archwire

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INNOVATIONS IN BIOMECHANICS AND MATERIALS 367

WIDTH 5 the bracket dimension in the mesial-distal di-

rection
u 5 second-order angulation of an archwire relative to a
bracket
uc 5 critical contact angle, or the second-order angula-
tion after which elastic binding (BI) occurs
ur 5 relative angle of binding, which equals (u 2 uc)
uz 5 demarcation between elastic and plastic deforma-
tion, or the second-order angulation at which elastic
binding (BI) ends and physical notching (NO) begins
mk 5 kinetic coefficient of friction
mk2BI 5 kinetic coefficient of friction associated with
elastic binding (BI)
mk2FR 5 kinetic coefficient of friction associated with
classical friction (FR)

INTRODUCTION
FIGURE 1. Photograph of an archwire engaged in a bracket showing
Biomechanics and materials complement one another.1,2 the geometric parameters that are important to adequately describe
Both are required for a comprehensive understanding of orthodontic sliding mechanics: the archwire size (SIZE), the bracket
orthodontic treatment, yet most often they are presented as slot (SLOT), the bracket width (WIDTH), the interbracket distance
though they were independent. In the next millenium, our (IBD), and the angulation (u) that corresponds to the critical contact
angle of second-order angulation (uc; see equations 1a and 1b).
comprehension of biomechanics will precipitate material in-
novations, and our material innovations will spur new con-
cepts in biomechanics. This cyclic behavior should be part
of the philosophy of future orthodontics. in which the ENGAGEMENT INDEX 5 (SIZE/SLOT)
Today we find ourselves at the brink of a new millenium. and the BRACKET INDEX 5 (WIDTH/SLOT). Thus,
Yet, only about 100 years have passed since Edward Angle each uc depends on the ratios of these indices.3 Moreover,
placed his first archwire into a patient’s mouth and ortho- once this binding occurs, it can assume 2 forms: elastic
dontics formally began. During that period, many innova- deformation, wherein the wire and bracket spring back to
tions have occurred that have been explained in terms of their original shapes upon removal of force, or plastic de-
the ‘‘art.’’ However, like all fields that are in their nascent formation, wherein the wire, bracket, or both permanently
stages of development, the ‘‘science’’ has lagged behind. change shape. We call this second type of binding physical
In fact, only within the last 10 years have scientifically notching.5 Although this demarcation point (but more likely
based biomechanical and material innovations begun that a demarcation zone) between elastic and plastic deforma-
will carry us well into the next millenium. Some of these tion has yet to be identified (consequently, we will provi-
innovations are the subject of this article. sionally call it uz), a discontinuity is speculated between
binding prior to notching, wherein motion continues, and
BIOMECHANICS AS A SCIENCE binding after notching, wherein motion eventually ceases.
To date, only the morphological features (the so-called foot-
On a day-to-day basis, most orthodontists are concerned prints) of the notching region have been documented after
with archwire-bracket combinations and their interaction the archwire or the bracket exceeds its yield strength.6,7
with misaligned teeth, the so-called bread and butter of the On the basis of the aforementioned, a physical picture
profession. Treatments are often documented when the teeth emerges (Figure 2), and a mathematical relation can de-
moved readily or with great difficulty, but usually with an- scribe the overall resistance to sliding (RS) of an appliance
ecdotal explanations at best. as5
Today, we know that, for each archwire-bracket combi-
nation, a critical contact angle of second-order angulation RS 5 FR 1 BI 1 NO, (2)
(uc) exists (Figure 1) at which classical sliding friction gives in which FR, BI, and NO are classical friction, elastic bind-
way to binding.3 This uc is controlled solely by geometry ing, and physical notching. The terms of this relation could
according to the simplified relationship4 be further partitioned into plowing (PL), interlocking (IN),
57.3(CLEARANCE INDEX) and shearing (SH) components, but their details are beyond
uc 5 (1a) the scope of this paper.8
(BRACKET INDEX)
Notwithstanding, classical friction (FR) occurs because
57.3(1 2 ENGAGEMENT INDEX) of the ligation or normal force (NFR) that either presses the
5 , (1b)
(BRACKET INDEX) wire into the slot base or slot wall (it does not matter

Angle Orthodontist, Vol 70, No 5, 2000

368 KUSY

u ø uc, sliding is optimal. Thus, as governed by the arch-

wire and bracket dimensions (ie, the ENGAGEMENT IN-
DEX and the BRACKET INDEX3,4), aligning and leveling
from tooth to tooth are such that only FR is present (Figure
2). Although sliding at u , uc provides no physical pen-
alties because FR is a constant, a cost is exacted via in-
creased treatment time for the patient and consequently
fewer patients treated by the practitioner. Moreover, when
sliding occurs at uc , u , uz, the quality of care is increas-
ingly compromised as the amount of binding and the sub-
sequent treatment time generally increase. Thus, an effec-
tive zone exists in which, for the values of RS at us just
less than or just greater than uc, the cost or quality of care
is acceptable, and sliding mechanics can be efficiently and
effectively performed. These attendant zones are dependent
FIGURE 2. Schematic diagram showing the partition of the resis- on the parameters that govern FR and BI.
tance to sliding (RS) into classical friction (FR), elastic binding (BI),
The relationship of FR has been known for hundreds of
and physical notching (NO) within the passive and active configu-
rations with important boundary conditions (uc and uz) delineated. years, since Amontons first stated and Coulomb later reit-
erated that FR is proportional to NFR by a constant, the
coefficient of kinetic friction9 (mk2FR), or
which), because the frictional force (P) has the same mag-
FR 5 (mk2FR) NFR. (3)
nitude and direction in either case. In the passive configu-
ration,3,4 classical friction is small in magnitude but none- The partitioned RS function shows that this term may be
theless controls sliding because binding and notching do evaluated independent of u (Figure 2).
not exist at this juncture (Figure 2). In the active configu- Unlike FR, however, the relationship of BI is just under
ration,3,4 FR is the least in magnitude because binding, investigation10 and is dependent on material, dimensional,
notching, or both dominate (Figure 2). and anatomical parameters.11 From the experimental data
Elastic binding (BI) occurs because of the normal force that have been recently measured, a linear relationship is
of binding (NBI) once the wire simultaneously contacts di- observed that is dependent on u, or
agonal tie-wings of a bracket as it exits the bracket (Figure
BI 5 (mk2BI) NBI, (4a)
1). In the active configuration, BI can be negligible when
the angulation (u) approximately equals uc (ie, u ø uc), in which mk2BI is the rate of severity of binding or the
comparable in magnitude to FR, or it can dominate when kinetic coefficient of binding, and NBI is the normal force
u .. uc (eg, when u ø uz; Figure 2). of binding,
In the active configuration, physical notching (NO) is the
NBI } (E, I, (u 2 uc), WIDTH21, IBD21) (4b)
ultimate manifestation of binding in which plastic defor-
mation has occurred at the diagonal tie-wings but more in which E is the modulus of elasticity, I is the moment of
likely at the opposing wire contacts.5–7 When the normal inertia, (u 2 uc) is the relative angle of binding, WIDTH
force of binding becomes sufficient to cause this notching is the bracket dimension in the mesial-distal direction, and
(eg, at u . uz; Figure 2), sliding mechanics all but cease IBD is the interbracket distance. Note that for (u 2 uc) #
until the tipping forces or the forces of mastication at least 0, NBI 5 0 (see Figure 2).
temporarily remedy the situation.
The foregoing partition of RS into FR, BI, and NO pro- USING BIOMECHANICS TO INNOVATE NEW
vides important prerequisites with regard to sliding me- MATERIALS
chanics of archwire-bracket combinations in which the
On the basis of equations 3, 4a, and 4b, new materials
boundary conditions, uc and uz, are paramount. Simply stat-
may be innovated to facilitate orthodontic treatment if only
ed, to slide teeth along an archwire requires that the angle
the magnitudes of FR, BI, or both can be reduced. To re-
between adjacent teeth be such that u ø uc but never such
duce FR, only 2 options exist: either decrease mk2FR or de-
that u $ uz. Only at u , uz can sliding occur in any form
crease NFR while at least maintaining the product of the 2
without the onset of physical notching. Indeed, a wire or
at a lower value.
bracket that shows evidence of severe notching identifies a
patient whose treatment plan has become, to some extent,
Reducing FR by decreasing mk2FR for u , uc
problematic.
Even when sliding can occur, the cost and the quality of Earlier work has shown that generic material selection
sliding differ for u , uc, u ø uc, and uc , u , uz. When can reduce mk2FR. For example, an all–stainless steel arch-

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INNOVATIONS IN BIOMECHANICS AND MATERIALS 369

FIGURE 3. Comparison between the RS values of a stainless steel/

titanium (SS/Ti) archwire/bracket (AW/BR) couple to a SS/SS cou-
ple. Note that the b-Ti/Ti couple has the highest RS values in both
the passive and active configurations.18 Conditions in which 1 mil 5
0.001 inches 5 0.0254 mm: AWs 5 17 3 25 mil SS (Remanium,
Dentaurum) and 17 3 25 mil b-Ti (TMA, Ormco); BRs 5 18.5 mil
SS (Ultra-Minitrim, Dentaurum) and 18 mil Ti (Rematitan, Dentau-
rum); state 5 dry; test temperature 5 348C; NFR 5 200 cN; IBD 5
16 mm.

wire (AW)/bracket (BR) couple (ie, SS/SS) is superior to

any couple involving ceramic brackets.12,13 Moreover, tita-
nium archwires (eg, NiTi and b-Ti) are prone to galling FIGURE 4. Methods to apply materials ‘on’ and ‘in’ the surfaces of
and fretting, which lead to adhesive wear and higher val- archwires, brackets, or both (in this figure, for those of simulated
ues14–16 of mk2FR. Recent innovations in this regard have brackets of polycrystalline alumina [PCA], called flats [FL]): dia-
produced a titanium (Ti) bracket having oxides, carbides, mondlike carbon coating (DLC), plasma deposition (PD), and ion
and nitrides that render the surface inert and hard.17 Con- implantation (II). Oftentimes, better performance was only achieved
not by leaving either the archwire or the bracket uncoated (NC), but
sequently, compared to SS/SS couples, the mk2FR of SS/Ti rather by modifying all of the contacting surfaces (the black bars).21–23
couples are surprisingly low in both the passive17 and active Conditions for DLC: AWs 5 21 3 25 mil SS (Standard, Unitek/3M),
configurations18 (Figure 3). For such a thin (300 Å 5 3 3 21 3 25 mil NiTi (Nitinol, Unitek/3M), and 21 3 25 mil b-Ti (TMA,
1028 m) modified layer to withstand forces without surface Ormco); FLs 5 250-mil-diameter polycrystalline alumina (Transtar,
breakdown was outstanding, given that the NFRs ranged Ceradyne); state 5 dry; test temperature 5 348C; NFR 5 200 to 1000
cN. Conditions for PD: AWs 5 21 3 25 mil SS (Standard, Unitek/
from 100 to 900 cN (where 1 cN ø 1 g) and that the NBIs 3M) and 21 3 25 mil b-Ti (TMA, Ormco); FLs 5 250-mil-diameter
were associated with us that ranged from 0 to 128. The polycrystalline alumina (Transtar, Ceradyne); state 5 dry; test tem-
formation of such a layer has precedence, because an inert perature 5 348C; NFR 5 200 to 1000 cN. Conditions for II: AWs 5
passivated layer of, for example, Cr2O3 is responsible19 for 18 3 25 mil SS (Standard, Unitek/3M), 18 3 25 mil NiTi (Nitinol,
SS having its typically10,12–14,20 low mk2FR 5 0.12. Indeed in Unitek/3M), and 17 3 25 mil b-Ti (TMA, Ormco); FLs 5 250-mil-
diameter polycrystalline alumina (Transtar, Ceradyne); state 5 dry;
these SS and Ti appliances, oxide coatings result so that test temperature 5 348C; NFR 5 200 to 1000 cN.
metal does not truly contact metal; rather, a ceramic oxide
contacts a ceramic oxide.
The generation of ceramic or intermetallic compounds less RS. Past experiences indicate that those PTFE coatings
suggest that surface modifications may generally be an ap- skinned off in a few weeks owing to their low yield
proach by which mk2FR may be reduced. These may be ap- strengths to notching. More recently, diamondlike carbon
plied ‘‘on’’ or ‘‘in’’ the surface of an archwire, bracket, or coatings (DLC)21,22 and plasma deposition (PD)22 have been
both.21–23 applied to archwires with various degrees of success (Fig-
When applied in the more traditional sense on a surface, ure 4). The DLC coating performed best when a hard sur-
such coatings may be sprayed, dipped, or electrostatically af- face was provided to both contacting surfaces. Overall,
fixed and thermally fused. Because poly(tetrafluoroethylene), however, PD provided the lowest mk2FR between these 2
or PTFE (ie, Teflon as manufactured by Dupont), can have coatings when only 1 surface was coated, the values of
the lowest24 mk2FR 5 0.05, products have been offered for 25 mk2FR dropping to as low as 0.08 for an SS-PCA couple.
years (eg by Eastern Dental Corp.) that tout esthetics and Although not shown here, the PD-enhanced surface of

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370 KUSY

poly(chloro-p-xylylene ) on glass fiber-reinforced polymer-

ic composite archwires failed to lower the values of mk2FR
when compared to its unmodified or ‘‘not coated’’ (NC)
controls.11 Nonetheless, this coating prevented the glass fi-
bers from exiting the archwire, was esthetic, and at least
maintained the water absorption and hydrolytic stability of
the uncoated controls.11,25,26
When applied in the surface, ion implantation (II)22,23 has
proven quite useful because just about any ion can be
placed with any reasonable depth profile without modifying
the overall dimensions or bulk properties of an appliance.27
Thereby, the manufacturer can retain the present tolerances
and the overall properties while improving surface char-
acteristics such as corrosion resistance, coloration, or fric-
tion. When the worst archwire to slide against, a b-Ti wire, FIGURE 5. Advantages of the self-ligating or ligatureless SS bracket
was ion-implanted with nitrogen (N1) and when simulated vs the conventional SS bracket and SS ligature at u # uc. When
PCA brackets in the form of PCA flats (FL) were implanted properly used at u ø uc, the self-ligating SS bracket outperforms the
with titanium (Ti1), the values of mk2FR decreased from conventional appliance. If u .. uc, however, any relative advantage
substantially disappears (G. A.Thorstenson and R. Kusy, in prepa-
0.44 to 0.25 in the dry state at 348C (Figure 4). Curiously,
ration). Conditions for the self-ligating system: AWs 5 18 3 25 mil
improvements were not observed when 1 sliding surface SS (Ormco); BRs 5 22 mil SS (Damon SL, Ormco); state 5 dry;
was implanted or when single (instead of multiple) implan- temperature 5 348C; NFR 5 300 cN; IBD 5 18 mm. Conditions for
tation fluxes were used. In the former, the unmodified sur- the conventional SS system: AWs 5 18 3 25 mil SS (Ormco); BRs
face could not withstand the increased hardness that was 5 22 mil SS (Mini Diamond Twin, Ormco); ligatures 5 10 mil SS
(PL1010 ligature, GAC); state 5 dry; temperature 5 348C; NFR 5
associated with the opposing implanted subsurface. In the
300 cN; IBD 5 18 mm.
latter, a single implantation could not provide the shallow,
subsurface thickness that the multiple-implanted layer could
provide. Future innovations may include the development brackets when u . uc. Shunning the aforementioned re-
of esthetic, ion-implanted subsurfaces that approximate or quirement that u ø uc for efficient and effective sliding
adapt to a patient’s tooth color. mechanics would inevitably extend treatment times and
lead to disappointment and curtailment of their future use.
Reducing FR by decreasing NFR for u , uc Despite their relatively slow growth, 4 companies now offer
self-ligating brackets, and more are being developed.
If mk2FR cannot be reduced, then NFR must be reduced, If the ligature and its associated force cannot be elimi-
or else classical friction will not be changed. Two means nated, the next best approach is to at least reduce the force
have been utilized to date: the use of self-ligating systems exerted by the ligature during second-order angulation. Af-
and the recent development of stress-relaxed ligatures. Al- ter all, the purpose of the ligature during sliding, which
though both are predicated on the same principle, the latter involves some second-order angulation, is to retain the
uses innovative materials. archwire within each bracket’s slot, not to press the arch-
Despite the fact that self-ligating, or ligatureless, brackets wire into the bracket. Moreover, too much is left to chance
have been marketed for a quarter of a century now, these when the force that is associated with ligation is predicated
appliances have not gained general acceptance. These on 4 twists of the wire (in the case of a SS ligature) or the
brackets use traditional materials (eg, stainless steel) to overall size of the brackets (in the case of a module).
move teeth while minimizing NFR. When u , uc, the FR is To remedy the loss of control that is inherent with the
indeed low (Figure 5), albeit that uc is still governed by the absence of knowing the ligation force and therefore the
same equations that stipulate uc of conventional SS brackets frictional force, an innovative material was designed that
(equations 1a and 1b). Why, then, should general accep- capitalized on the stress-relaxation characteristics of an ap-
tance not be forthcoming? The answer may stem, in part, propriately designed material.28 The solution relies on the
from the fact that the value of RS at u . uc does increase, premise that short-term forces should be resisted by an elas-
albeit the FR term does contribute less. Although present tic, high-strength material but that long-term forces should
investigations of different self-ligating brackets vs their be accommodated by stress-relaxation and an accompany-
conventional counterparts are incomplete at this writing (G. ing decrease in NFR and therefore FR. Under these circum-
A. Thorstenson and R. Kusy, in preparation), the data sug- stances, the relaxation should be as complete as possible so
gest that the BI behaves similarly to conventional brackets. that the NFR that remains is insignificant insofar as restrict-
Perhaps the overstatement of their capabilities has promot- ing tooth mechanics is concerned. To produce this combi-
ed some practitioners to attempt to slide teeth with these nation of characteristics, a composite ligature was engi-

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INNOVATIONS IN BIOMECHANICS AND MATERIALS 371

FIGURE 6. An alternative and effective method of reducing RS at u

# uc; namely, reduce the normal or ligation force (NFR) by utilizing a FIGURE 7. RS values of 49, 59, and 70% v/v composite wires and
stress-relaxed ligature. Thereby, the percentage of NFR retained at 14-, 16-, and 18-mil SS wires when opposed by 18- or 22-mil SS
some time (t) equal to x versus t equal to 0 is only a small per- brackets. When the NFR 5 150 cN, the composite wires with a u 5
centage (2%) compared to a SS ligature (70%). This is critical for uc9 are comparable to a 16/18 metallic couple at NFR 5 300 cN and
optimal sliding mechanics.28 Conditions: ligatures 5 10 mil SS u 5 uc.3,33 Conditions for the metallic AW systems: AWs 5 18 mil
(PL1010 ligature, GAC) and 8 mil composite of ultra-high molecular SS (Round, Ormco), 16 mil SS (Gold Tone Round, American Ortho-
weight polyethylene fibers in a poly(n-butyl methacrylate) matrix dontics), and 14 mil SS (Tru-chrome, RMO); BRs 5 18 mil SS (Ultra-
(UNC); state 5 dry; temperature 5 258C. Minitrim, Dentaurum) and 22 mil SS (Ultra-Minitrim, Dentaurum);
state 5 dry; test temperature 5 348C; NFR 5 300 cN; IBD 5 16 mm.
Conditions for the composite AW system: AWs 5 20 mil S2-glass
neered in which an elastomeric matrix provided the long- composite (UNC); BRs 5 22 mil SS (Uni-Twin, Unitek/3M); state 5
dry; test temperature 5 348C; NFR 5 150 cN; IBD 5 16 mm.
term decay response and the polymeric fibers provided the
short-term structural strength. This composite was fabricat-
ed from the acrylic monomer n-butyl methacrylate (nBMA)
Power arms32 circumvent at least transiently the material
and drawn polyethylene fibers (ultra-high molecular weight
issue by using archwire mechanics and the knowledge that
polyethylene [UHMWPE]) by use of the photo-pultrusion
a force that passes through the center of resistance (CR)
process.29–31 The pultrusion process and physical properties
generates no moment. In the absence of tipping, then, no
are detailed in the appendix.
angulation and hence no binding can occur. This seemingly
The stress-relaxation characteristics provided a matrix
idyllic situation is temporary, because once a tooth and its
material for the composite that, over seconds or minutes,
contiguous dentition begin to move, the point of force ap-
could effectively transfer strain to the strong polymeric fi-
plication shifts away from the CR and creates a moment,
bers but, over hours, would lose 98% of its ligation or nor-
and the tooth tips. This approach can be at least transiently
mal force (NFR) and therefore 98% of its FR. Such a loss
efficient and effective if sliding occurs within the region
of force is critical for optimal sliding mechanics. In terms
that borders the value of uc.
of the outcomes, then (Figure 6), an SS ligature retains 70%
An alternative method of stabilizing uc and thereby of
of its NFR after a few minutes, but because of the uncer-
eliminating a variable in treatment involves the use of com-
tainty of initial ligation among a patient population, the
posite archwires. In order to slide teeth, a practitioner typ-
magnitude of force that remains is variable and unknown.
ically chooses from among several archwire-bracket com-
Unlike the common SS ligature, in which the remaining
binations, 2 popular choices of which are a 0.016-inch wire
force is, say, 400 cN or 100 cN (recall that 1 cN ø 1g),
in an 0.018-inch SLOT and an 0.018-inch wire in an 0.022-
the composite ligature retains only 2% (ie, 8 cN or 2 cN)
inch SLOT.4 Such combinations change both the force-de-
of NFR. In either case, the FR that results is of no conse-
activation characteristics and the uc (see equations 1a and
quence for sliding. Because the esthetics are inherently
1b). A better solution is available, however (Figure 7). By
good with these novel materials, too, the only hurdle that
integrating 2 classes of materials (eg, a ceramic and a poly-
remains is how best to tie them.
mer), a composite archwire can be fabricated in which the
mechanical properties differ, although the overall cross-sec-
Stabilizing u at u ø uc
tional area of each wire remains constant. This overall di-
Given that only archwire or bracket geometries can mensional invariance occurs despite the compositional
change the overall uc, presently 2 means are available to change of the ceramic material relative to the polymeric
stabilize uc in appliances, the latter of which involves in- material. The key to manufacturing such composites lies in
novative materials: power arms and composite archwires. the development of a satisfactory process such as the photo-

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372 KUSY

ure 8). A 0.016-inch wire in a 0.018-inch SLOT has an

ENGAGEMENT INDEX that should lead to an interme-
diate uc and a moderate binding rate. Those combinations,
which tend to fill the slot (eg, AW/BR 5 18/18), require
that initial alignment and leveling be most precise, or else
binding will be most problematic. Those combinations,
which maximize clearance (eg, 14/22), minimize binding
over a wide range of u but at the expense of substantial
loss of control. This last archwire-bracket combination is a
point of contention between those who advocate self-ligat-
ing systems and those who do not and is a subject that will
inevitably have to be addressed in a future research report.
Given this backdrop, the objective of any material in-
novations in this regard should be to reduce the rate of
severity of binding (mk2BI) or the normal force of binding
FIGURE 8. The ever-present trade-offs that are associated with slid- (NBI) as defined in equation 4a. For the same archwire-
ing mechanics. As the clearance between an AW/BR couple increas-
bracket combination, mk2BI is strongly dependent upon ar-
es, sliding improves at the expense of control. More control, how-
ever, results in a greater rate of severity of binding (mk2BI; see equa- chwire-bracket geometry. Consequently, such modifications
tion 4a), which is exacerbated by a concurrent decrease in uc. Con- to archwires (eg, chamfered or rolled edges34) or brackets
sequently, practitioners have traditionally chosen the intermediate (eg, tapered slot entrances and exits3), although not chang-
AW/BR couples—as, for example,3 the 16/18. Conditions: AWs 5 ing the apparent dimensions, do change the performance
18 mil SS (Round, Ormco), 16 mil SS (Gold Tone Round, American
because they reduce the effective dimensions of SIZE,
Orthodontics), and 14 mil SS (Tru-chrome, RMO); BRs 5 18 mil SS
(Ultra-Minitrim, Dentaurum), 22 mil SS (Ultra-Minitrim, Dentaurum); SLOT, or WIDTH. Such changes occur at the expense of
state 5 dry; temperature 5 348C; NFR 5 300 cN; IBD 5 16 mm. control when the SIZE, WIDTH, or both decrease or the
SLOT increases. More generally, manufacturers influence
binding by changing the ENGAGEMENT and BRACKET
pultrusion process described in the first paragraph of the
INDICES in ways that mitigate any remaining deficiencies,
appendix.
which may be associated with initial aligning and leveling.
Using 9mm-diameter S-2 glass continuous-fiber yarns as
Whether done intentionally for practitioners or (more like-
the ceramic material and a comonomer of 61% w/w BIS-
ly) to circumvent tolerance mismatches, making the wire
GMA – 39% w/w TEGMA as the polymeric precursor,
SIZE undersized and the bracket SLOT oversized reduce
0.51-mm-diameter composite archwires were photopoly-
the ENGAGEMENT and BRACKET INDICES. Thereby,
merized using 0.4% w/w BEE as the photo-initiator.11,30,31
uc is increased by always shifting the actual ENGAGE-
When 3 levels of fiber loading were prepared (49, 59, and
MENT INDICES down and by generally shifting the actual
70% v/v) and evaluated at as many as 6 angulations (0, 2.5,
BRACKET INDICES to the left (Figure 9). Using 0.016-
5.0, 7.5, 10.0, and 12.58), the values of mk2FR and the uc9
inch 3 0.022-inch SS archwire data, this effect may be
were constant.11 These outcomes occurred because the same
illustrated by increasing the SLOT from 0.018 to 0.022
contact surface area presents itself to the opposing bracket
inches (Figure 10). In that case, although FR is the same,
independent of % v/v and because the ENGAGEMENT and
BI is reduced at any given u by shifting its slope to the
BRACKET INDICES remain constant. For values of u that
right. Thus at u 5 108, for example, RS decreases by one-
are only slightly greater than uc9, the binding should in-
third (from 190 to 130 cN) as the SLOT is increased. Si-
crease as the relative stiffness of the composite wire in-
multaneously, uc increases from 1.98 to 4.78 (Figure 10).
creases. For the region in which u # uc9, the RS should be
Recently innovative means have been suggested by
stable. This general constancy should provide an advantage
which binding may be reduced11 at u . uc. In particular,
in maintaining efficient and effective sliding mechanics.
the recent theoretical approach (see equations 4a and 4b
and reference 11) confirms 2 particular experimental ob-
Reducing BI for uc , u , uz
servations36–39 of the past, namely that, with increasing stiff-
If the u at which sliding is initiated exceeds uc, then some ness (EI), decreasing interbracket distance (IBD), or both,
binding inevitably occurs. This should not occur immedi- binding increases. If the wire SIZE is maintained constant,
ately if the teeth were properly leveled and aligned to u # the value of I is invariant. Accordingly, wire stiffness be-
uc before sliding began. Exactly what its magnitude is, how- comes solely a function of E, and the influence of wire
ever, depends upon the interaction of many parameters (see alloy and tooth-to-tooth distance can be partitioned while
equation 4b and reference 11). In the past, practitioners maintaining the SLOT and WIDTH of each bracket con-
have intuitively chosen archwire-bracket combinations that stant. When 0.016-inch 3 0.022-inch archwires of SS, co-
represent a compromise between binding and control (Fig- balt-chromium (CoCr), beta-titanium (b-Ti), and nickel ti-

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INNOVATIONS IN BIOMECHANICS AND MATERIALS 373

FIGURE 11. Comparison of RS values of four AW alloys in the pas-

FIGURE 9. General shift of the nominal AW/BR dimensions (stippled sive (u # uc) and active (u . uc) configurations. When u # uc, SS is
region within the dotted rectangle) to higher values of uc (striped the easiest to slide on, and b-Ti is the worst to slide on by almost
region within the solid parallelogram) as the actual dimensions rou- 100%. If sliding mechanics go awry and u .. uc, CoCr and SS have
tinely result in smaller wire SIZEs and larger bracket SLOTs than far more RS than the lower stiffness b-Ti or NiTi archwires.35 Con-
those reported. Note that WIDTHs are not reported on product la- ditions: AWs 5 16 3 22 mil SS (Standard Edgewise, American Or-
bels, although they are equally important from the viewpoint of de- thodontics), 16 3 22 mil CoCr (Elgiloy Blue, RMO), 16 3 22 mil b-
termining accurate BRACKET INDICES. Indeed, the unexpected Ti (TMA, Ormco), and 16 3 22 mil NiTi (Nitinol, Unitek/3M); BRs 5
shifts to the right for the AW/BR couples that involved the 22-mil 22 mil SS (Ultra-Minitrim, Dentaurum); state 5 saliva; test temper-
brackets versus the expected shifts to the left for the AW/BR couples ature 5 348C; NFR 5 300 cN; IBD 5 18 mm.
that involved the 18-mil brackets underscore what can happen if
incorrect WIDTHs are presumed in the first place.3

FIGURE 12. Reduction of RS as the IBD increases from 8 to 18

mm. When alignment and leveling is such that u # uc, IBD has no
FIGURE 10. Influence that SLOT dimension can have on sliding
effect on RS. If sliding is attempted at u . uc, however, the cost is
mechanics. By increasing the SLOT dimension, the region in which
an ever-increasing RS that nearly doubles as IBD decreases from
the lowest RS values exist more than doubles. If binding is experi-
that of bridging an extraction site (18 mm) to that of becoming the
enced at u .. uc (eg, say, u 5 108), RS is only about two-thirds as
contiguous tooth (8 mm)35. Conditions: AWs 5 16 3 22 mil SS
great. This all occurs with some loss of control, however.35 Condi-
(Standard Edgewise, American Orthodontics); BRs 5 18 mil SS (Ul-
tions: AWs 5 16 3 22 mil SS (Standard Edgewise, American Or-
tra-Minitrim, Dentaurum); state 5 dry; test temperature 5 348C; NFR
thodontics); BRs 5 18 mil SS (Ultra-Minitrim, Dentaurum) and 22
5 300 cN; IBD 5 8 to 18 mm.
mil SS (Ultra-Minitrim, Dentaurum); state 5 dry; test temperature 5
348C; NFR 5 300 cN; IBD 5 18 mm.

these couples (see Figure 635). When the IBD was varied
tanium (NiTi) were evaluated against a 0.022-inch bracket from 18 to 8 mm in 2-mm increments for only the SS wires
in the saliva state, uc remained constant, and NBI was di- in the dry state, NBI was inversely proportional to IBD (Fig-
rectly proportional to E (Figure 11). More specifically, NiTi ure 12). Changing the bracket SLOT from 0.018 to 0.022
ultimately had the lowest NBI and RS, and CoCr had the inches had little effect on the outcomes (see Figure 535).
highest. Similar trends were obtained in the dry state for In the foregoing work on archwire alloys, binding was

Angle Orthodontist, Vol 70, No 5, 2000

374 KUSY

reduced by materials having low moduli and perhaps high

resiliencies, the latter of which are proportional to the
strength of a material times its range.40 Moreover, high
hardness and yield strength may provide additional resis-
tance to deformation and physical notching as binding pro-
gresses well beyond uc and toward the uz boundary. Glass
is traditionally described as a hard and brittle material,
which, in its undamaged state, can be quite strong and stiff.
On the other hand, polymers are generally soft, low-stiff-
ness, and low-strength materials that can nonetheless be
quite ductile. The provocative question is this: can a com-
posite of these 2 materials provide the combination of prop-
erties desired? Precedence exists in metallurgy, in which
combinations of soft and ductile alpha ferrite with hard and
brittle iron carbide produce ferrous alloys having morphol-
FIGURE 13. RS values of 49, 59, and 70% v/v composite wires and
ogies that are comprised of laminates of these 2 phases.41 4 conventional AW alloys when opposed by SS brackets. When the
The outcome is the product pearlite, which is capable of NFR 5 150 cN for the composite wires and NFR 5 300 cN for 4
varying its hardness, strength, ductility, and toughness by conventional AW alloys, the composite wires are superior or com-
varying its composition or the thickness of its laminates. parable not only for u # uc9 but also for u . uc9 such that u 5 uc.
Work has already been described wherein S-2 glass fi- Beyond that point, these wires have RS values that are less than
the CoCr and SS wires and intermediate to the b-Ti and NiTi
bers and a BIS-GMA – TEGMA matrix were combined wires.33–35 Conditions for the metallic AW systems: AWs 5 16 3 22
to form composite wires having 49, 59, and 70% v/v fi- mil SS (Standard Edgewise, American Orthodontics), 16 3 22 mil
bers.11,33 When binding was plotted for these 3 composites CoCr (Elgiloy Blue, RMO), 16 3 22 mil b-Ti (TMA, Ormco), and 16
at NFR 5 150 cN vs the 4 alloys at NFR 5 300 cN, these 3 22 mil NiTi (Nitinol, Unitek/3M); BRs 5 22 mil SS (Ultra-Minitrim,
composites fit between the NiTi and the b-Ti wires at the Dentaurum); state 5 saliva; test temperature 5 348C; NFR 5 300
cN; IBD 5 18 mm. Conditions for the composite AW system: AWs
highest us investigated (Figure 13). Note that although the 5 20 mil S2-glass composite (UNC); BRs 5 22 mil SS (Uni-Twin,
size of the composite wires were nominally 0.020 inches Unitek/3M); state 5 dry; test temperature 5 348C; NFR 5 150 cN;
and the size of the metallic alloys were nominally 0.016 IBD 5 16 mm.
3 0.022 inches, the relative values42 of I were within 5%
of each other [Irectangular 5 bh3/12 5 22(16)3/12 5 7510 vs
Icircular 5 pd4/64 5 p(20)4/64 5 7850]. There was a real stress-relaxed ligatures are 2 means. Composite materials
offset between the values of uc9 and uc, however, which can stabilize u at u ø uc by maintaining the same archwire-
amounted to a couple of degrees (nominally 2.58 vs 4.58) bracket clearance while permitting the force-deflection
and corresponded to their different ENGAGEMENT IN- characteristics to vary. Decreasing wire stiffness (EI) or in-
DICES. Despite this offset between uc9 and uc, these out- creasing interbracket distance (IBD) can reduce RS at uc ,
comes suggest that composites follow the same binding u , uz, independent of the material used.
principles and that for uc, u , uz, RS is dominated by
the stiffness of the material. If this is indeed the case, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
practitioners must be especially wary of deficiencies in The author wishes to thank Ms Glenys A. Thorstenson, Mr John
aligning and leveling so that sliding mechanics are less Q. Whitley, and Dr Scott W. Zufall for their technical assistance in
likely to be attempted at u . uc than at u , uc. Thus, the gathering some of the data and Mr Whitley for producing much of
the artwork.
clinical importance of knowing uc cannot be understated.
REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS
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contact angle of second-order angulation (uc). Material in- sions on sliding mechanics: derivations and determinations of the
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6. Hansen JD, Kusy RP, Saunders CR. Archwire damage from ce- 28. McKamey RP, Kusy RP. Stress-relaxing composite ligature wires:
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11. Zufall SW, Kusy RP. Sliding mechanics of coated composite wires 31. Kennedy KC, Kusy RP. Investigation of dual-staged polymeri-
and the development of an engineering model for binding. Angle zation and secondary forming of photopultruded, fiber-reinforced,
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20. Kusy RP, Whitley JQ. Effect of surface roughness on the coeffi- 40. Fallis DW, Kusy RP. Novel esthetic bonded retainers: a blend of
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APPENDIX
23. Kusy RP, Tobin EJ, Whitley JQ, Sioshansi P. Frictional coeffi-
cients of ion-implanted alumina against ion-implanted beta-tita- Pultrusion process and physical properties of
nium in the low load, low velocity, single pass regime. Dent Ma- composite ligatures
ter. 1992;8:167–172.
24. Teflon Fluorocarbon Resin: Mechanical Design Data. Wilming- In the photo-pultrusion process, fibers are drawn into a
ton, Del: Dupont Product Publication; section V:2–6. chamber where they are uniformly spread, tensioned, and
25. Kennedy KC, Chen T, Kusy RP. Behavior of photopolymerized
silicate glass fiber-reinforced dimethacrylate composites subjected coated with the monomer. The wetted surfaces are then re-
to hydrothermal aging. Part I: steady-state sorption characteristics. constituted into a profile of specific dimensions via a die
J Mater Sci: Mater Med. 1998;9:243–248. from which they then exit into a curing chamber. As pho-
26. Kennedy KC, Chen T, Kusy RP. Behavior of photopolymerized tons of light (eg, ultraviolet) polymerize the structure quick-
silicate glass fiber-reinforced dimethacrylate composites subjected ly into a composite, the morphological features of the ver-
to hydrothermal aging. Part II: hydrolytic stability of mechanical
properties. J Mater Sci: Mater Med. 1998;9:651–660. tical process are revealed: fibers preferentially reinforce the
27. Sioshansi P. Medical applications of ion beam processes. Nucl periphery of the profile, and any shrinkage voids are re-
Instr Methods Phys Res. 1987;B19/20:204–208. plenished by gravity-fed monomer. If these are the final

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376 KUSY

dimensions of the desired profile, the cure is completed, of fiber-matrix interfaces that fail or polymeric matrices that
and the material is taken up on a large spool. If further flow are not typically regarded with favor in other fields, a
shaping or sizing of the profile is required, however, the systemic investigation of the influence of various photo-
composite is only partially cured. This a-staged material is initiators and particularly of different % w/w loadings of
further processed using a second die and b-staged into the benzoyl ethyl ether (BEE) was undertaken.28 When the BEE
final form. In the photo-pultrusion process, these last 2 stag- equaled 1.0% w/w, the weight average molecular weight of
es represent the difference between fabricating circular ver- the matrix equaled 103,000, the polydispersity index of the
sus rectangular profiles, respectively, or straight versus pre- matrix equaled 11.8, and the glass transition temperature
formed profiles, respectively. was engineered sufficiently below oral cavity temperature
Because specific stress-relaxation characteristics of the at 22.38C.
composite ligatures were required and because the design

Angle Orthodontist, Vol 70, No 5, 2000