A.

Macronutrients:

1.Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are big group of organic compounds prominent in the plant
kingdom which contain the elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. It is
synthesized through the process of photosynthesis.
Carbohydrates foods are starches and sugar which furnish the major source
of energy and form the bulk of diet.
CLASSIFICATION:
A. According to sugar unit:
1. Monosaccharide 3 simplest form of carbohydrate or one sugar unit.
a. Glucose -most important glucose in human metabolism, as physiologic
sugar
Also known as <dextrose=, or grape sugar, found free in nature, in
fruits, honey, corn syrup, sweet corn, and certain roots.
b. Fructose - sweetest of all sugars
Known as fruit sugar or <levulose=
Found in ripe fruits, and honey.
Digestive end product of sucrose.
c. Galactose - digestive end product of milk sugar or lactose
Not found free in nature
2. Disaccharide - made up of 2 simple sugars.
a. Sucrose - known as table sugar, cane sugar or beet sugar
Yield glucose and fructose upon hydrolysis
Sources from sugar cane, sugar beets, molasses, fruits and table
sugar.
b. Maltose - <malt= or grain sugars
Contains two glucoses upon hydrolysis.
Food sources as malted products, sprouted cereal
Not found free in nature
c. Lactose - known as milk sugar
Found in milk sugar and milk products
Composed of glucose and galactose upon hydrolysis
Least sweet of all sugars and slowly digested.
3. Polysaccharide - made up of many units of monosaccharide
a. Starch - storage form of carbohydrates in plant such as grains, seeds,
tubers, roots, unripe fruits, vegetables and legumes.
b. Dextrin - intermediate product of starch hydrolysis like toasting of bread or
browning of cake crust.
c. Glycogen - storage form of carbohydrates in animals
Known as animal starch which is stored in the liver and muscle.
Found in liver, oyster and muscle meat.
d. Cellulose and Hemicellulose - indigestible polysaccharide.
Adds bulk in the diet
Stimulates peristalsis and aids min the elimination of waste material.
Found in fruits, covering of nuts and legumes, stem, mature leaves.
e. Hemicellulose - same function with cellulose
Found in seaweeds or agar and slightly in unripe fruits and vegetable
in form of pectin.
Found in agar, pectin, woody fibers, leaves and stems
Can be hydrolyzed by dilute acids.
B. According to Digestibility
a. Digestible Carbohydrates - sugars, starches, dextrin, and glycogen
b. Partially digestible carbohydrates 3 galactogens, mannosans, inulin and
pentosans.
c. Indigestible carbohydrates 3 dietary fibers, cellulose, and hemicellulose.

FUNCTIONS:
A. Chief Source of Energy
Body cells require a steady and constant supply of energy mainly as
glucose and its intermediate products. One gram carbohydrate yields 4
kilocalories

B. Cheap and main Energy Form

Carbohydrate foods mainly as cereal grains, sugars, most fruits, and
starchy vegetable contribute at least half or 50% of total energy needs of
people.

C. Protein Sparer
Energy foods of the body are given first priority over body-building
needs. To <save= or <spare= protein for this unique function of the body-
building, carbohydrates must be adequate in the diet.

D. Sole Energy source for the Brain and Nerve Tissues

÷ The brain and nerve tissues utilize only glucose for energy. Lack of glucose
or oxygen to release energy will result in an irreversible damage to the brain.

CLINICAL MANIFESTATION:
1. Inadequate Intake of Carbohydrates
A. PEM - Protein Energy Malnutrition

PCM - Protein-Calorie Malnutrition

Signs:
1. Loss of weight
2. Retarded growth
3. Low blood sugar level (<80-100mg/100ml)
2. Excess Intake of Carbohydrates

A. Fermentation causing gas formation

B. Dental carries
C. Obesity
D. Overweight
E. High Blood glucose level

SOURCES:
a. Sugar or empty calorie foods - brown sugar, refined sugar, candies, honey,
carbonated
beverages.
b. Fruits - dried, fresh, sweetened, or canned.
c. Root
d. Root crops and other vegetables
e. Milk
RENI 3 55-70% of the total kcals.

2. Proteins
- Comes from the Greek word <Protos= meaning <to take the first place=.
- These are organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, and little sulfur. It describes the nitrogenous substances which is
essential to the development, maintenance and life of every cell of the body.
- Composed of amino acids as the building units linked together in peptide
bond.
These Amino acids are nitrogen-containing compound which form building
blocks of protein.

CLASSIFICATION
1. According to amino acid content of proteins:
a. Complete protein - are proteins contains all essential amino acids in
amounts sufficient for growth and maintenance of life.
 Animal proteins are complete proteins and have high biological value.
 E.g. eggs, milk, meat, fish, poultry, and milk products as casein in
milk, and albumin in egg whites
b. Partially complete protein - maintains life but cannot support growth
 E.g. gliadin in wheat, legumin in legumes
c. Incomplete - neither maintains life nor support growth; lacks one or more
essential nutrients.
÷ E.g. zein in corn, gelatin and most plant protein

2. According to classification of amino acids:

1. Essential or Indispensable Amino Acid - cannot be synthesized by the
body; thus, must be provided in the diet.

9 essential Amino Acids (EAA):

1. Isoleucine 5. Tryptophan 9. Valine

2. Histidine (Infants) 6. Lysine
3. Threonine 7. Phenylalanine
4. Methionine 8. Leucine
2. Semi-essential or Semi-indispensable Amino Acids - those that can
lowerthe requirement of an essential amino acids but cannot replace them
entirely.
1. Cystine 4. Glycine
2. Tyrosine 5. Serine
3. Arginine 6. Histidine

3. Non-essential or Dispenmsable Amino Acid - those that can lower the

requirement of an essential amino acid but cannot replace them entirely.
1. Glutamic acid 5. Proline 9. Hydroxyglycine
2. Hydroxyglumatic acid 6. Hydroxyproline
3. Aspartic acid 7. Norleucine
4. Alanine 8. Citrulline

FUNCTIONS:
1. Growth and Repair all Body Tissues.
2. Source of heat and energy
a. Body Building or Structural Role
Twenty percent (%) or one-fifth (1/5) of an adult body weight is protein,
1⁄2 in muscle, 1/5 in bones and cartilages, 1/10 in skin.

b. Essential for Growth

All living cell in the body used protein plus the nine (9) available
essential amino acids and nitrogen to synthesize new protein.

c. Source of energy
Protein supply 4 kcal per gram, although, it is more expensive source
of energy. The role nutrient supply amino acids for body building and
repairing, protein should be spared or saved for its more important function
of building and repairing by adequate fat and carbohydrates intake.

SOURCES:
1) Animal Sources - egg, milk, fish, poultry, lean meat, cheese, dairy
products, and shellfish
2) Plant source - nuts, cereals and cereal products, vegetable and textured
vegetable protein.

CLINICAL MANIFESTATION
1. General deficiency signs
a) Weight loss
b) General weakness
c) Reduced resistance to infection
d) Dry and scaly skin
e) Nutritional edema
f) Hypoproteinema
g) Pallor
2. PEM
a) Kwashiorkor - occurs after weaning when the diet is high in calories but
low in ptotein.
b) Marasmus - carried by inadequate intake of both calories and protein.
TER = 100 3 200 KCAL/KDBW
Protein Reqt. = 4 3 6g P/KDBW

3.Fats
Lipids-Is a broader term which includes fats, oils, and fat-like substance
which are soluble <fat solvents= like, chloroform, benzyl, etc.

Fats-Is the most concentrated source of energy in foods which constitute the
body’s chief reserve of energy. Refers to the physical state of fats that is
solid at room temperature.

Oil-Refers to the physical state of fat that is liquid at room temperature.

Triglyceride- The chemical name of fats and oils

Fatty Acids-Major constituent of lipids which consist of chain series of carbon

atoms.

CLASSIFICATION OF FATTY ACIDS

1. Saturated Fatty Acid - abundantly found in animal fat, liver oil, and in
vegetable fat such as coconut oil, peanut oil, coconut milk, palm oil and palm
kernel. E.g. animal fat - palmitic and stearic fatty acid
2. Unsaturated Fatty Acid - 2 types:
a) Mono-unsaturated fatty acids (MUFA)
e.g. oleic fatty acid - widely distributed in plants and animal such as olive oil,
peanut oil and grape seed oil, lard, beef, and lamb.
b) Poly 3unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)
e.g. 1. Linoleic acid - avocado, nuts, corn oil, safflower, cotton seed oil. 2.
linolenic acid - soybean, linseed oil 3. arachidonic acid - peanut oil

The three types of PUFA are nutritionally important and considered as

essential fatty acids (EFA)
FUNCTIONS:
1. Fuel or energy - highest energy giving foods, each gram of fat supplies 9
calories.
2. Body insulator - as an effective insulator that reduces losses of body heat
and maintain body temperature at a constant level.
3. Source of essential fatty acids
4. Carrier of fat-soluble vitamins
5. Satiety value
6. Palatability
7. Protector of nerve endings and delicate organs
RENI: 20 3 30 % of the TER/day
FOOD SOURCES
1) Animal Fats - refers to that found in foods like meat, fish, poultry, cheese,
& whole milk
2) Vegetable Fats - includes margarine, seed and vegetable oils, nuts, and
fruits.
3) Visible Fats - butter, salad dressing, cooking oil, lard, margarine, pork fat,
tallow (fat of lamb or beef) and suet (clear white, solid fat obtained from
beef)
4) Invisible Fats - egg yolk, milk, olives, avocado, well-marbled lean meats.

CLINICAL MANIFESTATION
1) Excess Intake - (obesity and overweight)
2) Deficiency - caused retarded growth
- cause underweight
- reduced caloric supply in the body

B.Micronutrients:
4.Vitamins
- Are potent organic compounds of related chemical composition which occur
in minute quantities in foods and are needed in small amounts.
Functions:
1. For specific regulatory functions.
2. For the maintenance of life and normal growth.
Vitamin Related Substances:
 Pro-vitamin or vitamin precursor - a substance chemically related to
the biologically active form of vitamin but no vitamin activity until the
body will convert it into an active form. e.g. carotene, intestinal wall,
vitamin A
 Anti-vitamin or vitamin antagonist, pseudo-vitamins - substances that
interfere with the normal functioning of the vitamin either by
competitive inhibition, by inactivation or by chemical destruction. e.g.
Avidin (egg white) - Biotin

General Properties of Fat Soluble Vitamins

1) Soluble in fat
2) Intake in excess stored in the liver
3) Deficiencies slow to develop
4) Not needed everyday
5) Have precursor

FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

I. Vitamin A (Retinol)
Unit of Measurement: ug R.E.
Functions:
1) Maintenance of visual purple for vision in dim light.
2) For motion and maintenance for normal epithelial tissues which the body’s
primary
barrier to infections.
3) Essential for normal growth, healthy skin and eyes.

Deficiency
1) Hyctalopia or <night blindness= - reduce vision in the dark especially
after coming
from the bright light.
2) Hemeralopia or <glare blindness, day blindness= 3 defective vision in
bright light.
3) Follicular Hyper-keratosis - skin becomes dry and scaly.
4) Lowered resistance to infections
5) Bitot’s spot - small triangular silvery spot on the conjunctiva.
6) Xeropthalmia - dry and lusteriess condition of the eyeball.
7) Keratomalacia - softening and necrosis of the cornea of the eye.
8) Faulty bone and tooth formation.

Toxicity - only happen when there is a large dose of vitamin A supplement

e.g. Hyper-avitaminosis
RENI : Infants - 375 3 400ug Adults - 500 3 550ug
Children - 400ug Pregnant - 800ug
Adolescent -400 3 600ug Lactation - 900ug
Food sources
1) Dark green and leafy yellow vegetables, yellow fruits carrots, tomatoes,
yellow
camote , corn, and ripe papaya
2) Fish liver oil, liver, egg yolk, milk, butter, and cheese.

II. Vitamin D: Ergocalciferol

Unit of Measurement : ug
Functions:

1. For strong bones and teeth

2. Helps body utilize calcium and phosphorus

Deficiency:
For infants and children - Rickets 3 a disease characterized by failure of bone
to mineralize, causing long bones to bow with bearing activities. Deformities
occur in spine, thoracic and pelvic areas.
For Adults - leads to impaired Ca and P absorption, leading to bone pain and
osteomalacia.

Toxicity:
Over toxic reaction in humans, when RQA is chronically exceeded.
Skin Cancer 3 over exposure to sunlight.
RENI: 200 3 400 I.U.
Sources:
Fortified margarine, butter. Milk and cheese, liver and other glandular
organs.

III. Vitamin E: Tocopherol

Unit of Measurement: ug
Functions:

1. Acts as anti-oxidant
2. Helps the formation and function of red blood cells, muscles and other
tissues.

Deficiency:
Hemolysis - Destruction of Red Blood Cell
Toxicity:
No reported cases
RENI: 5 3 15 ug
Sources:
Vegetable oils, rice, nuts, and legumes like mongo

IV. Vitamin K - Phyloquinone (K1) green leaves

- Farnoquinone (K2) fish meal
- Menadione (K3) synthetic form
Obsolete names: anti-hemorrhagic factor
Unit of Measurement: microgram (ug)
Functions:

1) Prevents hemorrhage
2) Necessary for normal blood clotting

Deficiency:

1. Can cause a number of factors

2. Faulty intestine synthesis
3. Hepatic injury
4. Anti-coagulant therapy

Toxicity
Symptoms - vomiting, albuminuria and hemolytic anemia
RENI: 6 3 59 ug
Sources: Liver, dark green vegetables, wheat, vegetable oils.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS:

1) Soluble in water
2) Minimal storage of dietary excess
3) Needed or must be supplied every day in the diet
4) Deficiency symptoms often develop rapidly
5) Excreted by the way of urine.

I. ASCORBIC ACID : Vitamin C

Unit of Measurement: Milligram (mg)
Functions:

Help keep bones, teeth, and blood vessels healthy.

Important in the formation of collagen, a protein that provides
structure to muscles, bones, etc. (collagen is like a body cement representing
30% of all the protein in the body).

Deficiency:
1) Scurvy: swollen spongy and bleeding gums
2) Poor wound healing
3) Reduced resistance to infection

RENI: 30 -105 mg

Sources:
Fresh fruits like atis, guava, datiles, kasuy, strawberry, melon, kamatsili,
papaya, and green mangoes.
Citrus fruits like kalamansi and suha
Green leafy vegetables like lettuce and pechay.

II. THIAMINE: Vitamin B1

Unit of Measurement: Milligram (mg)
Functions:
1) Helps get energy from food by promoting proper metabolism of fatty acids
and
carbohydrates rich foods like rice and sugar.
2) For correct functioning of the heart and nervous system.

Deficiency:
Result in beri-beri, affecting nervous and cardiovascular systems.
Symptoms are: anorexia and numbness of legs
3 form of beri-beri:
1. Dry 3 inflammation of many nerves
2. Wet 3 heart disease
3. Infantile 3 seen in infant’s breastfeed by mothers suffering from beri-beri.

RENI: 7- 1.4 mg
Sources:
Lean pork, liver and other glandular organs, egg yolk, rice, nuts and legumes
likemongo.

III. RIBOFLAVIN: Vitamin B2

Unit of Measurement: Milligram (mg)
Functions:
1) Promotes growth necessary for healthy skin.
2) Functions in the body’s use of carbohydrates.
3) Helps release energy to cells.

Deficiency:

1) Photophobia - abnormal sensitivity to light.

2) Angular Stomatitis - cracks in the angle of the mouth.
3) Cheilosis - redness, swelling and ulceration of the lips usually the center of
the lower
lip.
4) Glossitis - swollen tongue or magenta tongue with purple-red in color.
5) Seborrheic dermatitis - skin is scaly, greasy eruptions especially on the
skin

RENI: 0.3 -1.7 mg

Sources:
Whole grain, legumes, leafy green vegetables, and seaweeds
Cheese, milk, eggs, liver, other glandular organs and lean meats.

IV. NIACIN: Nicotinic Acid

Unit of Measurement: milligram NE
Functions:
1) Involved in energy producing reactions in cells
2) Aids the nervous system

Deficiency:
Severe deficiency leads to pellagra characterized by 4D’s:
1) Dermatitis - the skin develops cracked, pigmented, scaly dermatitis,
sensitive to solar radiation.
2) Diarrhea - frequent passage of loose, watery, and unformed stools.
3) Dementia or Delirium 3lesion appears in many parts of the CNS, resulting
in mental changes, confusion, and disorientation.
4) Death - if not remedied.

Toxicity:
- It increases gastro-intestinal motility and secretion of acid, causing
epigastric pain and reaction of peptic ulcer.

RENI: 1.5 3 18.0 mg NE

Sources:
Liver and glandular organs, meats, egg yolk, milk, panutsa, rice, legumes,
and nuts.

V. PYRIDOXINE: Vitamin B6
Unit of Measurement: Milligram (mg)
Functions:

1) Essential for proper utilization of proteins

2) Aids in the formation of red blood cells and correct functioning of the
nervous system.

RENI: 0.1 3 2.0 mg

Sources:

÷ Vegetable oils, unpolished or red rice, lard, and nuts.

VI. PANTHOTENIC ACID

Name from Greek word <Pantos= meaning everywhere. Due to its
widespread
occurrence in food.
Unit of Measurement: Milligram (mg)

Function:
1) Required for metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates and for the
formation of certain hormones.
2) Functions in the regeneration of tissue.

Deficiency:
Absorbed, with natural diet, since this vitamin is widely distributed in foods.

Toxicity: None
RENI: 4.0 3 7.0 mg
Sources:
Liver and glandular organs, meats, eggs, milk, cheese, legumes.

VII. COBALAMIN: Vitamin B12

Unit of Measurement: microgram (ug)

Functions:
1) Helps prevent certain forms of anemia
2) Assist in the information of red blood cells.

Deficiency:
Pernicious anemia.
Deficiencies occasionally seen in strict vegetarian.
Toxicity: None
RENI: 0.3 3 2.8 ug
Sources:
lean meats, liver, kidney, marine water fishes, and shellfish
Animal protein contains Vit. B12 while plant sources are practically nil.

Note: Nil 3 not in the list

VIII. PTYROGLUTAMIC ACID (PGA): FOLIC ACID/FOLACIN/FOLATE

Unit of Measurement: microgram (ug)

Functions:
1. Aids in the information of cells, especially red blood cells
2. Helps maintain functions of the intestinal tract.
3. Prevents certain forms of anemia

Deficiency:
In man; not produce by inadequate diet, but occur secondary to disease.
Symptoms includes: glossitis, gastro intestinal disturbance.

Toxicity:
Toxic in large doses, it may damage the kidney. In animals, they die of
uremia.
RENI: 65.0 3 500 ug
Sources:
Green leafy vegetables, liver and other glandular organs, legumes, and
cereals like rice.

IX. BIOTIN
Obsolete Name: Anti-egg white injury factor
Unit of Measurements: microgram (mcg)

Functions:
1. Involved in the formation of fatty acids and production of energy.
2. Essential to many chemical system in the body like maintenance of the
thyroid and adrenal glands, the nervous system and reproductive system.

Deficiency:
Due to large intake of egg white in the diet

Symptoms:
1. Dry scaly, dermatitis
2. Nausea feeling that leads to vomiting
3. Depression
4. Muscular or nervous disorder
Toxicity: None
RENI: 100.0 3 200.0 mg

Sources:
1) Plants - cereals, legumes, nuts, most fruits and vegetables
2) Animals - liver, egg yolk, fish and milk

5.Minerals
Inorganic elements that remain as ash when food is burned. Make up about
4% of body weight.

ESSENTIAL MINERALS:
1. Macro-minerals - major 3 minerals

Those present in the body in large amounts.

1) Calcium - Ca
2) Phosphorus - P
3) Potassium - K
4) Sodium - Na
5) Magnesium - Mg
6) Sulfur - S
7) Chlorine – CI

2. Micro 3 minerals - trace elements

Those present in the body in small intestine
1) Iron - Fe
2) Iodine - I
3) Cobalt - Co
4) Copper - Cu
5) Zinc - Zn
6) Manganese - Mn
7) Molybdenum - Mo
8) Selenium - Se
9) Chromium - Cr
10) Fluorine - F

1. CALCIUM

Comprises 1.5% to 2% of body weight.

99% of Ca found in bone, teeth, and hard tissues.
1% in blood, extracellular fluid and cells of soft tissues

Unit of Measurement: gram/mg

Functions:
1. Build and maintain bones and teeth which involved 2 process carried on
by 2 cells:
A. Osteoblast - continually form a new bone matrix, in which Ca phosphate is
deposited and bone crystal develop.
B. Osteoclast - balance the act by absorbing bone tissues.

2. Aids in the coagulation of the blood - in the blood clotting process, the
ionized
calcium stimulates the release the thromplastin from blood platelets.
One enzyme that accelerates the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin
protein in blood plasma needed for blood clotting.

3. Regulates muscle contraction and relaxation, thus is essential also for

normal hearth
rhythm.

4. Required the normal transmission of nerve impulses

5. Activates enzymes - important activators of certain enzymes such as

ATPase
(adenosine triphosphate).

6. Promotes iron and vitamin B12 absorption.

Deficiency
1) Stunted growth and retardation, calcification of bones and teeth.
2) Rickets - characterized by enlarge joints, bowed legs, knocked-knees,
beaded ribs.
3) Osteomalacia - reduction in the mineral content of the bone.
4) Osteoporosis - an absolute amount of bone in the skeleton has been
diminished but in which the remaining bone mass is of normal composition.
5) Tetany - reduction of circulating ionized Ca resulting in increase
excitability/irritability of nerve center.

Toxicity:
1) Hypercalcemia - elevated Ca in the blood
2) Renal Calcull - majority of kidney stones are composed of Ca

RENI:
1. Adult - 750 mg.
2. Pregnant/Nursing Mother - 750 3 800 mg.
3. Infant - 200 3 400 mg.
4. Children 3 500 - 700 mg
5. Adolescent 3 1000 mg.

Sources:
1) Plant - green leafy vegetables like mustasa, malunggay, petchay, saluyot,
gabi
leaves
2) Animal - milk and milk products
Fish eaten with bones like dilis
Sardines and dried fishes
Shell fishes.

2. PHOSPORUS
Comprises .8 to 1% of the total body weight

Unit of Measurement: milligram (mg)

Functions:
1) Mineralization of bones and teeth - about 80% of phosphorous in the form
on
insoluble calcium phosphate crystals, which is constantly deposited and
reabsorbed in the dynamic process of bone formation. Phosphorous has been
called the <metabolic twin= of calcium
2) For growth and maintenance.
3) Maintains water and acid base balance 3 It is the principal anion within the
cells.

Deficiency: Same as Calcium

Toxicity: hyperphosphatemia - excess accumulation of serum phosphate
RENI:
Infant - 90 3 275 mg
Children - 460 3 500 mg
Adolescent - 1,250 mg
Adult - 700 mg
Pregnant/ Lactating mothers - 700 mg
Sources: All sources rich in calcium and protein are good sources of
phosphorous

3. POTASSIUM

About 250 grams in adult body, concentrated inside the cells.

Unit of Measurement: milligram (mg)

Functions:
1) Regulates water and acid-base balance - the major cat ion of the fluid
inside the cells.
2) Maintains muscle contractility and nerve irritability - it works with Na and
Ca to regulate neuromuscular stimulation, transmission of electrochemical
impulse and contraction of muscle fibers.

Deficiency:
1) Hypokalemia - (low serum potassium) loss of potassium due to vomiting.
2) Muscle irritability, weakness and paralysis.

Toxicity:
hyperkalemia - (elevated serum potassium) This result in weakening of heart
action, mental confusion, poor respiration, and numbness of extremities.

RENI:
Infants 3 90 3 275 mg
Children - 460 3 500 mg
Adolescent 3 1,250 mg
Adults - 700mg
Pregnant/ Lactating mothers 3 700mg

Sources:
Richest sources are fruits and fruit juice, vegetables, legumes, nuts, cereals
and meats.

4. SODIUM

Compresis 1.8 mg/kg total body weight

50% of Na - found in extra cellular fluid.

40% - skeleton
10% - inside the cell
Unit of Measurement: Milligram, gram

Functions:

1) Regulates osmotic pressure and water balance - ionized Na is the major

cat ion of the fluid outside the cell.
2) Regulates acid - base balance - It is a major component of the base
partner of the body’s main buffer. (regulates acid-base balance in the body)

Deficiency:
Muscle cramps and distributed acid-base balance resulting from diarrhea,
vomiting
and profuse sweating.
Hyponatremia - low level of Na in the blood, due to very restriction of Na
diets.
Toxicity:
Not harmful since the body can excrete excess Na in the urine but a
prolonged high salt diet may aggravate a tendency toward high blood
pressure, kidney disorder and edema.

RENI: 2.8 3 grams Na

Sources:
Present in a wide variety of food particularly animals foods such as meat,
fish,
poultry, milk, and eggs.

5. MAGNESIUM
21 to 28 grams Magnesium in the body

60 3 70% - combined with Ca and P

30 3 40% - distributed in the soft tissue and body fluids
Unit of Measurement: Milligram (mg)

Functions:
1) Builds and maintains bone and teeth together with Ca and P
2) As part of the chlorophyll molecule which is important in photosynthetic
reactions.
3) Needed for the production of ATP

Deficiency:
Hypomagnesemic tetany - seen in infants suffering from kwashiorkor,
alcoholics, postoperative cases, and prolonged diarrhea.

Toxicity:
Hypermagnesemia - (elevated serum magnesium) results to hypotension

RENI:
Infants - 26 3 54mg
Children - 65 3 100mg
Adolescent - 155 3 260mg
Adults - 205 3 235mg
Pregnant/ Lactating mothers 3 205 3 250mg

Sources:
Richest source are nuts, cocoa, soybean and whole grain cereal

6. SULFUR

Comprise about .25% of body weight.

Present in every cell in the body.
Highest concentration is found in the hair, skin, and nails.

Unit of Measurement: Milligram (mg)

Functions:
For structural function - principally as constituent of the following:
1) Amino acids, methionine, cysteine (reduced form) and cysteine (oxidized
form).
2) Keratin - the protein of hair, nails, and skin.
3) Insulin - hormone which regulates carbohydrate metabolism.
4) Thiamine, panthothenic acid and bloth.

Deficiency/Toxicity:
Hereditary defect in the re-absorption of amino acids cysteine causing
excessive
secretion of these in the urine that lead production of cysteine kidney stones.

RENI: A diet adequate in protein will contain enough sulfur

Sources: All foods rich in protein provide sulfur.

7. CHLORINE

About .15% of adult body weight.

Unit of Measurement: milligram (mg)

Functions:
1) Together with ionized Na, ionized CI’s major anion in the extra cellular fluid
helps maintain water balance and regulates osmotic pressure.
2) As component of HCL, it contributes to the necessary acidity needed in
the stomach for the breakdown of protein.

Deficiency:
Alkalosis - results only when there is an excessive loss of chloride ions from
the
gastric secretion during vomiting or diarrhea.

Toxicity: None
RENI: when Na intake is adequate, chloride will be adequately supplied

Sources:
Table salt, meat, sea foods, milk and eggs.

MICRO - MINERALS
I. IRON
Occurrence: about 0.004% or total of 3-5 grams of total body weight.
Distributed in the body in the following forms:

a) Transport - about .05 3 18 mg/ 100 ml is found in the plants.

b) Hemoglobin - about 60 3 75%.
c) Myoglobin - 5% as part of the muscle hemoglobin.
d) Storage Iron - 26% is stored in various organs (liver spleen, and bone
marrow) as ferritin.
e) Cellular Tissue Iron 3 5% is distributed throughout the cell.

Functions:
1) Needed for hemoglobin formation.
Hemoglobin in the RBC is the oxygen transport unit of the blood that
conveys
oxygen to the cells for respiration and metabolism.

Deficiency:
Is resulted to inadequate production of RBC causing anemia 3 a condition
characterized by reduction in size or number of RBC or the quantity of
hemoglobin
or both, resulting in decreased capacity of the blood to carry oxygen.

According to cause anemia is classified as follows:

1. Nutritional Anemia
Due to an inadequate supply of iron in the diet throughout the life cycle due
to poor quality of food sources.

2. Hemorrhagic Anemia
Due to excessive blood loss such as surgery, wounds, injury. Pregnancy,
parasitism, and blood donation.

3. Pernicious Anemia
Inadequate formation of RBC because of Vit. B12 deficiency caused by lack
of intrinsic factor.

4. Malabsorption Anemia
Substance hinder iron absorption

5. Milk Anemia
Feeding older infants solely milk which lacks iron.

Toxicity:
1. Hemochromatosis
Abnormal deposits of hemosiderin in the liver and other tissues due to
abnormal absorption and storage of iron.
2. Hemosiderosis
Accumulation of hemosiderin in the liver and other tissues.

RENI:
Infants - .38 3 10mg
Children - 8 3 11mg.
Adolescent - 13 -27mg.
Adults - 12 3 27mg
Pregnant/ Lactating women 3 27 3 38mg.

Sources:
1) Plant - green leafy vegetables
2) Animal - liver and other meat organs

II. IODINE
3 mg./ug

The body normally contains 20-30 mgs. Iodine concentrated in the thyroid
gland
stored in the form of thyroglobulin

Functions:

1. Needed in the synthesis of throxine, the principle hormone of the thyroid

gland. It regulates the rate of oxygen consumption in the cells and involve in
the growth of tissues.
Goitrogenic Substances - interfere with iodine utilization
Goitrogens- are found in peanuts (especially in red skin), cabbage,
cauliflower, radish, peas, and cassava.

Deficiency:

1) Goiter- enlargement of the thyroid gland

2) Myedema - hypothyroidism in adult
3) Cretinism - seen in infants born to a mother who had inadequate intake of
iodine during pregnancy.

RENI:
Infants - 90mg
Children - 90 - 120mg
Adolescent - 120 - 150mg
Adult - 150mg
Pregnant/Lactating women - 200mg
Sources:
Sea foods such as clams, sardines and other sea fishes are the richest
sources.

III. COBALT
3 mg
Comprise 4% of vitamin B12

Functions:
1) As component of Vitamin B12 essential for maturation of RBC

Deficiency:
Is associated with B12 deficiency.

Toxicity:
Polycythemia 3 over production of RBC

RENI: not known

Source:
Widely distributed in nature

IV. COPPER - mg
Adult body contained 75 3 150 mgs of copper.

Functions:
Essential for the utilization of iron in the synthesis of hemoglobin.

Deficiency:
Hypocupremia 3 noted in children with iron deficiency anemia.

Toxicity:
Resulted to Wilson’s disease, characterized by degenerative changes in
brain tissue together with cirrhosis of the liver.

RENI: .08 mg/KBW

Sources:

1. Plant - green leafy vegetables

2. Animal - liver (highest)

V. ZINC 3 mg

Adult has about 2 gms of zinc.

Functions:
1. Essential for growth and gonad development in man.

Deficiency:
1. Impairs growth
2. hypogonadism

Toxicity:
In poisoning, results in increased losses of iron and copper

RENI:
Infants - 1.4 4.2 mg
Children 3 4.5 3 5.4mg
Adolescent 3 6.0 3 5.4mg
Adult - 4.5 -6.4 mg
Pregnant/Lactating Women 3 5.1 3 11mg

Sources:
Widely distributed

VI. MANGANESE

About 10-20 mg. is present in the adult body concentrated in the liver,
bones,
kidneys, muscles and skin.

Function:

1. Plays a role in urea formation 3 part of the molecular structure of arginase,

anenzyme (arginine-an amino acid) essential for urea formation.

Deficiency: None
Toxicity:
Can cause a reduction in Hb regeneration and results in decreased iron
absorption in liver, kidney, and spleen. Toxicity is found in miners as a result
of prolonged exposure to diet.

RENI:
Infant - .003 - .6mg
Children - 1.2 3 1.7mg
Adolescent - 1.6 -2.3mg
Adult - 1.8 3 2.3mg
Pregnant/Lactating women 3 2.0 0 2.6 mg

Sources:
Animal are poor sources
Plant nuts, legumes, whole grain cereals, tea, and dried fruits.
VII. MOLYBDENUM 3 mg
Present in minute amount in the body

Functions:
1) An integral part of Xanthine Oxidase (involved in the formation of uric acid
and Aldehyde Oxidase ( as catalyst in the oxidation of aldehydes to
corresponding
carboxylic acid).

Deficiency:
Not observed in man

Toxicity:
High Mo intake can induce copper deficiency

RENI: Not known

Sources:
Widely distributed.

VIII. FLOURINE 3 mg
Greatest concentration in bones and teeth

Functions:
Prevents dental carries

Toxicity:
Resulted in dental fluorosis or mottled enamel (with brownish and white
patches
with or without of the enamel)

RENI:
Infant - .01 3 5mg
Children - 1.2 3 1.7 mg
Adolescent - 1.7 3 2.9mg
Adult - 2.5 3 3.0mg
Pregnant/Lactating women 3 2.5mg

Sources:
Found naturally in water supplies. In addition to water content, a normal diet
may contribute 1.5 mg. fluorine/ day for solid foods.

IX. CHROMIUM - mg
About 20 pb in blood and higher in glandular organs.

Functions:
1) Catalyzes reactions involving energy release, particularly in the first steps
of glucose
metabolism by facilitating transfer of glucose from plasma to cell.

Deficiency:
Elevated blood glucose with excretion in urine

Toxicity:
Toxic only when injected intravenously

RENI: Not known

Sources:
FATS - highest concentration (corn oil)

X. SELENIUM 3 mg/ug

Found in minute amount in the body, concentrated in the liver and other
glandular organs, blood, and muscles.

Functions:
Antioxidant role related to Vitamin E

Deficiency:
Not observed in man

Toxicity:
Gastric and hepatic disorder results

RENI:
Infants - 6 -10mg
Children - 7 3 12mg
Adolescent - 21 3 36mg
Adult - 31mg
Pregnant/Lactating women - 35 3 40mg

Sources:
Variable, depending on level in soil where plants are grown. (cereal and
onion)

6.Water and Electrolytes.

Many authors classify water both as a food and a nutrient. It constitutes
about 60- 70% of the body weight, a body that is deprived by at least 10% of
water causes body illness. A loss of 20% water in the body causes death.
A body of a normal adult contains 45 liters of water. Two thirds (2/3) of which
(30 liters) is found inside or within the cells (intracellular fluids). One third
(1/3) is found outside of the cells (extra cellular fluids). Three liters of which
is in the blood or intra vascular fluid and 12 liters in the interstitial or
intercellular fluid.

Water is present in every tissue but its amount varies considerably. The
highest concentration is found in the metabolically active cells of the
muscles and viscera and lowest in the calcified tissue.

FUNCTIONS:
a. Water is nearly a universal solvent. In the blood, it carries simple sugars,
amino acid, lipoproteins, vitamins, and minerals for transportation to the
different tissues for functioning and nourishment.
b. Water is used to excrete waste products from the lungs, skin, and kidneys.
c. Water is needed in all the chemical reactions; it serves a catalyst in many
biological reactions especially involving digestion and aids in absorption and
circulation.
d. Water is a vital component of tissues, muscles, glycogen and etc. and is
vital for growth.
e. Water acts as lubricant for the joints and the viscera in the abdominal
cavity thus can protect a sensitive tissue.
f. Water is also a regulator of body temperature through its ability to control
heat. Hard water can also be a source of trace minerals such as fluorine,
calcium, magnesium, and copper. It can also be a source of toxic elements
such as lead, cadmium and other industrial wastes including bacteria.

WATER BALANCE:
The amount of water taken must be equal to the amount of water output for
a person to be in metabolic equilibrium. Fluid intake is controlled by thirst
and appetite and output by the endocrine glands and temperature of the
environment. The body uses more water in the blood, saliva, intestinal,
gastric, bile, and pancreatic juices than the daily intake. However, enough
water is available through more efficient conservation of water from
kidneys and intestines. The fluid intake is approximately equal to the urine
output. This knowledge is used in the fluid intake and output chart being
used by the nursing staff in wards, which they fluid useful as a practical
procedure in the care of the patients with febrile or kidney disorder.

WATER INTAKE:
The amount of water needed by the body may be a direct intake of water
coming from water ingested such as water found in food and metabolic
water, which is a result of the oxidation of foodstuffs in the body. Water
produced as an end- product of metabolism amounts to approximately 10-
14 gram per 100 kcal.

For example:
100 g of fat, CHO, protein when oxidized will yield 107 ml, 55 ml and 41 ml of
water respectively.
Varying amount of water present in foods:
Meat and fish 3 37 3 85%
Fruits and vegetables 3 60 3 69%
Fatty foods 3 low or zero moisture content
Brain foods 3 2 3 12%

Water is immediately absorbed from the digestive tract into the blood and
lymph.
WATER OUTPUT:
Water input is controlled by the hormone Vasopressin (anti 3 diuretic
hormone or ADH) which is secreted by the pituitary gland. Release of this
hormone decreases water excretion by the kidney by increasing the rate of
water re-absorption from the tubules.

Water leaves the body through several channels:

Skin - as sweat and insensible perspiration
Lungs- as water vapor in the exhaled air
Gastro - intestinal tract 3 as feces
Kidneys - as urine

The urine is an important medium for the elimination of excess water. Water
may also be lost together with electrolytes through tears, stomach suction,
breathing, vomiting, diarrhea, bleeding, perspiration, drainage from burns,
discharges from ulcer, skin diseases, and injured or burned areas.
Recommended Energy and Nutrient Intake (RENI):
Recommended for:
Adults 3 1 ml / calorie
Infants 3 1.5 ml / calorie
Approximately 1.5 3 2.5 liters or 6 3 10 glasses of water a day. Water intake
is derived mostly from beverages and prepared foods. During hot weather,
fever, hemorrhage, excessive sweating, vomiting, diarrhea, and high protein
intake, the allowance for water is increased.
Increased fluid intake is recommended for:

1. Athletes
2. Pregnant mother
3. Lactating mothers

ABNORMALITIES OF WATER BALANCE:

a. Over dehydration or Water Intoxication
When large amount of water is lost in the body, it is usually caused by high
environmental temperatures, sodium is also lost. This phenomenon causes
the brain to signal a need for water increase. If the water intake is increase
without the corresponding increase of sodium intake, then water intoxication
will occur.
Causes of Water Intoxication:
 Workers exposed to high environmental temperatures
Travelers to tropical countries not accustomed to weather condition results
to:
1. Muscle cramps
2. Weakness
3. Drop in blood pressure

This condition may be relieved by providing sodium in very small amount

with the intake of fluids.
Too much fluid is taken intravenously. If the intake of water exceeds the
maximum rate of urine flow, the cells and tissues become water-logged and
diluted.

Conditions Result to:

1. Anorexia
2. Vomiting
3. If occurs in the brain, may lead to convulsion, coma and even death.

b. Dehydration. A serious condition of water loss about 10% of the total body
water and fatal if the loss is from 20-22%. Critical especially among the
babies. Electrolytes are also lost with the water. In this condition, the skin
becomes loose and inelastic and the individual experiences severe thirst and
nausea. Work performance of the individual may seriously be affected.

ELECTROLYTE BALANCE:
When chemical compounds dissociate in solution these break up with
separate particles called ions. They are also known as electrolytes, because
these changed particles can conduct electric current.

Examples of electrolytes: (do ionized)

1. Salts
2. Acids
3. Bases

Examples of non 3 electrolytes: (do not ionized)

1. Glucose
2. Alcohol
3. Urea
4. Protein
5. Other substance involved in metabolism

Each ion may either be positive (+) or negative ( - ).

Positive ions are cation which includes:
1. Sodium (Na+)
2. Potassium (K+)
3. Calcium (Ca++)
4. Magnesium (Mg++)

Negative ions are anions which include:

1. Chloride (CI -)
2. Bicarbonate (HCO3-)
3. Biphosphate (HPO4--)
4. Sulfate (SO4--)4

Ions of organic acids such as lactate, pyruvate, acetoacetate and many

protein derivatives.
Important aspects of electrolytes in water balance:
1. Measurement of electrolytes in the body fluids
2. Electrolyte composition of body fluids
3. Electrolyte balance within fluid compartment.
Terms:

Electrolytes concentration are measured in terms of milliequivalent (mEq.)

Concentration refers to the number of particles per unit volume
Extracellular fluid (ECF) is the fluid in the plasma, lymph, spinal fluid and
secretions.
Intracellular fluid (ICF) is the fluid contained within cell.

Electrolyte composition of the body fluids:

A. Major electrolyte found in the plasma and interstitial fluid:

1. Sodium (Na)
2. Chloride (CI)
B. Major electrolyte in the intracellular fluid:
1. Potassium (K)
2. Phosphate (P)

Sodium and potassium can control the amount of water that can be retained
in any given compartment.
An alteration in the maintenance of osmotic equilibrium may result in
dehydration or even edema.
Electrolytes play an important role in regulating fluid and ph balance.
For therapeutic purposes, foods that will produce acid-ash, basic-ash, or
neutral-ash are necessary to produce acid or basic urine as needed by the
body.
When mineral elements are released from foods after metabolism, these
elements function to maintain acid-base balance, and the organic acids are
oxidized to form C02 and water.
TOXICITY
Acidosis/ Alkalosis 3 a disturbance in the acid-base balance in the body
Acidosis 3 the excessive accumulations of H ions.
Alkalosis 3 great loss of hydrochloric acid (HCL).