Computer Architecture

and
Organization

Chapter One
Introduction

Alula T.
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 Architecture and Organization
 A Computer Architecture is those attributes visible to the
programmer or those attributes that have a direct impact
on the logical execution of the program
Instruction set, number of bits used for data representation,
I/O mechanisms, addressing techniques.
 Organization refers to the operational units and their
interconnections that realize the architectural
specifications.
Control signals, interfaces, memory technology. Are the
organizational aspect of a computer system

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 Cont
 For example, it is an architectural design issue whether a
computer will have a multiply instruction. It is an
organizational issue whether that instruction will be
implemented by a special multiply unit or by a
mechanism that makes repeated use of the add unit of
the system.
 Some of architecture developed by Intel are:
8080,8086,80286, 80386, 80486,Pentium, Pentium Pro,
Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium 4, Core, Core2

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 Cont.
 All Intel x86 family share the same basic architecture
 This sharing of basic architecture provides a code
compatibility. At least backward compatibility.
 The organization is deferent for different versions/models
of these family.
 A changing technology changes the organization of a
computer.
 In a class of computers called microcomputers, the
relationship between architecture and organization is very
close. Changes in technology not only influence
organization but also result in the introduction of more
powerful and more complex architectures.
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 Structure and function
 A computer system can be considered as a hierarchical
system.
 Structure is the way in which components relate to each
other
 Function is the operation of individual components as part
of the structure.
 In terms of description, we have two choices: starting at
the bottom and building up to a complete description, or
beginning with a top view and decomposing the system
into its subparts.

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 Function
 All computer functions are:
Data processing
Data storage
Data movement
Control

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 Functional view of the computer

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 Four possible operation of a computer

 Operations (1) Data movement

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 Cont.
 Operations (2) Storage

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 Cont.
 Operation (3) Processing from/to storage

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 Cont.
 Operation (4) Processing from storage to I/O

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 Structure
 The computer interacts in some fashion with its external
environment.
 All of its linkage to the external environment is classified
as peripheral or communication lines.
 There are four main structural components.
Central Processing unit (CPU): controls the operation of a
computer and performs its data processing function.
 Main Memory: Stores Data
I/O: Moves data between the computer and its external
environment
System interconnection: provides communication among
the CPU, main memory and I/O. A common example of
system interconnection is by means of a system bus

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 Cont.
 The CPU contains the following structures as its major
components.
Control Unit: Controls the operation of CPU, hence the
computer
The Arithmetic and Logic Unit(ALU): Performs the computer
data processing function.
Registers: Provide storage internal to the CPU
CPU Interconnection: Provide communication between the
control unit, ALU and Registers.

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 Cont.

Peripherals Computer

Central Main
Processing Memory
Unit

Computer
Systems
Interconnection

Input
Output
Communication
lines
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 Cont.

CPU

Computer Arithmetic
Registers and
I/O Login Unit
System CPU
Bus
Internal CPU
Memory Interconnection

Control
Unit

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 Cont.

Control Unit

CPU
Sequencing
ALU Login
Control
Internal
Unit
Bus
Control Unit
Registers Registers and
Decoders

Control
Memory

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 Designing for performance
 Year by year, the cost of a computer system continue to
drop, while the performance and capacity continue to rise
equally.
 Moore’s Law
Gordon Moore - cofounder of Intel
Number of transistors on a chip will double every year
Since 1970’s development has slowed a little (Number of
transistors doubles every 18 months)
Cost of a chip has remained almost unchanged
Higher packing density means shorter electrical paths, giving
higher performance

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 Cont.
Smaller size gives increased flexibility
Reduced power and cooling requirements
Fewer interconnections increases reliability

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 Growth in CPU Transistor Count

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 Cont.
 Performance mismatch
Processor speed increased
Memory capacity increased
Memory speed lags behind processor speed

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 Cont.
 DRAM and Processor Characteristics

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 Cont.
 Techniques built into contemporary processors to
overcome the speed deference between a processor and
main memory:
 Branch prediction: The processor looks ahead in the
instruction code fetched from memory and predicts which
branches, or groups of instructions, are likely to be processed
next.
 Data flow analysis: The processor analyzes which
instructions are dependent on each other’s results, or data,
to create an optimized schedule of instructions.

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 Cont.
 Speculative execution: Using branch prediction and data
flow analysis, some processors speculatively execute
instructions ahead of their actual appearance in the program
execution, holding the results in temporary locations.

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 Cont.
 Architectural and organizational performance balance(
solutions) for performance mismatch
Increase number of bits retrieved at one time-Make DRAM
“wider” rather than “deeper”
Change DRAM interface-Cache
Reduce frequency of memory access- Incorporate more
complex and efficient cache structure between processor
and main memory. This include incorporation of one or
more cache on processor chip as well as on or off-chip cache
closer to the processor chip.
Increase interconnection bandwidth-High speed buses,
Hierarchy of buses

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 The evolution of the intel x86 architecture
8080:
 The world’s first general-purpose microprocessor.
 8-bit machine, with an 8-bit data path to memory.
 Used in the first personal computer, the Altair.
 8086:
 A far more powerful
 16-bit machine.
 Wider data path and larger registers
 Contains an instruction cache, or queue, that pre fetches a
few instructions before they are executed.
 Enabled 1mbyte addressing.

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 Cont.
 80286:
 Extension of the 8086
 Enabled addressing a 16-MByte memory.
 80386:
 32-bit machine.
 Rivaled the complexity and power of minicomputers and
mainframes.
 80486:
 Introduced the use of much more sophisticated and powerful
cache technology and sophisticated instruction pipelining.
 Offered a built-in math coprocessor, offloading complex math
operations from the main CPU.

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 Cont.
 Pentium:
 Introduced the use of superscalar techniques, which allow
multiple instructions to execute in parallel.
 Pentium Pro:
 Continued superscalar organization
 Aggressive use of register renaming, branch prediction, data
flow analysis, and speculative execution.
 Pentium III:
 Incorporated additional floating-point instructions to support
3D graphics software.

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 Cont.
 Pentium 4:
 Included additional floating-point and other enhancements
for multimedia.
 Core:
 The first Intel x86 microprocessor with a dual core,
referring to the implementation of two processors on a
single chip.
 Core 2:
 Extends the architecture to 64 bits.
 The Core 2 Quad pro provided four processors on a single
chip.

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 Embedded Systems
 A combination of computer hardware and software, and
perhaps additional mechanical or other parts, designed to
perform a dedicated function.
 Embedded systems are part of a larger system or product.
 Example of embedded systems: Engine control,
Automobiles, Telephones/cell phones, Cameras, Robotics
and controls systems, Photocopier, Printers and etc

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 Cont.
 Figure: Organization of Embedded system

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 ARM Evolution
 Acorn RISC Machine (ARM).
 ARM is a family of RISC-based microprocessors and
microcontrollers designed by ARM Inc.
 ARM chips are high-speed processors that are known for
their small size and low power requirements.
 They are widely used in PDAs and other handheld
devices, including games and phones.
 ARM chips are the processors in Apple’s popular iPod and
iPhone devices.
 ARM is probably the most widely used embedded
processor architecture.

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 Cont.
 ARM versions: ARM1,ARM2, ARM3, ARM6,ARM7,ARM8,
ARM9, ARM9E, ARM10E, ARM11, Cortex, Xscale.

 IBM 7094
 IAS
 The von neumann machine
 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer)

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