Psychology Around Us:

Chapter 7
Learning
 Learning Objectives (1 of 3)
1.Define learning and distinguish between associative and non-
associative learning.
2.Describe the basic processes of classical conditioning and
explain how classical conditioning is relevant to learning.
3.Describe the basic processes of operant conditioning and
explain how shaping can be used to teach new behaviours.
 Learning Objectives (2 of 3)
4.Define observational learning and summarize concerns about
observational learning from the media.
5.Define spatial navigation learning, implicit and latent learning,
and insight learning.
6.Define massed and spaced practice and tell what conditions
are best for learning semantic material, such as facts in your
classes.
 Learning Objectives (3 of 3)
7. Summarize the types of learning that occur before we are
born and during early postnatal life.
8. Define specific learning disorder and describe three major
types of learning disorders.
Let’s Watch Some People Learn!
 What Is Learning?
• Learning – lasting change caused by experience; it has
to be inferred from behaviour and cannot be directly
observed

• Why can’t it be observed?

 Two Types of Learning
• Associative learning – a change as a result of experience
where two or more stimuli become linked
• Non-associative learning – learning that does not involve
forming associations between stimuli; learning occurs
following repeated exposure to a single stimulus or event
 Non-Associative Learning
• Habituation – weakening of response to a stimulus after
repeated presentation
• Dishabituation – there is a recovery of attention to a novel
stimulus following habitation
• Sensitization – a strong stimulus results in an exaggerated
response to the subsequent presentation of weaker stimuli
 Associative Learning
Associative learning – connections are formed between
two or more stimuli; accounts for most learning

Types of associative learning:

• Classical conditioning
• Operant conditioning
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
 Classical Conditioning (1 of 2)
• Conditioning – the association of events in the
environment
• Classical conditioning – a form of associative learning
between two previously unrelated stimuli that results in
a learned response
 Classical Conditioning (2 of 2)
• Discovered by Ivan Pavlov

A classic moment in history. In this famous image, Ivan Pavlov

(centre, with beard) stands with his assistants and students prior to
demonstrating his classical conditioning experiment on a dog.
 Pavlov’s Dog (1 of 2)
• Pavlov’s experiment for collecting and measuring salivation in dogs – The
hungry dog is placed in a harness and given a bowl of meat powder. A tube
from the salivary gland collects the saliva, which is measured and recorded.
Pavlov’s Dog (2 of 2)
 Classical Conditioning (1 of 4)
• Unconditioned stimulus (US) – a stimulus that on its own
elicits a response (i.e., food)
• Unconditioned response (UR) - a physical response elicited by
an unconditioned stimulus; it does not need to be learned (i.e.,
salivation)
 Classical Conditioning (2 of 4)
• Conditioned stimulus (CS) – a neutral stimulus that eventually
elicits the same response as an unconditioned stimulus with
which it has been paired (i.e., bell)
• Conditioned response (CR) – a physical response elicited by a
conditioned stimulus; it is acquired through experience and is
usually the same as the unconditioned response (i.e.,
salivation)
Pet Training = Classical Conditioning
 Classical Conditioning (3 of 4)
• In-class activity: Identify the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR in the
following example:
– Jonathan loves spicy food! Last week, he ate at Tia
Mexicana three times and literally perspired from the
hot spices. Yesterday, as he drove past the restaurant,
Jonathan began to perspire profusely.
 Classical Conditioning (4 of 4)
• In-class activity: Identify the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR in the
following example:
– Jeremiah is six months old. His mother warms his
bottles in the microwave. Whenever the bell on the
microwave rings, Jeremiah begins to drool.
 Processes of Classical Conditioning (1 of 4)

• Acquisition – the initial learning of the stimulus-

response relationship
– The more pairings between the CS and US, the more likely the
association will be learned
– The most rapid acquisition followed by the strongest response
is a half-minute delay between the CS and US
 Processes of Classical Conditioning (2 of 4)

• Extinction – reduction of a conditioned response after

repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus
alone
• Spontaneous recovery – re-emergence of a conditioned
response some time after extinction has occurred
 Processes of Classical Conditioning (3 of 4)

• Stimulus generalization – what occurs when stimuli similar to

the original conditioned stimulus trigger the same conditioned
response
• Other examples?
 Processes of Classical Conditioning (4 of 4)

• Stimulus discrimination – what occurs when an organism

learns to emit a specific behaviour in the presence of a
conditioned stimulus, but not in the presence of stimuli similar
to the conditioned stimulus
• Higher-order conditioning – what occurs when a previously-
conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned
stimulus for further conditioning
– E.g. If Pavlov started pairing music with the bell and then music
started to lead to salivating
BREAK TIME!
 Classical Conditioning and Drug
Dependency
• A learned compensatory response (US) can trigger drug tolerance
(UR) and may be involved in some drug overdoses. The greater the
compensatory response, the larger the dose required to offset it.

• The physiologic counter reaction to a drug becomes classically

conditioned over time. The nervous system, due to classical
conditioning, anticipates the arrival of the drug based simply on
external environmental cues provided by the location.

• Using drugs in a novel environment can increase the chances of

overdose.
 Classical Conditioning and Fear
• John Watson, Rosalie Rayner and Little Albert
 Phobias
Phobia – persistent, irrational, or
obsessive fear of a specific object or
situation that may arise as a result of
fear conditioning
Systematic desensitization – a process
used to condition the extinction of
phobias through a gradual exposure to
the feared object or situation
Classical Conditioning and Taste Aversion

• Conditioned taste aversion – a form of classical

conditioning where a previously neutral stimulus (often
an odour or taste) elicits an aversive reaction after it is
paired with illness (nausea)
– E.g. the first alcohol you ever got really drunk with
OPERANT CONDITIONING
 Operant Conditioning
• Operant conditioning – a form of associative learning
where behaviour is modified depending on its
consequences; also called instrumental conditioning
• Law of effect – behaviours leading to rewards are more
likely to occur again, while behaviours producing
unpleasantness are less likely to occur again
Thorndike’s Puzzle Box
 Operant Conditioning and Behaviourism

• Behaviourism – the systematic study and manipulation

of observable behavior
• B. F. Skinner
– Organisms don’t simply respond to the environment, but rather
they exert influence (or “operate”) on it
– Behaviours that are followed by favourable consequences will
likely be repeated
 Reinforcement (1 of 2)
• Reinforcer – an experience that produces an increase in
a certain behaviour
• Positive reinforcement – presentation of a pleasant
consequence following a behaviour to increase the
probability that the behaviour will reoccur
 Reinforcement (2 of 2)
• Negative reinforcement – the removal of an unpleasant
stimulus after a response to increase the probability that the
behaviour will reoccur
– If we put on a seatbelt and it stops the constant beeping, we are
more likely to put the seatbelt on again the next time
– Addicts escape the cravings and other symptoms of withdrawal by
taking a drug
– A phobia is maintained as the individual escapes anxiety by avoiding
the feared object
 Punishment (1 of 2)
• Punishment – an experience that produces a decrease
in a certain behaviour
• Positive punishment – presentation of an unpleasant
consequence following a specific behaviour to decrease
the probability of the behaviour being repeated
 Punishment (2 of 2)
• Negative punishment – removal of a pleasant stimulus
as a consequence of a behaviour to decrease the
probability of the behaviour being repeated
– Silent treatment, no car or phone privileges, or time out
will decrease the behaviour from happening again
 Positive Reinforcement and
Punishment
• Positive reinforcement – giving a child a sticker for
peeing on the potty
• Positive punishment – yelling at a child if they don’t pee
in the potty
• In both examples, you are adding something (sticker or
yelling)
 Negative Reinforcement and
Punishment
• Negative reinforcement – constantly nagging your
partner until they buy flowers for you
• Negative punishment – if your partner doesn’t buy you
flowers, you don’t allow them to watch their favourite
TV show
• In both examples, you are taking away something
(stopping nagging or withholding TV)
 Reinforcement/Punishment
in Daily Life
• In family relationships • In-class poll
– OnlineQuestions.org: Event
• In social relationships number [11064]
• Social media
• Video games
• Sports
• Shopping/sales
BREAK TIME!
 Types of Reinforcers (1 of 2)
• Primary reinforcers – a stimulus that has survival
value and is therefore intrinsically rewarding;
biological
–Examples: food, water, termination of pain
 Types of Reinforcers (2 of 2)
• Secondary reinforcers – a neutral stimulus that
becomes rewarding when associated with a
primary reinforcer; learned
–Examples: money, grades, praise, approval
 Types of Punishers
• Primary punisher – a stimulus that is naturally aversive
to an organism
– Examples: slapping, loud sounds, extreme temperatures
• Secondary punisher – a stimulus that becomes aversive
when associated with a primary punisher
– Examples: disapproval, criticism, bad grades
 Schedules of Reinforcement
• Continuous reinforcement – behaviour is reinforced
every time it occurs
– Learning occurs more quickly
• Intermittent (or partial) reinforcement – behaviour is
only followed by reinforcement some of the time
– Behaviour is acquired more slowly and is difficult to
extinguish
Intermittent Reinforcement (1 of 2)
• Ratio schedule
– Fixed ratio schedule
• Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses
• High rate of responding with pauses after reinforcement
– Variable ratio schedule
• Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable, average number of
responses
• High, regular rate of response
Gambling
Intermittent Reinforcement (2 of 2)
• Interval schedule
– Fixed interval schedule
• Reinforcement occurs every time a fixed time has elapsed
• Low rate of responding with increases as time for reinforcement
approaches
– Variable interval schedule
• Reinforcement occurs after varying lengths of time
• Low rate of responding as reinforcement is tied to time rather than
output
Operant Conditioning and New Behaviours
(1 of 2)
• Shaping – introducing new behaviour by reinforcing
successive approximations of the desired behaviour
until the complete behavioural sequence emerges
– Example: steps in training a dog to roll over
Operant Conditioning and New Behaviours
(2 of 2)
• Behaviour modification – a systematic approach to
change behaviour using principles of operant
conditioning
– Teaching new academic, athletic, or social skills
– Modifying undesirable behaviours
 Learned Helplessness
• A situation in which repeated exposure to inescapable
punishment eventually produces a failure to make escape
attempts.
• E.g. Intimate partner violence
– One-third of police-reported violence in Canada is due to intimate partner
violence (IPV), with over 99,000 victims of IPV reported in 2018. Numbers are
vastly underreported, with fewer than 1 in 5 spouses reporting abuse to police
(Burczycka & Conroy, 2018).
 Observational Learning (1 of 2)
• Observational learning or social learning – occurs without
overt training in response to watching the behaviour of others;
called models
• Modelling – occurs when an observer learns from the
behaviour of another
 Observational Learning (2 of 2)
• Vicarious learning – occurs when an individual observes the
consequences to another’s actions and then chooses to
duplicate the behaviour or refrain from doing so
• Mirror neurons – neurons fired when an animal or human
performs an action or when they see another animal perform
the same action
 Bobo Doll Experiment
Aggressive modelling
• Bandura found that children learned to abuse an inflatable
clown doll by observing an adult model hit the doll.
WHERE ELSE DO WE SEE SOCIAL
LEARNING?
 Learning and Cognition
• Implicit learning – refers to the acquisition of information without
awareness (e.g., learning to talk)
• Spatial navigation learning – involves formal associations among stimuli
relevant to navigating in space
• Latent learning – a form of learning that is not expressed until there is a
reward or incentive
• Insight learning – a sudden realization of a solution to a problem or leap
in understanding new concepts
 Factors that Facilitate Learning (1 of 2)

• Timing
– Multiple exposures separated by time facilitate learning facts
• Context
– Studying in several different locations increases the likelihood
that you will form strong memories about the information and
remember it in other locations
 Factors that Facilitate Learning (2 of 2)

• Awareness and attention

– Some types of learning can occur without awareness
– Awareness and attention enhance learning
– Some attentional processes are automatic and occur when a particular
stimulus is very different from those that surround it
– Other times, we must rely on an active searching method, where we
examine material in search of the most relevant stimuli
 Stroop Effect
If information is inherently contradictory, attending to one stimulus
can block our ability to attend to the relevant stimulus (e.g., the
Stroop Effect)
Name the ink colours below:
Green
Red
Black
Blue
 Social Media and Multitasking
• Students who use Twitter and Facebook while they
study get lower grades than those who don’t
• Students who use social media in class negatively
impact their learning and that of their peers
 Factors that Facilitate Learning
• Sleep
– Sleep deprivation impairs our abilities to pay attention
and learn
– Sleep deprivation can prevent learned information from
moving into more permanent long-term memory storage
 Prenatal and Postnatal Learning
• Prenatal learning
– Non-associative
• Exhibit habituation and sensitization to sensory stimuli

– Basic associative
• Can be classically conditioning

• Postnatal learning
– Newborns (only a few hours old) can imitate facial expressions
 Specific Learning Disorder
A disorder than interferes with the acquisition and use of
one or more of the basic psychological processes involved
in the development of academic skills
• Dyslexia – reading disorder
• Dyscalculia – mathematics disorder
• Dysgraphia – disorder of written expression
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