LECTURE 13

HISTORICAL REVIEW OF EXPERIENCES IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

Ominde Commission: Kenya Education Commission Report 12 th December 1964

- Report dealt with African education or European education or Asian education – separate social activities.

- Education stratified on racial lines

- TOR: to survey the existing educational resources of Kenya and to advice the government of Kenya in the
formulation and implementation of national policies for education.

Recommendations

(i) Came up with the major objectives and goals of education in Kenya. Education policy should be
consciously directed towards training in national unity.

(ii) Uniform fees in all secondary schools

(iii) Diversification of secondary education – broadened to include practical training and to provide outlets into
the production side of industry and agriculture.

(iv) Minimum of four streams in boarding secondary and three streams in day schools

(v) Kiswahili to be compulsory subject in secondary schools

(vi) Positive attitude to agriculture among secondary school staff e.g. Young Farmers Club.

(vii) Vacation courses to help teachers to upgrade themselves.

Gachathi Report (1976): The National Committee on Educational Objectives and Policies

Objectives

1. Assess the relationship between existing needs, existing facilities and the cost of education.

2. To redefine Kenya’s educational objectives and to recommend policies to achieve these objectives within the
financial constraint that public recurrent expenditure on education should grow faster than the government’s
recurrent budget.

3. To formulate a feasible programme of action to achieve these objectives with reference to major
recommendations.

Recommendations

(i) Resources will have to be shifted to directly productive activities in agriculture, industrial and commercial
activities.
 (ii) Education and training will need to be modified and diversified so as to cater for the majority of students
who terminate their education at any level.

(iii) Education should be geared towards promotion of national unity.

(iv) It should remove social and regional inequalities.

(v) It should create an international consciousness.

Mackay Report (1981): Second University in Kenya

Objective

- To prepare detailed plans and recommendations on how the decisions of the government to establish a
second university should be carried out.

TOR

- Review the then higher education system in relation to development objectives of the country.

- Recommend a philosophical framework, concept and objectives within which the university could best serve.

- Examine the relationship between proposed university with University of Nairobi including Kenyatta University
and other past second institutions.

Recommendations

- Establishment of a university which is technically oriented.

- Second university should have a basis in technology

- Establishment of a college of continuing education as part of second university.

- Lengthening of university education by one year (from 3-4 years) 7-4-2-3 thus necessitating consequential
restructuring of the education system including removal of ‘A’ level segment.

- Establishment of Council of Higher Education (CHE) to adequately coordinate universities and post secondary
education.

- Present education system to be extended from 7 to eight years to offer:

(i) Necessary literacy

(ii) Basic product oriented

(iii) One exam a restructure CPE

Kamunge Report (1988) Presidential Working Party on Education and Manpower Training for the next decade and
Beyond

Objectives

1. To review the national education and training from the next decade and beyond
 2. To review education policies and philosophies to ensure that they relate to the changing social, cultural,
political and economic demands of the country.

3. To recommend ways and means of sustaining the momentum of education growth without sacrificing quality
or relevance.

4. Recommend ways and means of making optimal use of existing educational resources in education and
training institutions.

Recommendations

1. Personal allowances which are given by the government to students in training institutions, including
universities be discontinued (cost-sharing policy).

2. Teachers of the upper primary classes be assigned to teach only those subjects they studied and passed in
KCSE or its equivalent.

3. Government to encourage the establishment of more private schools but they should follow the laid down
regulations.

Koech Report (1999): Totally Integrated Quality Education and Training (TIQET)

Objective

To review Kenya’s education system and recommend ways and means of enabling it to facilitate national unity, mutual
social responsibility, accelerated industrial and technological growth.

Major recommendations

1. Basic (pre-primary, primary and secondary) education be declared compulsory and ways be found for
providing subsidized education for poor and marginalized group.

2. The level of fees charged by schools be determined at the district level.

3. In order to improve the falling standards of education at primary schools, government should discontinue the
school milk programme and the savings realized be used for the improvement of learning facilities.

4. Pupil-teacher ratio in primary schools should be 40:1 including the Headteacher and the HOD.

5. Student-teacher ratio in secondary to be 35:1.

Taskforce on the Realignment of the Sector to the New System ( chaired by D. Othiambo)

Douglas Odhiambo Education Report, also known as the Task Force on the Realignment of the Education
Sector to the Constitution of Kenya 2010, was commissioned to assess the education system in Kenya and
propose reforms aligned with the country's constitution.

Douglas Odhiambo of 2012, major recommended was the introduction of a competency-based curriculum.

1. Creation of a New Legal and Institutional Framework

 Education Bill: The Task Force recommended the creation of an Education Bill that would
consolidate all laws and policies related to education into a single piece of legislation. This would
replace outdated laws and make education governance clearer and more consistent with constitutional
principles.
 Reorganization of Ministry of Education: It was proposed that the Ministry of Education be
reorganized to ensure clearer lines of responsibility and more effective delivery of services. This could
involve reassigning specific functions and responsibilities to various departments and agencies within
the Ministry.

2. Decentralization and County-Level Management of Education

 The Task Force recommended the decentralization of education services to counties, in line with the
new devolved system of government established by the Constitution. This would allow counties to
have greater control over the management of education within their regions, improving local
accountability and responsiveness.
 A County Education Department should be established to coordinate education at the county level,
allowing for more tailored and region-specific approaches to addressing educational challenges.

3. Promotion of Equity and Inclusion

 Free and Compulsory Education: The Task Force underscored the need to strengthen the provisions
for free and compulsory education, as enshrined in the Constitution, to ensure that all children,
particularly from marginalized and disadvantaged communities, have access to education.
 There was a focus on improving equity in education, especially for children from disadvantaged
groups (e.g., those with disabilities, girls in rural areas, and children from low-income families).
 It was recommended that affirmative action measures be put in place to address disparities in
educational access and outcomes, particularly for vulnerable and minority groups.

4. Incorporation of Basic Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in Education

 The Task Force recommended that the education sector ensure that education is delivered in a way that
reflects and upholds the fundamental rights guaranteed in the Constitution, including the right to
non-discrimination, the right to quality education, and the right to participate in decisions affecting
education.
 Schools and educational institutions were encouraged to develop policies and practices that promote
human rights, including gender equality, and protect students from discrimination or abuse.

5. Reform of the Curriculum

  The Task Force recommended reforms to the national curriculum to ensure it is more responsive to
the changing needs of the country and the global economy. This could include the integration of life
skills and values-based education to prepare students for active citizenship and the challenges of the
modern world.
 The focus on skills development, including vocational and technical education, was emphasized to
meet the needs of the labor market.

6. Establishment of a National Education Commission

 A National Education Commission was proposed to oversee the overall planning, development, and
evaluation of the education system. The Commission would ensure that education policies align with
national development goals and are responsive to emerging challenges in the sector.
 This body would also be tasked with monitoring the implementation of education policies and
ensuring quality standards are maintained across all levels of education.

7. Strengthening Teacher Professionalism and Standards

 The Task Force recommended strengthening the regulation and professional development of
teachers. This would include enhancing training, improving working conditions, and ensuring that
teachers are equipped to handle the demands of modern education.
 There was a call for the establishment of more robust mechanisms to support continuous
professional development (CPD) for educators, in line with international best practices.

8. Review of the Role of Private and Religious Institutions

 The Task Force recommended a clearer regulatory framework for private and religious educational
institutions to ensure that they operate in a manner that is consistent with the Constitution and serves
the public good. This would address issues related to the quality of education in such institutions and
their accessibility to a wider range of students.

9. Integration of Technology in Education

 The Task Force suggested integrating technology in both teaching and administration to improve
access to education, increase efficiency, and enhance the quality of learning outcomes. This could
involve greater use of digital learning platforms and e-learning resources.

10. Resource Allocation and Funding

 The Task Force stressed the need for adequate funding for education, particularly to address
infrastructure gaps and ensure equitable access to resources across different regions. It emphasized the
importance of financial transparency and accountability in the management of education funds at all
levels.
 Report on the Presidential Working Party on Education Reform

Chaired by Prof Raphael Munavu

Recommendations on the Implementation of Competency-Based

Curriculum
1. Adopt a 2-6-3-3-3 Education Structure: 2 years Pre-Primary School; 6 years Primary School, 3 years Junior School
(JS), 3 years Senior School (SS) and a minimum of 3 years at University. MoE to establish a comprehensive school
system where all levels of learning from Pre-Primary to Grade 9 are managed as one institution headed by Head
of Institution; TSC to provide career progression guidelines for teachers in comprehensive schools; and provide
guidelines on Alternative Provision of Basic Education and Training.
2. KICD to rationalise the number of learning areas and curriculum designs in terms of scope, integration of
subjects within a learning area, gaps, content overload and overlaps in Basic Education as follows:
(i) Pre-Primary (PP1-PP2): the learning areas not to exceed five
(5);
(ii) Lower Primary (Grade 1-3): The learning areas not to exceed seven (7);
(iii) Upper Primary (Grade 4-6): The learning areas not to exceed eight (8);
(iv) Junior School (Grade 7-9): The learning areas not to exceed nine (9);
(v) Senior School (Grade 10-12): The learning areas not to exceed (7) Subjects; and
(vi) Review CSL to reduce overload, overlaps, cost and promote community linkages; and adapt all SNE learning
resources including those for stage based curriculum at levels of basic education.
3. MoE to discontinue categorisation of public Secondary Schools from the current nomenclature (National, Extra-
County, County, and Sub-County) to career pathways (STEM, Social Science and Arts and Sports Science) at
Senior School; and to enhance equity and inclusion, promote the establishment of low-cost boarding Primary
schools in marginalised areas; focus on infrastructural and resources support for sub-County Senior Schools to
offer the three pathways.
4. KNEC to review the Competency-Based Assessment Framework to restructure 35

KPSEA for purposes of monitoring learners’ progress and providing feedback to stakeholders — not for
placement; provide an assessment framework for Alternative Provision for Basic Education and Training; develop
mechanisms for administering assessments within the school daily routine. Assessment for various levels to be
as follows:
(i) At Grade 6: KPSEA to be computed as cumulative score of SBAs for Grade 4-6 for purposes of monitoring
learners’ progress and providing feedback to stakeholders;
(ii) At Grade 9: To comprise 20% of KPSEA, 20% of SBAs in Grade 7 and 8 and 60% summative evaluation at
Grade 9; and
(iii) Grade 12: To comprise 70% summative assessment and 30% (SBAs; Assessment of CSL, values and
competencies).
5. Integrate key tenets (VbE, CSL, PE&E) to supportsuccessful implementationof CBC
at all levels of Education and Training. MoE to provide structures and guidelines to implement a Whole School
Approach to the implementation of VbE; structured religious/moral instruction and Counselling programs;
sensitise parents, caregivers, guardians and the community on their role in the learning process.
6. MoE to provide for:
 (i) Selection and placement of learners into career pathways to Senior School based on performance and
personal interest.
(ii) Computation of KCSE mean score by KNEC to be based on Mathematics, English/Kiswahili, and 5 other best
performed subjects.
7. MoE to review the policy guidelines on textbooks and other instructional materials to:
(i) conform to the revised curriculum designs;
(ii) ensure that the best two evaluated textbooks by KICD are supplied to each public school and strengthen
KICD’s capacity to publish course books in areas where publishers do not submit manuscripts for
evaluation.
8. Restructure SEPU to School Learning and Instructional Materials Centre (SLIMC) to coordinate the procurement
and distribution of MoE approved textbooks and other learning resources. KICD to liaise with School Learning
and Instructional Materials Centre (SLIMC) in facilitating procurement of digital resources hosted in Kenya
Education Cloud (KEC).
9. MoE to develop guidelines on foundational learning for Early Years Education.
10. MoE with support from MoICT to leverage technology at all levels of education by developing ICT infrastructure
for curriculum delivery; improve digital literacy among teachers, parents and other key stakeholders.
11. The Ministry of Education and Ministry of Interior’s Civil Registration Services to integrate registration
of births with EMIS and provide a unique identifier for every child from
birth. EMIS to be restructured and renamed Kenya Education Management Information System (KEMIS).
12. Develop the capacity of KNEC to print National Assessments in Kenya.

Summary

Educational reforms have been made from time to time since independence in Kenya. These reforms have
been effected through commissions of education in the context of the country. Among education commissions
that have steered reforms in Kenya are the Kenya Education Commission, the National Commission on
Education Objectives and Policy, the Presidential Working Party on the Second University, the Commission
of Inquiry into the Educational System of Kenya, and the Taskforce on the Realignment of the Sector to the
New System. The main challenges facing the education sector have been issues of access, equity, quality,
relevance, availability of educational resources, and efficiency in managing them. Moreover, the education
system has been blamed for some of the challenges in the education sector, necessitating system change from
the 8+4+4 to the 2+6+3+3+3 system. Challenges facing education reforms include inconsistency in carrying
out reforms fueled by lack of a guiding philosophical framework, a top-down decision-making process,
limited backing for inclusive education in policy, and curriculum-based challenges. Going forward, a bottom-
up approach to education reforms, an evidence-based decision-making for reforms in education, and an
implementation of inclusive education may play a significant role in reforming the education system.
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

Equity – it is the degree/value of fairness or justice extended to all. Equity is the concept or idea of fairness or justice
in economics, particularly in terms of taxation and welfare economics. It has been studied in experimental economics
as inequity aversion.

1. Fairness in distribution or access to educational opportunities, resources and outcomes to the mutually
exclusive groups/categories of the society e.g. age, sex, social class, income levels, occupation, special needs
etc.

2. It values the deliberate elimination of all forms of discrimination whether direct or indirect.

3. It calls for development of clear indicators, both quantitative and especially qualitative for ensuring deliberate
eradication of any form of existing disparities.

4. It justifies the short term use of affirmative action programmes as a viable strategy for correcting gross
disparities and injustices, affirmative action – short term strategy for correcting gross disparities.

5. Each school going child is exposed to the same kind of education regardless of geographical or socio-economic
background.

6. It is the efforts to equitably distributed opportunities in education. These opportunities are

Enrolment

- Equity in enrolment refers to a situation where each school-age child is given an equal opportunity or chance
of not only entering a school system but also ensuring her/his success.

- In Kenya, there is a large regional difference in terms of equity in enrolment e.g. Central regional 100%, North
Eastern and Coast 30%.

Distribution of qualified teachers

- Qualified teachers: is an important index of quality of education.

- There is a high positive correlation between qualified teachers and performance.

- Schools with professionally qualified teachers perform or have a high chance of performing better in national
examinations than those without qualified teachers.

- What criteria can we use to ensure equitable distribution of qualified teachers to bridge the gap between
schools?

Distribution of other resources

- Involves both monetary and physical

- Significance difference is observed in our national documents e.g. statistical abstracts, development plans etc.

- There are high disparities in provision of classrooms, laboratories, libraries, chairs, desks etc.

Types of equity

(i) Horizontal equity – equal treatment of equals

 - Horizontal equity means treating the same those who are the same in a relevant respect (such as having the
same need)

- Horizontal equity is the idea that people with a similar ability to pay taxes should pay the same or similar
amounts.

- It is related to the concept of tax neutrality or the idea that the tax system should not discriminate between
similar things or people, or unduly distort behaviour.

(ii) Vertical equity-unequal treatment of unequal

- Vertical equity means treating differently those who are different in relevant respects (such as having different
need)

- Vertical equity is the idea that people with a greater ability to pay taxes should pay more. If they pay more
strictly in proportion to their income, this is known as a proportional tax; if they pay disproportionately more
than then this is a progressive tax, more associated with redistribution.

(iii) Intergenerational equity – lies between the first two

Ensures that inequality in one generation does not continue.

- Intergenerational equity is a value concept, which focuses on the rights of future generations.

- Each generation has the right to inherit the same diversity in natural and cultural resources enjoyed by
previous generations and to equitable access to the use and benefits of these resources.

- At the same time, the present generation is a custodian of the planet for future generations, obliged to
conserve this legacy so that future generations may also enjoy these same rights. In this way,
intergenerational equity extends the scope of social justice into the future.

Relevance: Applicability of what is learnt to a particular environment and life situation.

- It implies that learning has a purpose, that of responsibility to actual needs, interests and problems of the
participant and their communities.

- It encompasses the content of education and the process of acquiring it.

- It is vital for empowering the individual for intelligent, appropriate and dynamic responses to the challenge in
life.

- It has serious implications for the process of curriculum needs to be sensitive to local conditions, while at the
same time responding to shared universal issues of human concern.

- In education, relevance enhances quality.

Quality: Enrichment in the process and outcomes of learning achievement

- It is not mere passing of examinations but development of independent analytical, creative innovative
potential of the individual including critical imagination, spiritual and ethical values.

Efficiency: Relationship between inputs and outputs

- It refers to the production of maximum output from minimum input.

- Educational planners are concerned with how fruitful an education system is.
 - How resources are utilized in our education system e.g. human resources, physical resources, monetary
resources, students etc. All these inputs to educational system.

- Outputs: results-productivity of the education system e.g. how many students are graduating from secondary
schools, university etc.

- What is the value of the output?

- Outcomes: it is the external effect of the output. The ability of people to be socially and economically
productive. Productivity of the graduates.

Equity efficiency tradeoff/conflict

- It is rare to get situations where resources could be allocated so as to increase both efficiency and equity.

- Tradeoff occurs where the geographical area that needs more resources on the ground of equity are not
necessarily those in which social returns are high e.g. should we invest in Nairobi or in North Eastern.

- Poor rural areas have fewer and lower quality schools than urban areas, but estimates of social rates of
returns suggest that returns are high in urban.

- If we just want equity, we invest in rural. If we want efficiency, we invest in urban. If we want both, then it will
depend on the relative priority we attach to either.

- How often do our policy makers consider this?

Access: Addresses the open-ended nature of education, which is recognized as a basic right of every child.

- It assumes availability of opportunities at all levels and sectors of education for all those who are eligible and
meet the criteria.

- It embraces the concept of inclusiveness for all potential learners both horizontally and vertically.

- Increased access demands careful planning to ensure that quality is not compromised.

Participation: Participation in education provides opportunities to learn and raise educational achievement.
“Education expectancy” shows the average amount of time spent in education by the population.

- Longer participation is generally associated with higher levels of skills and knowledge, and improved outcomes
for individuals as well as for society.

- Trends in expected quality of education tells us, alongside trends in enrolment and completion rates, about
wider changes in the environment in terms of the demand for higher levels of education.

Educated unemployed – condition where those who have gone through the formal education system, especially up to
at least secondary level are actively looking for jobs which they cannot find at the prevailing wages.

Causes

- Limited capital to use in production – low level industrial growth

 - Fast growing population than the rate of economic growth. The rate of population growth is higher than the
rate at which jobs are being created.

- The Diploma Disease: Avoid an education system that is geared towards passing exams and getting certificates
to secure formal employment.

- The defective educational system, with its theoretical bias, lack of aptitude and technical qualifications for
various types of work among job seekers.

- Mismatch between the skills requirements of the labour market and the qualification of the labour supply.

- Lack of work experience

- Globalization and free trade

- Technology

- Restrictive labour laws

Solutions

- Relevance: need to restructure the curriculum to be responsive to employment needs. Curriculum should
instill skills, knowledge and attitudes which would make educational outputs able to engage in a productive
economic activity.

- Self-reliance: curriculum should foster a sense of self-reliance in form of capability to perform daily tasks of
living in a local setting and initiating self-employment projects that attracts private direct returns.

- Vocational education: An education whose main purpose is to shape the learner towards available
employment.

POLICIES

A course of action/plan through which a government or institution handles or addresses a public problem or that
influences decisions within the organization.

Functions of policies

1. Policies control how resources are allocated

2. Policies are used to establish rules and regulations to guide institutions actions

3. Policies create reporting systems that establish institutional accountability for actions

1. User charges (fees) ability and willingness to pay

- These are voluntary payments based on direct, measurable consumptions of public goods or services.

- These are the direct financial levies met by the beneficiary of education.

- It takes the form of fees paid by learners for teaching services and the facilities they use within the institution.
 - Opposite of user charges is the general taxes which are compulsory payment for public services.

- They are as a result of rapid increase in government expenditure.

- Either charges on tuition (fees) or other charges e.g. boarding fee charges.

- Free education means excess demand for school places

- Thoben (1983) ‘Rule of Thumb” – excess demand should be countered by raise in price than additional
revenue – expand the service.

Advantages

(i) It relieves the financial burden on part of the government

(ii) It enhances freedom of investment in education.

Disadvantages

(i) It can lock out the poor and hence promote social and economic inequalities.

2. Deferred cost recovery e.g. students loan (e.g. Kenya, Nigeria, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Israel)

- Loan provided by government agencies, commercial banks or other financial institutions.

- Pay after graduating with an interest.

- In some countries, student receives loans for both tuition and living expenses but in other countries tuition is
free.

- Interest on loan is usually below market rates.

Advantages

(i) Education is a profitable investment yet many cannot afford to finance it out of their pockets family
resources.

(ii) Student loans provide money when it is needed.

(iii) Loan is repaid in future when the graduate is enjoying the financial benefits of higher lifetime earnings.

(iv) System is more equitable than public subsidy since loan system involves a transfer of income from the
average taxpayer to those who in the future are likely to enjoy higher than average income as a result of
their education.

(v) Advocated for developing countries because it ensures efficiency and equity.

(vi) Enables even poor students to access education – increase private demand for education.

(vii) It makes students to take their studies more seriously and hence graduate on time-increase efficiency.
 (viii) It can free the government from heavy financial allocation to education when the loans scheme becomes
self-financing/revolving.

Disadvantages

(i) Most students unwilling to borrow

(ii) Loan discourages low income students

(iii) Administrative problems involved in recovery of loans/loan repayment

(iv) Likely to have defaulters – Kenya pay once you get a job – likely to wipe out any potential savings of public
funds.

(v) Loan schemes do not exist in many countries.

(vi) Loan repayment period makes it difficult to provide a significant source of funds for higher education thus
a study in Latin *** showed that it can take 10-20 years before a revolving fund could become self-
sustaining.

3. Structural Adjustment Programmes

- It is a term by the IMF to refer to the changes it recommends for developing countries

- They are pockets of policies administered by IMF and World Bank with the purpose of improving macro-
economic planning of poor economically performing countries e.g. privatization, rationalization.

- These includes internal changes (privatization) as well as external changes

- It came up due to universally of Third World debt

- Currently, SAPs have been replaced by “poverty reduction”

- Developing countries are being encouraged to draw “poverty reduction strategy papers” (PRSPs)

- Contents of the PRSP are similar to SAPs

- SAPs are also used to refer to loans from the IMF given to nations with certain conditions

- Nations are demanded to follow these conditions for approval of the loan

- SAPs have far reaching negative effects e.g. in Kenya they led to introduction of cost sharing policy, budget
rationalization.

- These conditions are technically known as “conditionalities”

- Some of these conditions are:

(i) Cutting social expenditures

(ii) Focusing economic output on direct export

(iii) Devaluing currencies against the dollar

(iv) Lifting import and export restrictions

 (v) Balancing budget and not overspending

(vi) Removing price and state subsidies

(vii) Privatization of divestiture of all or part of the state-owned corporations/enterprises

(viii) Enhancing the rights of foreign inventors vis-à-vis (in relation to ) national laws.

Effects of SAPs

(i) Commercializing the sovereignty (independence, power, dominion) of national economies.

(ii) Lowered wages – cause reduced local purchasing power

(iii) Privatization of public enterprises reduces state capacity

(iv) Food trade policies –growth of urban poverty and slums

Adjusting education and training to market economy

- This refers to making education and training meet the market demand.

- The need to adjust education and training to market economy is necessitated by high rate of unemployment,
irrelevance of education and curricular that results to low quality graduates.

- The argument is that for education and training to meet the needs of the nation what is offered should be
relevant to the world.

PROBLEMS AFFECTING EDUCATIONAL PLANNING IN THE THIRD WORLD COUNTRIES

These problems involve various area including social, economics, and political and psychological aspects.

Major assumptions to consider

- Educational planning is a technical process

- Educational planners in attempting to plan, require not only technical know-how relevant to planning but also
knowledge of what their responsibilities are:- they are neither politicians (formulae education objectives) nor
are they administrators (responsible for lacking action to achieve these objectives).

1. Existing policies

- Some policies may be against new plan

- Some policies may require being changed – political implications e.g. location of a school based on political
patronage rather than technical grounds e.g. concentration of school –age population, size of existing schools
etc.

- Education planner has little to say.

2. Availability of funds

- In developing states, funds available per sector of the economy are scarce e.g. over half of Kenya budget –
education but what level gets what percentage, what criteria should be followed.

- Free Primary Education, no payment of fees so government funds everything. Where are the funds for
salaries, furniture and equipment? Kenya School Equipment Scheme is back, capital and recurrent
expenditure.

- How much funds should primary level get against other education levels?

- This results to thin spread of resources across the board.

3. Inaccurate Data

- Particularly demographic data e.g. net/real enrolment

- Information on age is based on national census, which is either in 10years or 5 years groups.

- Need to use Sprague multiplier (just an estimate)

- Inaccurate data comes from those who do not know how old they are

- Others state a different age (cheat) e.g. women may reduce their age for some possible reasons.

- These bring problems while forecasting e.g. school enrolment by age hence how many classrooms to be built,
teachers (how does inaccurate population demographic data affect educational planning in developing
countries?)

4. Shortage of physical facilities/resources

- No or limited funds – no laboratories, homes science rooms, other teaching/learning materials, libraries,
storage facilities etc.

5. Insufficient qualified teaching personnel

- In terms of inspectorate, supervisory etc.

- Issue of brain drain (human capital flight) is pronounced.

(i) External brain drain – qualified teachers in developing countries desert their countries for greener
pastures in the developed world.

(ii) Internal brain drain – people within a country not employed in the field of their expertise.

- How can education planners bridge this gap?

 6. Time element

- Delay in accomplishing some key tasks or activities e.g. education planner may decide that more teachers
need to be trained, then several years may elapse before this happens.

- Also time experienced between when training begins and when graduation takes place

- Planners need ample time to plan for some crisis.

7. Wastage

It is the human and material resources spent or wasted on pupils who have to repeat a grade or who drop out of
school before completing a cycle.

- It denotes the inefficiency of a school system.

- It also refers to wasted opportunities for those children to develop their knowledge, skills, attitudes and values
they need to live productive lives and continue learning.

Remedies to improve or reduce wastage

(i) Introduce automatic or semi-automatic promotion between grades. No educational advantage to be

derived from making low achievers repeats grads.

(ii) Change examination procedures or reduce the number of examination taken. Formulate evaluation to be
considered for promotion.

(iii) Improve (review) curriculum to improve quality and make it more relevant to pupils interests’ and
surroundings.

(iv) Improve basic teaching equipments

(v) Improve teacher training so that empirical learning will replace memorization and note learning.

(vi) Introduce school meals (feeding programme)

8. Unemployment

Unemployment is the condition of not having a job, often referred to as being “out of work”. Unemployment
(standard definition) includes all persons who during a specified reference period (e.g. one week) were:

(i) Without work i.e. were not in paid employment or self-employment.

(ii) Currently available for work i.e. were available for paid employment or self-employment during the
reference period and ;

(iii) Seeking work i.e. had taken specific steps (registration at a public or private employment exchange;
application to employers; checking at work sites; farms, factory gates, market or other assembly places;
placing or answering newspaper advertisements, seeking assistance of friends or relatives).
Types/kinds of unemployment/classification by cause

(i) Frictional unemployment: Is the irreducible minimum amount of unemployment caused by the labour
turnover when new people enter the labour force and look for jobs and existing workers change jobs.

- Unemployment associated with normal turnover of labour e.g. people leaving jobs to look for others, young
people looking for jobs.

- People leave jobs for many reasons and they take time to find new jobs.

- Occurs when even with plenty of jobs available, it takes sometimes for people to search and find new
employment.

(ii) Cyclical unemployment/demand deficient unemployment: Cyclical unemployment is associated with an

economic recession or a sharp economic slowdown. When there is economic recession, there are rising
levels of unemployment.

- It occurs due to a fall in the level of national output in the economy causing firms to lay-off workers to reduce
costs and protect profits. This is a process known as labour-shedding.

- Can occur due to structural changes in the economy e.g. as economic growth occurs, the patterns of demand
and supplies changes constantly.

(iii) Structural Unemployment

- Occurs when changes in the regional, occupational and industrial structure of the demand for labour do not
match the changes in the structure of the supply of labour.

- Structural unemployment exists when there are unfilled job vacancies due to a mismatch between the skills of
the registered unemployed and those required by employers. People made redundant in one sector of the
economy cannot immediately take up jobs in other parts as they do not have the relevant skills.

- Some regions, occupations and industries may suffer a decline in the demand for what they produce while
others may enjoy an increase in demand e.g. mechanization of tea picking, introduction of computers to
replace some jobs.

- Natural forces and social policies that discourage movement among regions or occupations may cause
structural unemployment.

(iv) Real wage unemployment/classical unemployment

- Real wage unemployment occurs when wages are forced above the normal market level. Trade unions are
seen as the instructions causing this type of unemployment. This leads to excess supply of labour that result to
reduced demand.

(v) Hidden unemployment: Those who are qualified to take up jobs but due to long periods of unemployment
have given up and are no longer looking for jobs. They are not in the government records of
unemployment.
 - Poverty trap those who are qualified and have skills bur due to their poverty levels, they do not have
opportunity to look for jobs or even to apply for them.

Causes

(i) Poor economic growth rate: no industries

(ii) High population growth rate: uncontrolled growth rate

(iii) Rapid expansion of formal education: high production of graduates

(iv) Poor planning: no manpower forecasting/labour market analysis

(v) Irrelevant curriculum: do not meet the market demand

Effects of unemployment

(i) Reduced standards of living due to poor or no income

(ii) Rural-urban migration- unemployment accelerates exodus of educated youth from rural to urban areas,
poor or low economic development in rural areas.

(iii) Massive migration to cities/towns cause strain in social amenities available e.g. sanitation, transport.

(iv) Creation of street families, crimes, mental disturbances all these affect national stability and economic
growth.

Solution to unemployment

(i) Reform the economy – develop the rural areas, improve on agriculture, CDF, youth funds to boost their
entrepreneurship.

(ii) Review the curriculum to make it relevant to the needs of the market

(iii) Strengthen /introduce out-of school education e.g. polytechnics, community education, on-the-job
training.

(iv) Strengthen National Youth Service- trainees can make a disciplined contribution to the national
development.

(v) Proper planning – planners should be given a wider role in making reliable plan, forecasts without political
interference.

Measuring unemployment

Unemployment rate (measured in percent) is for the purpose of calculating the unemployment rate, unemployed
persons are considered to be those who are willing and able to work for pay but are unable to find jobs. The civilian
labour force includes all those willing and able to work for pay – both unemployed and employed.

Remedies to problem of educated unemployment

 (i) Improving economic growth to enhance creation of more job opportunities.

(ii) Making education curriculum equipment the learners with the skills and knowledge needed in the
employment sector.

(iii) Encouraging the establishment of labour intensive technology

(iv) Reducing barriers to labour mobility to other countries for job opportunities.

Other problems of educational planning

(i) Calculating cost of education

(ii) Comprehensive approach vs selective approach

(iii) Public sector vs private sector

(iv) Educational planning and exceptional children, gifted, backward and handicapped

(v) Educational planning for qualitative improvement

(vi) Analysis of educational expenditure for planning

POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO SUCCESS IN EDUCATION PLANNING

1. Political authority and atmosphere should allow for the establishment of planning offices. It should also be
committed to support planning activities.

2. Education planners should have a clear idea as to what their responsibilities are i.e. TOR.

3. Need to develop clear educational policies and priorities so that educational planners are clear of what they
are planning for.

4. Policy makers must refrain from treating the development of alternatives as political rather than technical
matter.

5. There should be mutual co-ordination of all those concerned with the development education as a whole.

6. Education administration must actively support changes implied in educational planning.