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 Fourth edition

Research Methods Introduction to

Research Methods in Psychology

in Psychology Research Methods
Dennis Howitt Duncan Cramer

in Psychology
Dennis Howitt & Duncan Cramer
Introduction to Research Methods in Psychology
Introduction to
Research Methods
in Psychology
Fourth Edition

Dennis Howitt Loughborough University

Duncan Cramer Loughborough University
Pearson Education Limited
Edinburgh Gate
Harlow CM20 2JE
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0)1279 623623
Web: www.pearson.com/uk

First published 2005 (print)

Second edition published 2008 (print)
Third edition published 2011 (print)
Fourth edition published 2014 (print and electronic)

© Pearson Education Limited 2005, 2011 (print)

© Pearson Education Limited 2014 (print and electronic)

The rights of Dennis Howitt and Duncan Cramer to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by them
in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

The print publication is protected by copyright. Prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system,
distribution or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording or otherwise, permission
should be obtained from the publisher or, where applicable, a licence permitting restricted copying in the United
Kingdom should be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London
EC1N 8TS.

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ISBN: 978-0-273-77505-8 (print)

978-1-292-01575-0 (PDF)
978-0-273-77506-5 (eText)

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for the print edition is available from the British Library

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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
18 17 16 15 14

Print edition typeset in 9.5/12pt Sabon LT Std by 35

Print edition printed and bound in Malaysia

NOTE THAT ANY PAGE CROSS REFERENCES REFER TO THE PRINT EDITION
 Brief contents

Contents vii
Guided tour xvi
Introduction xviii
Acknowledgements xx

Part 1 The basics of research 1

1 The role of research in psychology 3

2 Aims and hypotheses in research 27
3 Variables, concepts and measures 45
4 The problems of generalisation and decision-making in research:
Chance findings and sample size 63
5 Research reports: The total picture 86
6 Examples of how to write research reports 115
7 The literature search 136
8 Ethics and data management in research 162

Part 2 Quantitative research methods 185

9 The basic laboratory experiment 187

10 Advanced experimental design 214
11 Cross-sectional or correlational research: Non-manipulation studies 235
12 Longitudinal studies 251
13 Sampling and population surveys 266

Part 3 Fundamentals of testing and measurement 283

14 Psychological tests: Their use and construction 285

15 Reliability and validity: Evaluating the value of tests and measures 305
16 Coding data 322

Part 4 Qualitative research methods 335

17 Why qualitative research? 337

18 Qualitative data collection 350
19 Transcribing language data: The Jefferson system 363
vi BRIEF CONTENTS

20 Thematic analysis 372

21 Grounded theory 387
22 Discourse analysis 404
23 Conversation analysis 417
24 Interpretative phenomenological analysis 429
25 Evaluating and writing up qualitative research 447

Part 5 Research for projects, dissertations and theses 461

26 Developing ideas for research 463

Glossary 483
References 490
Index 498
 Contents

Guided tour xvi

Introduction xviii
Acknowledgements xx

Part 1 The basics of research 1

1 The role of research in psychology 3

Overview 3
1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 Reading 5
1.3 Evaluating the evidence 7
1.4 Inferring causality 8
1.5 Types of research and the assessment of causality 11
1.6 Practice 22
1.7 Conclusion 25
Key points 25
Activities 26

2 Aims and hypotheses in research 27

Overview 27
2.1 Introduction 28
2.2 Types of study 29
2.3 Aims of research 31
2.4 Research hypotheses 32
2.5 Four types of hypothesis 34
2.6 Difficulties in formulating aims and hypotheses 38
2.7 Conclusion 43
Key points 43
Activities 44
viii CONTENTS

3 Variables, concepts and measures 45

Overview 45
3.1 Introduction 46
3.2 The history of the variable in psychology 47
3.3 Types of variable 48
3.4 Independent and dependent variables 50
3.5 Measurement characteristics of variables 50
3.6 Stevens’ theory of scales of measurement 53
3.7 Operationalising concepts and variables 58
3.8 Conclusion 61
Key points 62
Activities 62

4 The problems of generalisation and decision-making in research:

Chance findings and sample size 63
Overview 63
4.1 Introduction 64
4.2 Universalism 66
4.3 Sampling and generalisation 66
4.4 Statistics and generalisation 71
4.5 Directional and non-directional hypotheses again 73
4.6 More on the similarity between measures of effect (difference) and association 75
4.7 Sample size and size of association 78
4.8 Conclusion 84
Key points 85
Activities 85

5 Research reports: The total picture 86

Overview 86
5.1 Introduction 87
5.2 Overall strategy of report writing 89
5.3 The sections of the research report in detail 94
5.4 Conclusion 111
Key points 114
Activities 114

6 Examples of how to write research reports 115

Overview 115
6.1 Introduction 116
6.2 A poorly written practical report 117
6.3 Analysis of the report 121
 CONTENTS ix

6.4 An improved version of the report 129

6.5 Conclusion 134
Key points 135
Activity 135

7 The literature search 136

Overview 136
7.1 Introduction 137
7.2 Library classification systems 143
7.3 Electronic databases 146
7.4 Obtaining articles not in your library 154
7.5 Personal bibliographic database software 157
7.6 Conclusion 160
Key points 161
Activities 161

8 Ethics and data management in research 162

Overview 162
8.1 Introduction 163
8.2 Ethics: general principles 165
8.3 Research ethics 167
8.4 Ethics and publication 174
8.5 Obtaining the participant’s consent 175
8.6 Data management 177
8.7 Conclusion 181
Key points 182
Activities 183

Part 2 Quantitative research methods 185

9 The basic laboratory experiment 187

Overview 187
9.1 Introduction 188
9.2 Characteristics of the true or randomised experiment 191
9.3 More advanced research designs 198
9.4 Conclusion 212
Key points 213
Activity 213
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x CONTENTS

10 Advanced experimental design 214

Overview 214
10.1 Introduction 215
10.2 Multiple levels of the independent variable 216
10.3 Multiple dependent variables 221
10.4 Factorial designs 221
10.5 The psychology and social psychology of the laboratory experiment 226
10.6 Conclusion 233
Key points 233
Activities 234

11 Cross-sectional or correlational research: Non-manipulation studies 235

Overview 235
11.1 Introduction 236
11.2 Cross-sectional designs 238
11.3 The case for non-manipulation studies 239
11.4 Key concepts in the analysis of cross-sectional studies 241
11.5 Conclusion 249
Key points 250
Activities 250

12 Longitudinal studies 251

Overview 251
12.1 Introduction 252
12.2 Panel designs 254
12.3 Different types of third variable 256
12.4 Analysis of non-experimental designs 259
12.5 Conclusion 265
Key points 265
Activities 265

13 Sampling and population surveys 266

Overview 266
13.1 Introduction 267
13.2 Types of probability sampling 267
13.3 Non-probability sampling 271
13.4 National surveys 271
13.5 Socio-demographic characteristics of samples 274
13.6 Sample size and population surveys 276
13.7 Conclusion 281
Key points 282
Activities 282
 CONTENTS xi

Part 3 Fundamentals of testing and measurement 283

14 Psychological tests: Their use and construction 285

Overview 285
14.1 Introduction 286
14.2 The concept of a scale 287
14.3 Scale construction 289
14.4 Item analysis or factor analysis? 299
14.5 Other considerations in test construction 300
14.6 Conclusion 303
Key points 303
Activities 304

15 Reliability and validity: Evaluating the value of tests and measures 305
Overview 305
15.1 Introduction 306
15.2 Reliability of measures 308
15.3 Validity 311
15.4 Types of validity 312
15.5 Conclusion 320
Key points 321
Activity 321

16 Coding data 322

Overview 322
16.1 Introduction 323
16.2 Types of coding 324
16.3 Reliability and validity 329
16.4 Qualitative coding 330
16.5 Conclusion 333
Key points 334
Activities 334

Part 4 Qualitative research methods 335

17 Why qualitative research? 337

Overview 337
17.1 Introduction 338
xii CONTENTS

17.2 What is qualitative research? 339

17.3 History of the qualitative/quantitative divide in psychology 342
17.4 The quantification–qualitative methods continuum 345
17.5 Evaluation of qualitative versus quantitative methods 347
17.6 Conclusion 349
Key points 349
Activity 349

18 Qualitative data collection 350

Overview 350
18.1 Introduction 351
18.2 Major qualitative data collection approaches 352
18.3 Conclusion 361
Key points 362
Activities 362

19 Transcribing language data: The Jefferson system 363

Overview 363
19.1 Introduction 364
19.2 Jefferson transcription 365
19.3 Advice for transcribers 370
19.4 Conclusion 371
Key points 371
Activities 371

20 Thematic analysis 372

Overview 372
20.1 Introduction 373
20.2 What is thematic analysis? 375
20.3 A basic approach to thematic analysis 376
20.4 A more sophisticated version of thematic analysis 379
20.5 Conclusion 386
Key points 386
Activity 386

21 Grounded theory 387

Overview 387
21.1 Introduction 388
21.2 Development of grounded theory 390
21.3 Data in grounded theory 391
 CONTENTS xiii

21.4 How to do grounded theory analysis 392

21.5 Computer grounded theory analysis 396
21.6 Evaluation of grounded theory 400
21.7 Conclusion 402
Key points 403
Activity 403

22 Discourse analysis 404

Overview 404
22.1 Introduction 405
22.2 Important characteristics of discourse 407
22.3 The agenda of discourse analysis 409
22.4 Doing discourse analysis 411
22.5 Conclusion 415
Key points 415
Activities 416

23 Conversation analysis 417

Overview 417
23.1 Introduction 418
23.2 Precepts of conversation analysis 421
23.3 Stages in conversation analysis 422
23.4 Conclusion 427
Key points 427
Activities 428

24 Interpretative phenomenological analysis 429

Overview 429
24.1 Introduction 430
24.2 Philosophical foundations of interpretative phenomenological analysis 431
24.3 Stages in interpretative phenomenological analysis 438
24.4 Conclusion 445
Key points 445
Activities 446

25 Evaluating and writing up qualitative research 447

Overview 447
25.1 Introduction 448
25.2 Evaluating qualitative research 450
25.3 Validity 452
xiv CONTENTS

25.4 Criteria for novices 457

25.5 Conclusion 458
Key points 459
Activities 459

Part 5 Research for projects, dissertations and theses 461

26 Developing ideas for research 463

Overview 463
26.1 Introduction 464
26.2 Why not a replication study? 466
26.3 Choosing a research topic 471
26.4 Sources of research ideas 472
26.5 Conclusion 480
Key points 481
Activity 482

Glossary 483
References 490
Index 498
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
unsre Stärke. Sie werden sich vielleicht noch davon überzeugen
können, wenn ich es auch nicht hoffe!“ Damit war die Freundschaft
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 Dann geht es im Graben entlang hinunter auf die feuchten
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Lange Zeit hat Borstig keine Gelegenheit, die Familie Duftig zu
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„Vater, wir haben heute abgefährtet. An der Remise haben wir

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leise Anspielung des Försters, die Jungen hätten vielleicht
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Schließlich nähert man sich der Remise. Seppel ist natürlich der
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mit gesträubten Rückenborsten in den Haufen hinein. Seppel kennt
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aber zum Angriff gehen sie nicht vor, wenn auch der Laut immer
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Wütendes Kläffen antwortet, und nun ertönt das gurgelnde Knurren
des Terriers, er hat gefaßt. Auch Seppel will nicht mehr
zurückstehen, er packt einen zweiten und zaust sich mit ihm herum.
Das Kreischen und Fauchen der gepackten Räuber, das Knurren der
Hunde, ein Mordsspektakel. Den möchte sich ein dritter Iltis zunutze
machen. Leise drückt er sich unter dem Haufen hinweg und
versucht, nach dem freien Felde zu entkommen. Beinahe wäre es
ihm geglückt, aber ehe er noch in den Schollen des Sturzackers
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nach. Da hat auch Treff die Situation erfaßt. Einige Sekunden nur
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Schulterblätter, und Mama Duftig fliegt dem Hunde um die Behänge,
daß ihre Knochen knacken und die Räuberseele entweicht.
Mittlerweile ist auch der geräuschvolle Kampf im Dorngestrüpp
beendet, die Sieger zerren ihre Beute hervor und lecken sich ihre
geringfügigen Beiß- und Kratzwunden.
Dann zieht ein Siegeszug nach dem Dorfe zurück. Die Knaben
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Unterweisungen von den Jungen gemerkt und in der Praxis
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die Hunde, die gestreichelt und geliebkost werden wie lange nicht.
 Verlag Haupt & Hammon ·
Leipzig

Die Glücksbude
Eine Erzählung von
Ernst Preczang
Geheftet Mk. 2.— Gebunden Mk. 2.60

Eine t a p f e r e , f r e u d i g e L e b e n s a u f f a s s u n g spricht aus

Preczangs Buch, dieser Erzählung von der prächtigen, resoluten
Frau, die ihren aus der Bahn geworfenen Mann stützt und ihm,
sich und ihrem Jungen eine Existenz außerhalb der bürgerlichen
Welt im Reiche der fahrenden Leute gründet. Das Werk schildert
ein hartes Geschick, aber durch warmen H u m o r gemildert und
von moderner Romantik, hier der R o m a n t i k m o d e r n e n
L a n d f a h r e r l e b e n s , umwoben. E i n e e c h t e J u g e n d s c h r i f t , an
der sich auch die Erwachsenen erfreuen und erfrischen werden!
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