Sobuz et al.

Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 International Journal of Concrete

https://doi.org/10.1186/s40069-024-00707-7
Structures and Materials

RESEARCH Open Access

High‑Strength Self‑Compacting Concrete

Production Incorporating Supplementary
Cementitious Materials: Experimental
Evaluations and Machine Learning Modelling
Md. Habibur Rahman Sobuz1,2* , Fahim Shahriyar Aditto1, Shuvo Dip Datta3, Md. Kawsarul Islam Kabbo3,
Jannat Ara Jabin1, Md. Munir Hayet Khan2, S. M. Arifur Rahman4, Mehernaz Raazi1 and Ahmad Akib Uz Zaman5

Abstract
This study investigates mechanical properties, durability performance, non-destructive testing (NDT) characteristics,
environmental impact evaluation, and advanced machine learning (ML) modelling techniques employed in the analy-
sis of high-strength self-compacting concrete (HSSCC) incorporating varying supplementary cementitious materi-
als (SCMs) to develop sustainable building construction. The findings from the fresh characteristics test indicate
that mixes’ optimal flowability and passing qualities can be achieved using different concentrations of marble powder
(MP) alongside a consistent amount of silica fume (SF) and fly ash (FA). Moreover, the incorporation of 10% MP
along with 10% FA and 20% SF in HSSCC significantly improved the compressive strength by 14.68%, while the split-
ting tensile strength increased by 15.59% compared to the reference mix at 56 days. While random forest (RF), gradi-
ent boosting (GB), and their ensemble models exhibit strong coefficient correlation (­ R2) values, the GB model dem-
onstrates more precision, indicating reliable predicted outcomes of the mechanical properties. Following subsequent
testing, it has been demonstrated that incorporating SCMs improves the NDT properties of HSSCC and enhances its
durability. The finer MP, SF, and FA particles enhanced microstructural performance by minimizing voids and cracks
while improving the C–H–S bond. As noticed by its lower ­CO2-eq per MPa for SCMs, the HSSCC mix with up to 15%
MP inclusion increased mechanical strength while reducing the environmental footprint, making it an eco-friendly
concrete alternative.
Keywords Sustainable high-strength self-compacting concrete, Marble powder, Mechanical properties, Machine
learning modelling, Durability properties, Non-destructive characteristics

Journal information: ISSN 1976-0485 / eISSN 2234-1315.

*Correspondence:
Md. Habibur Rahman Sobuz
[email protected]
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

© The Author(s) 2024. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which
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Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 2 of 28

1 Introduction vibrated traditionally. Researchers Vasusmitha and Rao

Concrete is one of the most frequently utilized materi- (2013) looked at how various mineral additives affected
als for construction purposes in every nation because the compression and permeation of HSSCC. According
of its exceptional structural stability and durability. A to the findings, HSSCC had less chloride permeability
highly dispersed aggregate, cement, and water mixture onto concrete, a greater bond and strength against ten-
makes concrete. The aggregate may impact efficiency and sion, less oxygen permeability, and less plastic settling.
durability of concrete, but the strength of concrete may Moreover, sorptivity, porosity, and chloride ion perme-
also be constrained. Reusing waste materials is an effort ability tests were used by Kanellopoulos et al. (2012) to
the engineering community makes to preserve natural examine the durability characteristics of SCC and tra-
resources (Yong and Lee, 2022; Raghunath et al., 2019). ditional concrete. Tennich et al. (2017) evaluated SCC’s
In-depth research on the root cause as well as the con- durability, utilizing tile and marble wastes that sul-
sequences of concrete degradation is necessary before phates had attacked. Leung et al. (2016) reported using
placing concrete in various sites. There is a substan- SF and FA in combination for SCC. Higher resistance
tial durability issue in places like marine environments, was observed when the researchers evaluated the impli-
underground, etc., due to assault from carbonation, cations of SF and FA on the sorptivity characteristics of
sulphate, acid, and chloride. Self-compacting concrete SCC. Using proportions of 0–30% of the entire amount
(SCC) is a clear solution to the aforementioned issue. of cement volume, Sardinha et al. (2016) replaced the
There have been numerous studies investigating vari- MP. They claimed that MP replacement in cement pro-
ous partial cement alternatives for SCC (Khan et al., 2023; duced an approximate compressive strength. Like-
Rahman Sobuz et al., 2023; Sadek et al., 2016; Hasan wise, Ahmad et al. (2023) replaced cement with marble
et al., 2022). If the investigation illustrates that using waste which resulted in a 20% increase in compressive
marble powder (MP) as an inorganic addition adhering strength and durability. The MP and the marble tile frag-
to SCC is acceptable and effective, that may also be a pre- ments were added to the SCC by Tennich et al. (2015) as
ferred disposal approach. The potential applications of filler. According to their findings, adding MP enhanced
MP, including enhancing soil, the approach to hydrogen- the compressive and tensile strength of the material.
ation, asphalt placement, pottery, ceramics, thermoset Jalal et al. (2015) examined the impact of fly ash, silica
epoxy composites, and polymeric manufacturing meth- fume, and nano-silica on the hardened characteristics
ods, have all been investigated in recent years (Aruntaş of a superior-performance SCC. The influence of marble
et al., 2010). Numerous studies recommend the incorpo- powder (MP) on the strength of compression of SCC was
ration of MP as a substitute for cement in cementitious examined by Uysal and Tanyildizi (2012). According to
materials (Aditto et al., 2023; Aliabdo et al., 2014; Ely- Jain et al. (2013), combining data from ultrasonic pulse
amany et al., 2014). Meera et al. (2020) investigated the velocity testing and Schmidt hammer tests provided a
use of marble powder in SCC revealing positive results. more precise way to calculate the compressive strength of
According to the study performed on SCC, Lija and Minu concrete than depending just on the outcomes of distinct
(2016) concluded that replacing cement with a mixture of experiments. Belouadah et al. (2021) further explored
15% marble waste and 15–30% silica fume strengthened the potential for non-destructive methods to evalu-
the flexural strength and stiffness. Additionally, the dura- ate the physico-mechanical characteristics of concrete
bility and the chloride resistance of ternary combined using MP and obtained positive results for up to 10% MP
SCC comprising large-scale fly ash and silica fume were replacement. Furthermore, using a non-destructive test
experimentally investigated by Wongkeo et al. (2014) and marble sand powder ranging from 5 to 25%, Velci
and they reported that the integration of fly ash in SCC Shridevi et al. (2023) assessed the strength qualities of
considerably increased the durability qualities. Utilizing SCC and discovered increased strength after 28 days.
fly ash ranging from 10 to 50%, Dhiyaneshwaran et al. According to Breysse (2012), it is possible to determine
(2013) conducted a study presenting improved dura- the compressive strength of concrete using either the
bility. El-Chabib and Syed (2013) also investigated the Schmidt hammer or ultrasonic pulse velocity assess-
impact of a quaternary mix, including additional cemen- ments individually or together.
titious elements. The findings suggested that concrete In the construction industry, artificial intelligence
having 10% silica fume (SF) provided enhanced com- and machine learning are advanced techniques to
pressive strength. The durability characteristics associ- quantify the fresh and mechanical properties of SCC
ated with normal strength self-compacting concrete and using formulated mixture ratios, focusing on vari-
their impact on RC construction were examined experi- ous strength predictions (Ahmad et al., 2021; Datta
mentally by Sideris and Anagnostopoulos (2013). The et al., 2024; Habibur Rahman Sobuz et al., 2024; Xie
outcomes were contrasted with concrete that had been et al., 2020). ML approaches can accurately predict
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 3 of 28

mechanical characteristics, enabling tasks like clas- 2 Materials

sification, correlation, regression, clustering, and Locally produced Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) of
enhancing the mechanical as well as fresh properties type-I, which followed BDS EN 197–1 (BDS.EN:197–1),
of concrete (Silva et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2019). Azimi- was utilized for this study. The coarse aggregate origi-
Pour et al. (2020) employed a support vector machine nated as angular stone from a nearby source. The coarse
to evaluate the fresh and mechanical properties of aggregate used had an optimum size of 19 mm. Natu-
SCC, incorporating fly ash as a potential substitute ral river sand passed through a 4.75 mm sieve and was
for cement. Asadi Shamsabadi et al. (2022) reported employed as a fine aggregate (Astm, 2018). Silica fume
that ML models using XGBoost and ANN informa- was purchased from a local supplier in Dhaka, Bang-
tional models accurately predicted the compressive ladesh. Fly ash was obtained for free from a reputable
strength of WMP concrete with a high degree of reli- cement manufacturer in Bangladesh. Marble powder was
ability (R2 > 0.97). The utilization of multiple machine also collected free of cost from an industrial firm which is
learning models to forecast the compressive strength situated in Narayanganj, Bangladesh. A superplasticizer
of SCC with the inclusion of marble powder and rice based on polycarboxylic ether was employed to achieve
husk ash was reported by Mahmood et al. (2023). the requisite workability. Fig. 1 illustrates the gradation
Efficient SCC mixture compositions and compressive curve for marble powder (MP) as well as coarse and fine
strengths were part of the extensive dataset used to aggregate with lower and upper limits following ASTM
train the ANN model by Acikgenc Ulas (2023). C33 (ASTM-C33., 2003). The physical characteristics of
There have been relatively very few comprehensive materials provide several benefits, including strength,
studies addressing the combined impact of SF, FA, and workability, durability, and chemical resistance. The
MP SCMs in the production of HSSCC. However, the physical features of the substances are presented in
literature lacks comprehensive information regard- Table 1. The chemical reactions between the components
ing the combined effects of SCMs, such as FA, MP, influence the overall effectiveness of HSSCC, whereas fly
and SF, on durability, non-destructive testing (NDTs), ash lowers permeability, silica fume strengthens density,
and machine learning (ML) modelling. Therefore, this OPC hydrates, and marble powder improves strength.
study introduces several novel contributions to the Table 2 illustrates the findings of an X-ray fluorescence
field of HSSCC by exploring the synergistic effects of (XRF) analysis that evaluated the chemical properties of
incorporating 0–20% MP alongside 20% SF and 10% FA OPC, MP, SF, and FA.
as SCMs. This investigation provides a comprehensive
analysis that not only evaluates the mechanical prop-
erties and durability of HSSCC but also explores ML 3 Experimental Program
modelling to predict these properties accurately com- 3.1 Mix Design and Concrete Mixing
pared to existing studies. The unique approach com- To investigate the characteristics of SCC in line with the
bines experimental evaluations with ML techniques standards established by the EFNARC, several concrete
viz. random forest (RF) and gradient boosting (GB) mixtures were created at a constant water-to-binder ratio
models, offering a novel perspective on the predic- of 0.36 with OPC, MP, FA, and SF at varied proportioning
tion of concrete properties, which has not been exten- ratios (EFNARC, 2005). The mix proportions for every
sively covered in previous works. Moreover, the study SCC batch are displayed in Table 3, whereas ‘S’ implies
brings to light the environmental benefits of utilizing silica fume, ‘F’ implies fly ash, and ‘M’ implies marble
SCMs by demonstrating a significant reduction in C ­ O2 powder content. To partially replace cement, MP, FA, and
emissions without compromising the mechanical effi- SF were utilized. The replacement rates of 0, 5, 10, 15, and
ciency of the concrete. A combined investigation into 20% of MP in place of OPC enable an assessment of the
the microstructural characteristics and the interac- impacts on concrete strength, durability, and other char-
tion between destructive and non-destructive testing acteristics. Experimental conditions are kept consistent
results, this study finds the opportunity to extend valu- and uniform by maintaining consistent proportions of
able insights into the optimization of HSSCC mixtures 10% FA and 20% SF, thereby isolating the implications of
for sustainable construction practices. The rigorously MP substitution. Also, in real-world scenarios, the avail-
designed experimental program including microstruc- ability and applicability of alternative materials for con-
tural properties and a predictive ML model represents crete production might change, which is reflected in the
a pivotal step towards the use of SCMs in concrete variation of MP proportions depending on waste mate-
research, particularly in achieving a balance between rials. Through the consideration of these variables, the
enhanced mechanical properties, durability, and envi- experimental design provides a thorough investigation
ronmental sustainability. of the influence of MP substitution on concrete qualities
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 4 of 28

100

80

60
% Finer

40

20

0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
Sieve Opening (mm)
Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate
ASTM Lower Limit (Fine) ASTM Upper Limit (Fine)
ASTM Lower Limit (Coarse) ASTM Upper Limit (Coarse)
Marble powder
Fig.1 Gradation curve of marble powder, fine and coarse aggregate

Table 1 Characteristics of the substances of physical composition

Materials Loose Unit Weight (Kg/ Fineness Modulus Moisture Content Absorption (%) Specific Gravity
m 3) (%)

Fine aggregate 1686.9 3.09 2.31 1.63 2.72

Coarse aggregate 1640.69 5.26 1.79 1.17 2.93
OPC 1440 – – – 3.15
Marble powder 1375 – – – 2.71
Fly ash 1115 – – – 2.10
Silica fume 600 – – – 2.22

while preserving uniformity and practical applicability.

Table 2 Chemical compositions of cement (OPC), fly ash (FA),
The control mix called S20F0M0 contains 20% SF, 0% FA,
marble powder (MP), and silica fume (SF)
and 0% MP.
Properties OPC (%) FA (%) SF (%) MP (%)

SiO2 19.01 61.53 89.94 5.98 3.2 Preparing and Curing Samples

Al2O3 4.51 30.47 0.64 0.46 The compressive, splitting tensile strength, and water
Fe2O3 3.2 1.24 0.79 0.21 permeability evaluations were performed on cylindri-
CaO 66.89 1.31 0.75 46.31 cal molds measuring 100 × 200 mm. Concrete discs
MgO 1.23 0.89 1.52 7.06 100 mm in diameter and 50 mm thick were saw-cut from
SO3 0.45 0.31 0.09 0.17 100 × 200 mm cylinders as the samples for the sorptivity
K2O 2.53 0.42 0.58 1.78 and RCPT tests. After 24 h in an area having an average
Na2O 1.10 0.49 0.43 2.19 temperature of about 27 ± 4 °C, samples were taken out
LOI 1.13 3.37 5.26 35.85 and labelled for easier identification. The samples were
submerged completely using potable water and cured
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 5 of 28

Table 3 Mix proportion for all SCC mixtures

Mix ID Mix nature Water (kg/m3) OPC (kg/m3) Marble Fly ash Silica fume Fine Coarse SP (%)
powder (kg/ (kg/m3) (kg/m3) aggregate aggregate
m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3)

S20F0M0 Binary 198 440 – – 110 962.5 797.5 1.2

S20F10M0 Ternary 198 385 – 55 110 962.5 797.5 1.2
S20F10M5 Quaternary 198 357.5 27.5 55 110 962.5 797.5 1.2
S20F10M10 Quaternary 198 330 55 55 110 962.5 797.5 1.2
S20F10M15 Quaternary 198 302.5 82.5 55 110 962.5 797.5 1.2
S20F10M20 Quaternary 198 275 110 55 110 962.5 797.5 1.2

for 7, 28, and 56 days using a plastic treatment chamber. were utilized to define the charge passed as well as concrete
Each specimen was assembled and cured in a laboratory quality in structures.
per ASTM-C192/C192M-18 (ASTM-C192/192 M). Microstructural properties were assessed using a scan-
ning electron microscope (SEM) in compliance with
ASTM C1723-16 (ASTM-C, 1723, 2016). The hardened
3.3 Evaluation Practice concrete specimens were analyzed under a scanning
According to the BS EN 12350–8 (BS.EN:12350–8, 2010) electron microscope to understand the compactness of
and BS EN 12350–12 (EN.BS:12350–12, 2010) regula- the interfacial transition zone. The concrete specimens
tions, flowability and passing ability of fresh materials were cut into 5 × 5 mm sizes and soaked in isopropanol
were assessed using the slump flow and J-ring flow tests. for 72 h, followed by drying at 40 °C. Later, the concrete
Experimental methods for verifying all fresh qualities are specimens were vacuum desiccated for 24 h coated with
shown in Fig. 2a, b. 5 nm carbon and analyzed at 15 keV voltage and beam
The compressive strength test was performed in line intensity of 14.0 under an SE detector at high vacuum (S.
with ASTM C39 standards (ASTM-C39, 2010) to eval- A. Rahman et al., 2023a, 2023b, 2024).
uate the cylinder specimen in this investigation. To
examine the influence of FA, MP, and SF regarding the 3.4 Predictive Machine Learning Ensemble Model
compressive strength of HSSCC, cylindrical molds with Researchers have developed ensemble methods to
dimensions of 100 × 200 mm were selected after undergo- enhance prediction accuracy, which merges several
ing water curing for durations of 7, 28, and 56 days. The machine learning (ML) models into a single predictive
cylinder specimen used in this investigation was tested model (Al Daoud, 2019). Ensemble methods, like boost-
using the splitting tensile test in compliance with the ing and bagging, which combine RF and GB algorithms,
ASTM C496 standard (ASTM-C496, 2011). This would provide satisfactory outcomes. Equations 1, 2, 3, 4 were
be conducted as the same procedure as the compressive implemented to evaluate the impact of the model utiliz-
strength test. ing multiple metrics. Fig. 3 depicts the framework exe-
Fig. 2e depicts the procedure used to evaluate water cuted in this investigation to generate both single-based
permeability following BS EN 12390–8 (EN.BS-12390–8, machine learning and ensemble model algorithms.
2019). HSSCC specimens were subjected to sorptiv- n
ity testing following ASTM-C 1585–13 (ASTM-C1585, (Y − Yi )2

2013), as highlighted in Fig. 2f. According to the ASTM 2 i=1
R = 1− n (1)
C1202 (ASTM-C, 1202, 2019) Rapid Chloride Penetra- 
Yi2
tion Test (RCPT), a concrete specimen saturated with i=1
water is exposed to a 60 V DC voltage for 6 h, incorporat-
ing the apparatus and cells indicated in Fig. 2g. 1
n
The compressive strength for each NDT sample was MAE = |Y − Yi |2 (2)
n
assessed using the digital rebound hammer test following i=1
ASTM C805 (ASTM-C805, 2018), which is illustrated in
Fig. 2h at 28, and 56 days after curing the process. Ultra-

 n
1 
sonic pulse velocity (UPV) experiments were carried out RMSE =  (Y − Yi )2 (3)
to analyze the pulse velocities at 28 and 56 days following n
i=1
ASTM C597 (ASTM-C597, 2009), as can be seen in Fig. 2i.
In Table 4, the RCPT, the rebound number, and the UPV
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 6 of 28

Fig. 2 Test setup on HSSCC of (a) slump flow (b) J-ring flow (c) compressive strength (d) splitting tensile strength (e) water permeability (f)
sorptivity (g) RCPT (h) rebound hammer and (i) UPV assessment

Table 4 RCPT, rebound number and velocity criterion for concrete

Charge passed Chloride ion Rebound number Quality of concrete Pulse velocity (km/ Concrete
(coulombs) penetrability sec) quality
grading

> 4000 High > 40 Very Good Hard Layer > 4.5 Excellent
2000–4000 Moderate 30–40 Good Layer 3.5–4.5 Good
1000–2000 Low 20–30 Fair 3–3.5 Medium
100–1000 Very low < 20 Poor Concrete <3 Doubtful
< 100 Negligible 0 Delaminated – –
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 7 of 28

Fig. 3 Flowchart diagram for the proposed ML approach

1
n approaches. Jerome H. Friedman discovered gradient
MSE = (Y − Yi )2 (4) boosting, a method for developing strong prediction
n
i=1 models that can efficiently deal with complicated pat-
2
where R = correlation coefficient, MAE = mean absolute terns and linkages in the information (Friedman, 2002).
error, RMSE = root mean square error, and MSE = mean GB is nowadays a widely applied algorithm because of its
square error. capacity to attain accuracy levels and manage multiple
The random forest (RF), established by Leo Breiman data categories.
in 2001 by integrating classification and regression trees With a dataset of mixed compositions and experimen-
with bagging, is one type of decision tree that delivers the tal values, the accompanying Python script uses scikit-
most enhanced presentation when predicting the out- learn to train and assess two ML models: RF and GB. The
come (Breiman, 2001). When used as a predictive esti- models are trained and utilized for prediction-making
mator, RF considers extensive randomized decision trees after the data has been loaded and prepared. The fore-
and updates them through data from various subsets of casts from both models are then averaged to provide an
the training data. By smoothing out the variations and ensemble prediction. This procedure is carried out in a
biases of individual trees, this approach lessens overfit- Python environment using libraries like scikit-learn for
ting and enhances generalization. machine learning methods, pandas for data processing,
Gradient boosting (GB) progressively creates an and numpy for mathematical operations. The syntax is
ensemble by repeatedly training a new model to empha- procedural, meaning that the script is organized sequen-
size improperly organized training data from previous tially, beginning with the import of required libraries and
ending with the presentation of the results. Splitting the
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 8 of 28

dataset into training, testing, and validation subsets is enhanced with each additional MP substitution as well as
an important step in this procedure. The function men- exceeding 655 mm.
tioned in the supplied script divides the dataset at ran- In contrast, the J-ring flow value enhancement was
dom into training and testing sets in a predetermined detected when marble powder was included in the
proportion. Through the use of data splitting methods HSSCC combinations. It was found that the optimal
such as train_test_split, the Python code may improve J-ring flow measurement for the S20F10M10 combina-
the overall resilience and dependability of the ML process tion appeared to be 715 mm, which came very close
and guarantee a more accurate model assessment. to the slump value of 740 mm. When compared to the
control mix, the J-ring flow measurements increased by
4 Results and Discussion 4.18, 11.68, 19.17, 16.59, and 15% in a combination that
4.1 Effects of the Fresh Characteristics of HSSCC included 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20% replacement of MP along-
4.1.1 Slump Flow and J‑Ring Test side 10 and 20% FA and SF, accordingly. Particles of
Fig. 4 illustrates the J-ring and slump flowing for the the small size of MP, FA, and SF fill out the pores along
reference mix and several additional SCC combina- with voids among coarse particles forming a more homo-
tions. The slump rates appeared within 675–740 mm, geneous mixture that can flow easily inside the J-ring
per the accepted criteria governing HSSCC slump flow with no separating. An almost identical investigation was
established by the European Federation of National performed by Belaidi et al. (2016), who found that adding
Associations Representing for Concrete (EFNARC) natural pozzolana and marble powder as alternatives to
(EFNARC, 2005). Slump flow analysis showed that mix- OPC improved the passing ability of SCC mixtures.
ture S20F10M10 had an optimal value of 740 mm instead
of the control mixture’s 675 mm. Additional analy- 4.1.2 Predictive Analysis of ML Algorithms on Fresh
sis noticed the slump’s flow rates for each of the mixes, Properties
including 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20% MP, in addition to the The effectiveness of the generated models was evaluated
steady 10% FA and 20% SF, were 1.85, 7.40, 9.60, 5.90, and by their ability to quantify the slump flow and HSSCC
5% higher than the control mixture S20F0M0, respec- J-ring assessment. In addition, a well-trained model can
tively. The increase in performance may be associated generate accurate predictions of slump flow and J-ring
with the finer particles of MP, which generate less fric- values for the input data. The intricate relationships
tion internally and occur in a smoother flow. The maxi- between input parameters and the corresponding slump
mum slump rate was recorded at 20% substitution, as flow and J-ring values were effectively captured in the
Choudhary et al. (2019) found that the flow rate of slump models by employing ML methodologies. This approach

Fig. 4 Slump flow and J-ring flow rates of HSSCC specimens

Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 9 of 28

regression value (R2 = 0.974) in support vector machine

(SVM) analysis.
However, Fig. 5b displays the impressive correla-
tion coefficient achieved by the ML-based method
when implemented in the prediction of J-ring evalua-
tions. Additionally, most of the data points are clustered
along the line of best fit this time around. However, the
regression coefficients for the RF, GB, and their ensemble
models are all approximately 0.977, 0.987, and 0.981. This
means the proposed models have shown the best accu-
racy with the current investigation.

4.2 Effects of the Hardened Characteristics of HSSCC

4.2.1 Compressive Strength Test
According to different statistical methods, the find-
ings of the compressive strength test are examined
in Table 5 in terms of mean strength, standard devia-
tion, coefficient of variation (COV), standard error, and
the lower and higher range at a 95% confidence inter-
val. Within a confidence interval of 95% ranging from
30.62 to 32.66 MPa, the minimum compressive strength
measured was 31.64 MPa after 7 days of curing. Maxi-
mum compressive strength was obtained at 35.17 MPa,
with a confidence rate of 95% ranging from 34.71 to
35.64 MPa. The minimum compressive strength seemed
45.21 MPa after 28 days, with 95% confidence varying
from 43.33 to 47.09 MPa. A 56-day experiment displayed
a minimum amount of compressive strength regarding
46.63 MPa with a confidence rate of 95% ranging from
Fig. 5 Correlation between experimental and ML predicted 45.41 to 47.45 MPa. Maximum strength was obtained at
outcomes on (a) slump flow and (b) J-ring assessment 53.57 MPa after 56 days, with a 95% confidence interval
of 48.89–58.25 MPa. The COV in the sample data was
also rather wide, ranging from 0.81 to 6.31%. The maxi-
enhances the accuracy and reliability of concrete qual- mum variance was 3.38, and the standard error was 2.39
ity assessment by allowing for more exact quantifica- while assessing compression.
tion of slump and J-ring flow measurement. By carefully Fig. 6 illustrates the compressive strength and per-
assessing the model’s performance, cross-validation, and centages of strength variation among SCC mixtures
regularization techniques also aid in avoiding overfit- at 7, 28, and 56 days with changing percentages of MP
ting. Fig. 5a, b represents the outcomes of a regression and constant percentages of SF and FA substitutes. It
evaluation done on experimentation data and predictive was demonstrated that the SCC blends with up to 15%
data of slump flow and j-ring analyses utilizing single- MP and constant 10% FA and 20% SF exhibited supe-
based machine learning algorithms like RF and GB and rior compressive strengths than the control concrete.
ensemble models employing this approach. Fig. 5a dis- In several mixes, the greatest compressive strength
plays the R2 values for the RF, GB, and ensemble mod- was obtained when 10% MP, 10% FA, and 20% SF were
els applied to estimate the slump flow values, which were replaced for SCC. The S20F10M10 mix was observed
0.955, 0.992, and 0.985 correspondingly, indicating that to have an optimal compressive strength of 35.17 MPa,
the prediction results of current models had a satisfac- 50.40 MPa, and 53.57 MPa, superior to reference mixes
tory performance in predicting the respective experimen- by 10.39, 10.92, and 14.68% for 7, 28 days, and 56 days,
tal findings. As a result, these suggested models for slump respectively. Better C–S–H gel formation and increased
flow have excellent correlation coefficients. According to compressive strength are the outcomes of adding MP,
Azimi-Pour et al. (2020), large-volume fly ash substitu- which also increases the stiffness and decreases perme-
tion in SCC resulted in a nearly equivalent coefficient of ability inside the concrete form together with FA and SF.
The lowest compressive strength was observed in the
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 10 of 28

Table 5 Statistical analysis of the compressive strength test outcomes

95% Confidence Level
Mix ID Curing age Mean strength Standard COV Standard error Lower bound Upper bound
(Day) (MPa) deviation

S20F0M0 7 31.86 0.3394 0.0107 0.24 31.39 32.33

28 45.44 0.3677 0.0081 0.26 44.93 45.95
56 46.71 1.3294 0.0285 0.94 44.87 48.55
S20F10M0 7 32.78 1.3152 0.0401 0.93 30.96 34.60
28 46.84 1.2304 0.0263 0.87 45.14 48.55
56 48.75 1.2021 0.0247 0.85 47.08 50.42
S20F10M5 7 34.13 0.4525 0.0133 0.32 33.50 34.76
28 48.8 1.3859 0.0284 0.98 46.88 50.72
56 50.62 2.0506 0.0405 1.45 47.78 53.46
S20F10M10 7 35.17 0.3394 0.0097 0.24 34.71 35.64
28 50.40 1.0182 0.0202 0.72 48.99 51.81
56 53.57 3.3800 0.0631 2.39 48.89 58.25
S20F10M15 7 32.74 1.8809 0.0575 1.33 30.13 35.35
28 46.28 1.1172 0.0241 0.79 44.73 47.83
56 48.42 0.5657 0.0117 0.40 47.64 49.20
S20F10M20 7 31.64 0.7354 0.0232 0.52 30.62 32.66
28 45.21 1.3576 0.0300 0.96 43.33 47.09
56 46.43 0.7354 0.0158 0.52 45.41 47.45

S20F10M20 blend, which consisted of 20% MP, 10% FA data point in the dataset reflects a unique mix of these
constant, and 20% SF. Its compressive strength decreased attributes as well as the measured concrete compres-
by 0.70, 0.51, and 0.59% at 7, 28, and 56 days, respectively, sive strength, which serves as the target variable for the
in comparison to the reference mix (S20F0M0). As MP ML models. ML algorithms analyze these data points in
concentration increases, interparticle contact and homo- great detail, finding complex relationships between the
geneity may reduce, causing reduced strength. According input variables and concrete strength. Fig. 7 depicts the
to Khodabakhshian et al. (2018) and Uysal and Yilmaz boxplots of the experimental and predicted correlation.
(2011), its pore-filling influence was responsible for the Mean and standard deviation are shown, along with other
enhanced compressive strength of mixtures when MP statistical measures, such as median, interquartile range,
was used to replace cement up to 10%. minimum, and maximum. The methods are assessed and
contrasted to determine the best prediction strategy that
4.2.1.1 Predictive Performance of Bagging and Boosting generates enhanced outcomes with excellent accuracy.
ML Algorithms on Compression When utilizing ML The results revealed that the distribution of the predicted
techniques, such as random forest, gradient boosting, and experimental outcomes for no model was signifi-
and their ensemble models to estimate concrete compres- cantly skewed. All median lines were within their respec-
sive strength from a dataset containing 230 experimental tive boxes, suggesting that there was likely no distinction
and literature review samples, each data point contains across the datasets. Furthermore, no outliers were identi-
specific characteristics representing the composition fied in either the RF or GB models.
of the concrete mixture as well as the corresponding Fig. 8 illustrates that the RF and GB approaches pro-
strength measurement. The aforementioned character- vide accurate predictions when contrasted with the
istics include numerical values for a range of constituent experimental outcomes and literature review datasets.
substances, including fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, Although it provides valuable insights, the established
cement, water, and possible admixtures incorporated into correlation between concrete properties and predictive
the concrete composition. Further, qualitative variables models has deficiencies. These include possible discrep-
are frequently incorporated as supplementary character- ancies in forecasting precision due to dataset qualities,
istics, including curing conditions, the age of the concrete issues associated with overfitting, difficulties in captur-
at the time of testing, and the environmental conditions ing all the variables of concrete behavior, lack of gener-
that were prevalent during the testing process. Every alization to diverse situations, and the requirement for
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 11 of 28

Fig. 6 Hardened properties of compressive strength test and the variation of percentage on HSSCC mixtures

cautious validation and interpretation of outcomes due amounts of SCC with fly ash had a pretty comparable
to inherent biases in ML techniques. To attain precise coefficient of regression value.
predictions while preventing overfitting, it is impera- From Table 6, it is clear that the GB model has a much
tive to conduct thorough preprocessing of the dataset, higher R2 value compared to the RF and ensemble model.
which encompasses addressing missing data and nor- As a result, it may be inferred that the GB model is highly
malizing features. By dividing the dataset into training predictive. In terms of MAE, MSE, and RMSE the GB
and testing sets, precise model evaluation is facilitated, model performed the most effectively, with values of
with the assistance of cross-validation methods. Con- 1.76, 4.87, and 2.21, respectively.
sistently evaluating the performance of the model and
adjusting hyperparameters are essential to derive pre- 4.2.2 Splitting Tensile Strength Test
cise predictions from the dataset without inadvertently Table 7 reflects the splitting strength results of the vari-
overfitting. In the RF and GB models, the correla- ous MP proportions combined with a constant per-
tion coefficient was 0.93 and 0.97, respectively, while centage of FA and SF components throughout all SCC
ensemble models generated a value of 0.94. However, it samples, based on statistical evaluations such as com-
is clear from the prediction graph, where the values are pressive strength tests. The findings of the samples’
clustered along the prediction line, that the predicted deviation ranged from 0.0424 to 0.495, with a COV of
outcomes for the model run with GB were rather close 0.84–11.22% and a standard error of 0.03–0.35.
to the actual statistics. Using bagging analysis, Azimi- Fig. 9 illustrates the outcomes of tensile strength split-
Pour et al. (2020) found that substituting significant ting and percentage variation off SCC mixtures with the
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 12 of 28

Fig. 7 Box plot exhibiting the data distribution for compressive strength with machine learning algorithms

addition of MP, FA, and SF integration during the cur- MP results in more pore space and weaker interparticle
ing ages of 7, 28, and 56 days. The progression of split- bonds, all of which have lower strength. Khodabakhshian
ting tensile strength seems comparable to the pattern of et al. (2018) in TVC and Sharma and Khan (2017b) in
compressive strength, where strength decreases as the SCC revealed nearly parallel test outcomes. Comparable
MP percentage increases. Nevertheless, replacing cement to the current investigation, Ali et al. (2022) found that
with MP combined with constant FA and SF typically combining polypropylene fibers with marble powder in
increased splitting tensile strength by up to 15% in con- SCC increased the split tensile strength by 16.92%.
trast to the reference mixture. As shown, this cementi-
tious material decreases strength when used excessively. 4.2.2.1 Predictive Performance of Bagging and Boosting
S20F10M20 had 17.32, 15.19, and 15.59% greater split- ML Algorithms on Tension In employing ML methods
ting tensile strengths than the control mix at 7, 28, and like RF, GB, and ensemble models to forecast the split-
56 days. As a result of lessening the concrete’s porosity ting tensile strength of concrete from a dataset compris-
and increasing its packing densities, MP can increase the ing 230 experimental and literature review datasets, each
overall splitting tensile strength of the concrete. The data point encapsulates distinct attributes reflecting the
S20F10M20 mix displayed the lowest splitting tensile composition of the concrete mixture and the associated
strength, with declines of 2.36, 2.27, and 6.62% in the cur- splitting tensile strength measurement. Each experimen-
ing times of 7, 28, and 56 days in comparison to the refer- tal sample in the dataset has a different mix of these char-
ence mixture. This is because a higher concentration of acteristics in addition to the measured concrete splitting
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 13 of 28

Fig. 8 Correlation between experimental and predicted compressive strength outcomes of bagging and boosting models

Table 6 Performance criteria of the developed bagging and by the quality of the dataset, concerns about overfitting,
boosting methods restricted applicability, and the necessity for careful vali-
Criteria RF GB Ensemble dation owing to inherent biases in machine learning are
all limitations of the correlation between concrete prop-
R2 0.93 0.97 0.94 erties and predictive models. For accurate predictions
MAE 2.36 1.76 1.98 that prevent overfitting, it is vital to perform exhaustive
MSE 8.95 4.87 5.51 preprocessing of the dataset, which includes restoring
RMSE 2.99 2.21 2.37 features and addressing missing data. With the use of
cross-validation methods, separating the dataset into a
training set and a testing set allows for a more accurate
model assessment. Predicted results for the model con-
tensile strength, which is used as the dependent variable
ducted with GB were very close to the actual outcomes,
in ML models. Boxplot representations of the experimen-
as seen by the prediction graph, in which the values
tal and predicted results are presented in Fig. 10. None
are organized near the prediction line. de-Prado-Gil
of the models had extremely erroneous distributions of
et al. (2022) observed that the correlation coefficient of
predicted and experimental findings. Since each median
the regression analysis value of the SCC generated with
line was located inside its box, this implies that there most
recycled aggregates had a highly comparable value when
likely was no significant difference between the datasets.
applying extreme gradient boosting (XG Boost).
Both the RF and GB models did not reveal any outliers.
Table 8 demonstrates that the GB model outperforms
Fig. 11 reveals that compared to experimental results,
the RF and ensemble models regarding ­R2 value. This
both the RF and GB methods seem to produce suited
suggests that the GB approach has a significant level
predictions. Potential discrepancies in forecasts caused
of predictive ability. The GB model fared the best, with
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 14 of 28

Table 7 Statistical analysis of the splitting tensile strength test outcomes

95% Confidence Level
Mix ID Curing age Mean strength Standard COV Standard error Lower bound Upper bound
(Day) (MPa) deviation

S20F0M0 7 3.81 0.3394 0.0891 0.24 3.34 4.28

28 4.41 0.4950 0.1122 0.35 3.72 5.09
56 4.68 0.1980 0.0423 0.14 4.41 4.95
S20F10M0 7 4.06 0.1556 0.0383 0.11 3.84 4.28
28 4.68 0.1697 0.0363 0.12 4.45 4.92
56 4.8 0.0990 0.0206 0.07 4.66 4.94
S20F10M5 7 4.24 0.2404 0.0567 0.17 3.91 4.57
28 4.81 0.0849 0.0176 0.06 4.69 4.93
56 5.30 0.1838 0.0347 0.13 5.05 5.56
S20F10M10 7 4.47 0.1980 0.0443 0.14 4.19 4.74
28 5.08 0.2970 0.0585 0.21 4.67 5.49
56 5.41 0.1980 0.0366 0.14 5.14 5.68
S20F10M15 7 3.97 0.2828 0.0713 0.20 3.58 4.36
28 4.61 0.2970 0.0644 0.21 4.20 5.02
56 5.04 0.0424 0.0084 0.03 4.98 5.09
S20F10M20 7 3.72 0.0566 0.0152 0.04 3.63 3.80
28 4.31 0.3677 0.0853 0.26 3.80 4.82
56 4.37 0.1414 0.0324 0.10 4.17 4.57

values of 0.21, 0.08, and 0.29 for MAE, MSE, and RMSE. durability concerns, such as freeze–thaw damage, corro-
The algorithms of the GB framework are responsible for sion of structural strengthening, and chemical violence is
its exceptional performance. minimized when the depth of water penetration is kept
lower than 25 mm. Due to the depth of water penetration
4.3 Effects of the Durability Characteristics of HSSCC having to exceed 25 mm during the permeability test, it
4.3.1 Water Permeability Test is concluded that the specimens have become weakened
The water penetration depth of several concrete speci- (Chung et al., 2013).
mens is illustrated in Fig. 12 after 56 days of the curing
age. The specimen with 10% MP, 10% FA, and 20% SF had 4.3.2 Sorptivity Test
the lowest water penetration depth of all the mixtures at The findings of the water absorption of the HSSCC at
approximately 14 mm, with a decrease of 39.13% from 56 days of curing are shown in Fig. 13. Nearly identical
the control mixture. As a result, the water permeability patterns could be observed in all sorptivity test outcomes.
might vary depending on the SF, FA, and MP combina- After 56 days, adding MP, FA, and SF drastically lowered
tion. Including MP significantly lowers the water penetra- the absorption rate. The S20F10M20 mixture had a maxi-
tion depth by up to 15% of the replacement. The addition mum water sorptivity over the 56-day curing period. In a
of MP, FA, and SF to concrete enhanced packing den- sorptivity test, adding MP to SCC mixes at 5% and 10%,
sity, which improved durability by filling internal voids along with consistent amounts of 20% SF and 10% FA,
between fine aggregates and decreased water penetration reduced water absorption by 3.57% and 14.29%, respec-
depth. The assessment made after water is continuously tively; however, it enhanced 14.28% and 42.85% when
circulated through concrete specimens of MP for 72 h is 15% and 20% MP were incorporated, compared to the
satisfactory for construction activities in high-humidity, control mix. HSSCC likely had better durability in the
moist, or high-atmospheric-pressure regions. Gesoğlu sorptivity test than any other SCC mixes due to using
et al. (2009) noticed that the quaternary blend of SF, FA, 10% MP, constant 10% FA, and 20% SF. The incorporation
and blast furnace slag (BFS), as well as the binary cement of this SCM reduces the sorptivity coefficient, which in
containing SF, had the lowest water penetration depths turn causes the concrete to absorb less water, resulting in
in SCC compared to the control mixture, thus being increased resistance to water penetration and improved
nearly the same as this proceeding research. The possibil- durability. Furthermore, incorporating MP in higher
ity of a water retention access may cause several kinds of concentrations improves concrete porosity, allowing
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 15 of 28

Fig. 9 Hardened properties of splitting tensile strength test and the variation of percentage on HSSCC mixtures

additional paths for water to penetrate and enhancing the in comparison with the control mix. The RCPT values
sorptivity coefficient. Sharma and Khan (2017a) observed reduced by 5.75, 22.41, 37.36, and 20.69% when MP was
that SCC incorporating copper slag exhibited a substan- replaced at 0, 5, 10, and 15% together with a constant 10%
tial decrease in water absorption, with sorptivity readings FA and 20% SF, whereas MP at 20% replacement indi-
reduced by up to 60%, resulting in significantly enhanced cated an increase of 2.30% instead of the control mix-
impermeability compared to this study’s results. Accord- ture. The pozzolanic activity of these substances may
ing to Md (2019), steel fiber-reinforced SCC (SFRSCC) enhance the durability of concrete by causing the for-
cumulative water absorption increased as time pro- mation of additional C–S–H as well as the generation of
gressed and also displayed equivalent results compared pores in the concrete matrix. On the contrary, a higher
to this investigation. concentration of MP may also accelerate the produc-
tion of additional reaction products, making it easier for
4.3.3 Rapid Chloride Penetration Test (RCPT) chloride ions to circulate and enhance the RCPT values.
Fig. 14 illustrates the findings of chloride penetration The graph demonstrates that the mix S20F10M10 had
tests for all SCC combinations regarding the amount of the lowest charge travelling through it at 981 Coulombs,
total charge passed after curing for 56 days. The inves- exhibiting that it was more durable than other SCC mix-
tigation found that incorporating 0–15% MP along with tures. Following the ASTM C1202 standards, the passing
steady amounts of 10% and 20% FA and SF in the SCC charges were low to very low, which might further reduce
mixture led to a decrease in chloride penetration, in con- the concrete’s porosity (ASTM-C, 1202, 2019). Givi et al.
trast to incorporating 20% MP in addition to the same (2010) stated that the high concentration of ­ SiO2 in
amounts FA and SF, which increased chloride penetration rice husk ash (RHA) established an extremely reactive
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 16 of 28

Fig. 10 Box plot exhibiting the data distribution for splitting tensile strength with machine learning algorithms

pozzolanic substance used to formulate more C–S–H gel, ITZ within the concrete samples, it can be observed
enhancing concrete formation. that the RN value of the control was lower than that
of all other SCC mixes except the S20F10M20 mix.
4.4 Effects of the Non‑Destructive (NDT) Characteristics The S20F10M10 mix had the greatest RN at 28 days,
of HSSCC which is 31.9, and at 56 days, which is 32.2, whereas the
4.4.1 Rebound Hammer Test S20F10M20 mix had the lowest RN at 22.6 and 26.3 at
The statistical outcomes of the digital rebound hammer the curing times of 28 days and 56 days, respectively as
assessment analysis are summarized in Table 9, where compared to the reference mix. According to Singh et al.
the mean rebound number (RN) was found to vary from (2017), the outcomes of this experiment were extremely
22.66 to 32.20. With a COV that ranged from 0.0108 to comparable with the findings of the rebound hammer
0.0458, the standard deviation for all values fluctuated test of waste marble powder substitutes.
between 0.3253 and 1.1314.
The mean rebound number (RN), which was deter- 4.4.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) Test
mined through analysis of digital rebound hammer The statistical results for flexural strength for SCC speci-
assessment, can be depicted in Fig. 15. The test was per- mens containing different MP content percentages and
formed on a specimen curing for 28 and 56 days. The consistent percentages of FA and SF are exhibited in
SCC surface layer is regarded as a “good layer” up to a Table 10. With a COV between 0.00429 and 0.01692, the
15% substitution of the MP, coupled with a constant 10% standard deviation for UPV values encompassed 19.799
FA and 20% SF, respectively. Despite the porosity of the to 70.711.
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 17 of 28

Fig. 11 Correlation between experimental and predicted splitting tensile strength outcomes of bagging and boosting models

Table 8 Performance criteria of the developed bagging and enhances the grading quality of concrete “excellent” fol-
boosting methods lowing ASTM C597 criteria (Astm). The optimum UPV
Criteria RF GB Ensemble value was noticed in the S20F10M10 mix, whereas the
pulse velocity was 4285 m/sec and 4929 m/sec for the
R2 0.94 0.99 0.97 curing periods of 28 and 56 days, respectively. In con-
MAE 0.23 0.21 0.22 trast to the control mix, the pulse velocity values in a
MSE 0.11 0.08 0.10 mixture including 5–20% replacements of MP along
RMSE 0.34 0.29 0.31 with constant 10% FA and 20% SF increased by 0.65,
5.61, 7.62, 6.70, and 2.21% during the 56-day curing
period. As a result, such an investigation demonstrated
that a higher proportion of replacement resulted in a
As depicted in Fig. 16, the specimen underwent UPV
denser structure and enhanced concrete density, result-
testing at 28 and 56 days with varying MP percentages
ing in a higher pulse velocity. Uysal and Yilmaz (2011)
alongside consistent FA and SF percentages. In com-
reported an equivalent outcome using marble slurry
parison, the variable concentration of MP alongside
powder (MSP). According to their findings, MSP using
the constant concentration of FA and SF exhibited UPV
up to 10% enhanced UPV values, whereas higher MSP
values fluctuating between 4136 and 4929 m/sec at 28,
substitution with cement caused lower UPV values.
and 56 days. A control mix, S20F0M0, demonstrated an
Uysal and Sumer (2011) also found comparable out-
impressive UPV value of 4065 m/sec after 28 days and
comes with nearly equivalent pulse velocities achieved
4580 m/sec after 56 days, indicating that pulse veloc-
by incorporating FA into SCC mixtures as a 25%
ity enhances with the duration of more curing ages and
cement replacement.
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 18 of 28

Fig. 12 Water penetration depth of the HSSCC mixtures

4.5 Relationship between DT and NDT Properties of HSSCC the observed relations precisely. Nevertheless, because
4.5.1 Compressive Strength Versus Rebound Number (RN) of varying mixes of concrete, Sunayana and Barai (2017),
This investigation additionally recommends one vari- Datta et al. (2022), Domingo and Hirose (2009), and
able in the equation for regression for determining the Singh et al. (2017) displayed variations beyond the confi-
compressive strength of concrete according to sev- dence interval of 95% level region. According to the find-
eral regression analyses. The correlation associated ings of De Almeida (1991) and the outcomes of this
with compressive strength (f ’c) and rebound number investigation, the expected compressive strength deviates
(RN) can be illustrated in Fig. 17. A modest percent- by an average of almost 3%.
age of variability and high stability of the findings can
be observed by the coefficient of regression (R2) value, 4.5.2 Compressive Strength Versus Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
which is approximately 82.67%. The graphical representa- (UPV)
tions of the points were acquired from multiple investiga- The correlation between the compressive strength and
tions on rebound number and compressive strength from UPV of each combination is represented in Fig. 18. Rela-
Sunayana and Barai (2017), Datta et al. (2022), Domingo tively poor results can be observed by the coefficient of
and Hirose (2009), Singh et al. (2017), and De Almeida regression (R2) value, which is about 78.73%. The disper-
(1991). The association with the destructive strength and sion of every data series from the typical trend line is
rebound number value of the SCC specimens, which highlighted. The substitution of varying MP percentages
include varying percentages of MP alongside consistent was mainly responsible for the dispersion of the data
percentages of FA and SF, is likewise expressed in this points. In this scenario, the parameters impacting valida-
equation. Furthermore, the predicted interval and 95% tions tend to be so bound that it might be complicated
confidence interval function are determined to illustrate to accomplish a confidence level of 95% intervals higher
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 19 of 28

Fig. 13 Sorptivity test of the HSSCC mixtures on (a) capillary absorption (b) initial absorption and (c) summarized coefficients at 56 days

than 20% during precise strength anticipation of in situ differences by an average of almost 19.03%. On the con-
concrete, regardless of optimal circumstances and a par- trary, this investigation and the findings of Belagraa et al.
ticular validation (Madandoust et al., 2010). The graphi- (2015) demonstrated a nearly 4% average divergence
cal points were extracted through multiple studies on from the expected compressive strength.
UPV and compressive strength by Belagraa et al. (2015),
Sunayana and Barai (2017), Vo et al. (2021), Datta et al. 4.6 Effects of the Microstructural Characteristics of HSSCC
(2022), and Singh et al. (2017). However, Datta et al. Fig. 19a–d displays SEM micrographs of certain
(2022), and Vo et al. (2021) exhibit variations beyond HSSCC mixtures whereas Fig. 19a illustrates the sur-
the 95% confidence level region as an outcome of mul- face morphology of the control mixture. The control
tiple concrete mixtures. The analyses carried out by mix has noticeable surface fractures and poor interfa-
Singh et al. (2017) and the present investigation revealed cial transition zone (ITZ). As opposed to the control
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 20 of 28

Fig. 14 RCPT test of the HSSCC mixture

Table 9 Statistical analysis of the rebound number test results

95% Confidence Level
Mix ID Curing age Mean RN Standard COV Standard error Lower bound Upper bound
(Day) deviation

S20F0M0 28 24.7 1.1314 0.0458 0.80 23.132 26.268

56 27.7 0.8910 0.0321 0.63 26.465 28.935
S20F10M0 28 27.1 0.9051 0.0334 0.64 25.846 28.354
56 30.1 0.3253 0.0108 0.23 29.649 30.551
S20F10M5 28 29.3 0.4667 0.0159 0.33 28.653 29.947
56 32.1 1.3011 0.0405 0.92 30.297 33.903
S20F10M10 28 31.9 0.3818 0.0119 0.27 31.371 32.429
56 32.2 0.7212 0.0224 0.51 31.200 33.200
S20F10M15 28 26.7 0.8910 0.0333 0.63 25.465 27.935
56 30.1 0.3818 0.0126 0.27 29.671 30.729
S20F10M20 28 22.6 0.9192 0.0406 0.65 21.326 23.874
56 26.3 0.9758 0.0371 0.69 24.948 27.652

mixture, the HSSCC mixture having MP, SF, and FA an observation of micropores on the surface of the
had enhanced ITZ and a narrower crack width, indicat- S20F10M0 mixture. SEM micrographs of HSSCC mix-
ing better mechanical performance. Fig. 19b illustrates tures containing MP revealed a higher ITZ and the
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 21 of 28

Fig. 15 Rebound hammer test of HSSCC specimens

Table 10 Statistical analysis of the UPV test results

95% Confidence Level
Mix ID Curing age Mean UPV (m/ Standard COV Standard error Lower bound Upper bound
(Day) sec) deviation

S20F0M0 28 4065 21.213 0.00522 15 4035.60 4094.39

56 4580 56.569 0.01235 40 4501.60 4658.39
S20F10M0 28 4207 28.284 0.00672 20 4167.80 4246.19
56 4610 19.799 0.00429 14 4582.56 4637.43
S20F10M5 28 4236 56.569 0.01335 40 4157.60 4314.39
56 4837 28.284 0.00585 20 4797.80 4876.19
S20F10M10 28 4285 28.284 0.00660 20 4245.80 4324.19
56 4929 45.255 0.00918 32 4866.28 4991.71
S20F10M15 28 4178 70.711 0.01692 50 4080.00 4275.99
56 4887 22.627 0.00463 16 4855.64 4918.35
S20F10M20 28 4136 22.627 0.00547 16 4104.64 4167.35
56 4681 35.355 0.00755 25 4632.00 4729.99

absence of any observable crack. However, mechanical this micrograph, reduced ITZ and minimal visible frac-
performance declined as a consequence of OPC dilu- tures were observed, with the S20F10M20 combina-
tion caused by increased MP substitution. HSSCC mix tion appearing to exhibit an even more porous and less
S20F10M10 exhibited outstanding surface morphology, dense structure compared to other HSSCC combina-
which is apparent in Fig. 19c. The superior mechani- tions. Singh et al. (2017) observed findings for MP sub-
cal performance may be attributed to the compact stitution that were pretty comparable to the findings of
concrete matrix with fewer pores in the HSSCC mix the present investigation.
consisting of 10% MP, 20% SF, and 10% FA. Fig. 19d
displays the SEM micrograph of mix S20F10M20. In
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 22 of 28

Fig. 16 UPV test of HSSCC specimens

Fig. 17 Correlation between the compressive strength and rebound number of HSSCC
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 23 of 28

Fig. 18 Correlation between the compressive strength and UPV of HSSCC

4.7 Environmental Impact Evaluation Fig. 20 reveals that overall ­CO2 emissions were low-
OPC generates from 75 to 90% of the global C ­ O2 emis- ered when OPC was partially replaced with different per-
sion that concrete produces since it is the main binder centages of MP alongside a steady percentage of FA and
component of concrete (Khair et al., 2024; Rahman SF. The control concrete S20F0M0 mixture produced
et al., 2022). Alternative binders have been developed to 455.90 kg ­CO2/m3 using a more significant cement pro-
lessen the dependency on OPC due to rising concerns portion. Cement produces roughly 89% embodied carbon.
about its potential for worldwide warming (kg C ­ O2-eq/ As contrasted with the reference mixture, the total amount
kg material). Although using SCMs reduces the overall of carbon embodied dropped by 10.67, 15.68, 20.69, 25.70,
embedded greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of building and 30.70% when OPC partially substituted MP at 0, 5, 10,
materials, the embedded GHG of various types of waste 15, and 20% with a constant proportion of 20% SF and 10%
differs (S. Rahman et al., 2023a, 2023b). MP, SF, and FA FA. Despite the environmental benefits, the significant
were partly used as binding agents alternative to OPC reduction in compressive strength resulted from greater
for the current investigation. This research assesses the use of MP and mineral admixtures. In such a scenario,
entire emissions of ­CO2, taking into account the compa- the HSSCC mixture S20F10M10 offers the advantage of
rable ­CO2 exposures for every material to emphasize the being used as an improved mechanically sound and envi-
implications of FA, MP, and SF upon the entire embod- ronmentally friendly concrete. This study closely aligns
ied GHG emissions. Table 11 compiles the carbon con- with Khodabakhshian et al. (2018), indicating a notable
tent embodied data for every mixture of concrete after reduction in global warming potential (GWP) indices with
analyzing the emissions of ­CO2 of every ingredient per escalating incorporation ratios of MWP and SF.
­1m3 of concrete and summing those numbers together
employing Eq. (5). 5 Conclusion
n High-strength self-compacting concrete (HSSCC) may
CO2Concrete =
i=1
(CO2i - e × Wi ) (5) greatly benefit from the partial substitution of cement
with marble powder (MP), silica fume (SF), and fly ash
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 24 of 28

Fig. 19 SEM images of (a) S20F0M0 (b) S20F10M0 (c) S20F10M10 and (d) S20F10M20

the context of fresh characteristics. Evidence also

Table 11 Estimated ­CO2 emissions from concrete revealed that SCM additions reduced concrete water
Material CO2 emission (­ CO2-kg/kg) requirements, resulting in enhanced density.
• Regarding durability characteristics, including MP,
OPC 0.912 (Yu et al., 2021)
SF, and FA significantly reduced the water penetra-
Marble powder 0.082 (Rid et al., 2022)
tion depth and absorption rate. In the RCPT test, the
Silica fume 0.024 (Thilakarathna et al., 2020)
charge that was transmitted on the concrete was in
Fly ash 0.027 (Turner & Collins, 2013)
the low to very low range, which could have further
Fine aggregate 0.0139 (Turner & Collins, 2013)
reduced its porosity.
Coarse aggregate 0.0409 (Turner & Collins, 2013) • S20F10M10 demonstrated increases in compres-
Water 0.000196 (Yang et al., 2013) sive strength of 10.39, 10.92, and 14.68% on days 7,
Superplasticizer 0.720 (Long et al., 2015) 28, and 56, respectively, in comparison to the con-
trol mix. In terms of splitting tensile strength, it per-
formed 17.32, 15.19, and 15.59% better than the con-
(FA). Based on the findings of the experiment, the follow- trol mix, respectively.
ing inferences may be concluded: • The ML approach demonstrated the superiority of
RF, GB, and their ensemble models in predicting
• Combining SF, FA, and MP facilitates the develop- fresh and mechanical characteristics. While GB and
ment of HSSCC. The collective use of these SCMs ensemble models have shown more reliability than
was highlighted to enhance HSSCC’s workability, RF algorithms across various statistical evaluations,
leading to higher flowability and filling ability in
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 25 of 28

Fig. 20 The entire ­CO2 emissions and possible global warming reduction percentage

RF algorithms remain viable for forecasting concrete Acknowledgements

The work was carried out at the Structural and Materials Engineering labora-
strength. tory of the Department of Building Engineering and Construction Manage-
• The replacement of 10% MP to a steady 10% FA and ment, Khulna University of Engineering and Technology, Khulna—9203,
20% SF resulted in UPV values above 4.5 km/s and Bangladesh. The authors would also like to thank the lab technicians who
contributed invaluable assistance throughout the research process.
rebound index values between 30 and 40, which indi-
cates excellent quality and substantial compressive Author contributions
strength. Habibur Rahman Sobuz: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Supervi-
sion, Writing - review & editing. Fahim Shahriyar Aditto: Conceptualization,
• The SEM images of HSSCC generated with a combi- Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Software, Writing - original draft,
nation of 10% MP, 20% SF, and 10% FA revealed neg- Writing - review & editing. Shuvo Dip Datta: Validation, Supervision, Writing-
ligible voids, superior aggregate packing, more effec- original draft, Writing - review & editing. Md. Kawsarul Islam Kabbo: Formal
analysis, Writing - review & editing. Jannat Ara Jabin: Formal analysis. S. M. Ari-
tive cement paste, and a dense concrete matrix. fur Rahman: Writing - review & editing. Ahmad Akib Uz Zaman: Data curation.
• The HSSCC mixture S20F10M10 reduced C ­ O2 emis-
sions without sacrificing mechanical efficiency. Data availability
Data will be made available on request.

Author details
Supplementary Information 1
Department of Building Engineering and Construction Management, Khulna
University of Engineering & Technology, Khulna 9203, Bangladesh. 2 Faculty
The online version contains supplementary material available at https://​doi.​
of Engineering & Quantity Surveying, INTI International University (INTI-IU),
org/​10.​1186/​s40069-​024-​00707-7.
Persiaran Perdana BBN, Putra Nilai, Nilai 71800, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia.
3
Department of Building Engineering and Construction Management, Khulna
Supplementary Material 1. University of Engineering & Technology, Khulna 9203, Bangladesh. 4 Civil
Supplementary Material 2. Engineering Discipline, School of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Curtin
University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia. 5 Department of Civil and Architectural
Sobuz et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater (2024) 18:67 Page 26 of 28

Engineering and Construction Management, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Belagraa, L., Abdelaziz, M., & Miloud, B. (2015). Study of the physico-mechanical
WY 82071, USA. properties of a recycled concrete incorporating admixtures by the means
of NDT methods. Procedia Engineering, 108, 80–92. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
Received: 27 November 2023 Accepted: 26 June 2024 1016/j.​proeng.​2015.​06.​122
Belaidi, A. S. E., Kenai, S., Kadri, E.-H., Soualhi, H., & Benchaâ, B. (2016). Effects of
experimental ternary cements on fresh and hardened properties of self-
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Md. Habibur Rahman Sobuz Associate Professor at Department

of Building Engineering and Construction Management, Khulna Uni-
versity of Engineering & Technology, Khulna - 9203, Bangladesh.

Fahim Shahriyar Aditto Graduate Student at Department of

Building Engineering and Construction Management, Khulna Univer-
sity of Engineering & Technology, Khulna - 9203, Bangladesh.

Shuvo Dip Datta Lecturer at Department of Building Engineering

and Construction Management, Khulna University of Engineering &
Technology, Khulna - 9203, Bangladesh.

Md. Kawsarul Islam Kabbo Lecturer at Department of Building

Engineering and Construction Management, Khulna University of
Engineering & Technology, Khulna - 9203, Bangladesh.