LANGUAGE AND TEXT

LITERACY
English 2
Introductory words
SYLLABUS
This module will develop students' language and text awareness, and deepen their
understanding of language and texts as constructive entities of meaning. Students
will learn to understand the social character and importance of language for
individuals and communities.

The objective of the course is that the students

• develop language and text awareness
• deepen their understanding of language and texts as constructive entities of meaning
• understand the social character and importance of language for individuals and communities.

Core contents
• the importance of language in learning, language perceptions
• language and identity, language variation, language comparison, language status, language policy,
linguistic vitality and endangerment, principles of language control
• multiliteracy concept, the concept of text type, extensive text conception, intertextuality

Assessment
Assessment will be a combination of classwork, homework, mid-course assessment, and final week
formal exam assessment, with specific weights and expectations provided at the beginning of the course
by your teacher.

Overview and expectations:

During this course, you will be expected to have completed the following overarching tasks:
• Read/watch/listen to the extracts of texts provided in this book
• Answer the comprehension questions related to the extracts in this book
• Complete the writing activities related to the extracts in this book, as well as potential further
reading/watching/listening you undertake in your own time
• Communicate and discuss your understanding, thoughts, and opinions of the material in the form
of various media (e.g., writing, recordings)
• Write/produce your own versions of some texts in this book

Language and Text Literacy | 2

Key concepts
Read carefully through the list of key terms and concepts – they will aid you in answering questions
clearly and thoroughly.

1. Comprehension
The academic act of reading/watching/listening to a text and deducing its meaning through
interpretation of the literal content as well as the figurative elements.
2. Literal answer
Reading the lines/words “exactly” as they are – looking for an answer as it is in the text.
3. Inferential answer
Reading “between the lines”; you will have to think about the question and then search for the
answer. The answer will not be right there, so some of the pieces of the story might need to be put
together to come up with the answer
4. Critical answer
Reading “beyond the lines”. You would have to use contextual knowledge in conjunction with the
information contained in the text to respond to the question
5. P.E.E.L.
A mnemonic device to enable clear answers by structuring according to Point, Evidence,
Explanation, and Links between these parts.
6. Substantiate
Providing proof from the text for a statement you have made or theory you have.
7. Paraphrase
Rewriting a text in your own words without losing the meaning of the original version.
8. Compare and contrast
Taking to elements of texts and differentiating them from each other based on certain criteria, as
well as then finding similarities between them.
9. Quotation
Rewriting text directly from the original without effecting any changes; should be enclosed in
speech marks and reference made to the original author.
10. Narrator
The person/character telling the story, could be the author but is not necessarily. Known as the
‘persona’ in poetry.
11. ESL
An abbreviation for English as a Second Language; the teaching of English to people who speak a
different language and who (usually) live in a country where English is a main language.
12. EFL
An abbreviation for English as a Foreign Language; the teaching of English to people whose first
language is not English.

Language and Text Literacy | 3

 IT IS IMPORTANT TO NOTE:

Throughout the book, new vocabulary is used. If you do not understand the word used, make sure to
underline it and research the meaning; in the space provided at the end of each section, write down the
word and its definition. Additionally, specific words and terminology have been identified that would
be helpful for you to understand. These have been bolded in-text and a small box labelled ‘Glossary’
provided within the section containing an explanation.

EN2 – Language and Text Literacy is taught in conjunction with EN3 – Interaction
1; thus, students will be expected to use the content, themes, and topics present
in EN2 as input for their practical communication output for EN3, as well as
linking the practical observations/phenomena present in EN3 to theoretical
content of EN2.

Language and Text Literacy | 4

 CONTENTS

1. WHAT IS 'LANGUAGE'? 6
1.1. The origin of Language 6
1.2. Language variation and change 12
1.3. The utility of Language 19
2. LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY 33
2.1. Language and identity 33
2.2. Language and status 39
2.3. Language Death 48
3. ANALYSIS AND STUDENT TEXT 51
3.1. Aim 51
3.2. Topics 51
3.3. Intertextuality 51
3.4. Additional source texts 54
3.5. Evaluation and feedback 55

Language and Text Literacy | 5

Chapter 1
1. WHAT IS ‘LANGUAGE’?
1.1. The origin of Language

The questions “What is ‘Language’?” and “Where does ‘Language’ come from?” are linked to each other
in multiple ways; the first and foremost of these connections is the specific representation of the term
‘Language’, with a capital letter. The sense in which this term is used is not merely that of the different
forms or mediums we use to communicate (i.e., ‘languages’ – note the lower case lettering), but rather
in the more abstract, academic sense: the capacity of the human species to communicate clearly and
effectively through the use of programmed information – our capacity to utilize sound and structure to
convey abstract information in a clear and concise way. Our capacity to learn and generate Language,
and to speak languages, is an apparently innately human quality and feature – dependent as much on our
physiology as our environmental context.

If Language is merely a form of communication, you might ask whether some animals – like dolphins or
primates – are capable of creating Language as well. Watch this TedEd video and answer the questions
that follow.

Language and Text Literacy | 6

— ACTIVITY 1:

A. According to the video, what and how do the following animals communicate
with each other?
# Animal Communication

1 Crabs They communicate using their claws to show if their ready to mate.

2 Cuttlefish They show if their poisonus to other the other predetors.

3 Honeybees "Dancing" to show location and characteristics of food.

B. What are the 4 qualities listed in the video as being associated with Language?
Explain each one briefly in your own words.
# Quality Explanation

1 Productivity The means to produce language.

2 Grammer Structure and rules of language.

3 Displacement Being able to describe something that is not present

4 Discretness The sounds and other means of communication are meaningfully ditinct

C. Which animals do use some of the qualities associated with Language? Which
qualities do they use and how? Remember to use your own words.
Gorillas are just mimicking human languge, not producing their own unique languges. Also these
animal's languges way more limited than human languges.
Humans can produce an infinate number of meaning with finite resources.

Language and Text Literacy | 7

D. Why are the Language qualities exhibited by gorillas and dolphins not considered
valid examples of animals using language? Do you think this is a valid reason – why
or why not?

Language and Text Literacy | 8

Below is a brief explanation provided by the Encyclopaedia Britannica online (accessed: 17/09/2023).
You need to access the link and read the article until the end of the section ‘Definitions of
Language’ (just before the ‘Historical Attitudes towards Language’ heading), although you may read
further for your own information if you would like to.

Language, a system of conventional spoken, manual (signed), or written symbols by means

of which human beings, as members of a social group and participants in its culture, express
themselves. The functions of language include communication, the expression of identity, play,
imaginative expression, and emotional release.

conventional (adj.) – based on or in accordance with what is generally done or believed.

express (v.) – convey a thought or feeling in words or by gestures and conduct.
function (n.) – an activity that is natural to or the purpose of a person or thing.
imaginative (adj.) – having or showing creativity or inventiveness.
release (n.) – the action or process of allowing something to move, act, or flow freely.
propose (v.) – put forward a plan or suggestion for consideration by others.
phonetician (n.) – an expert in or student of phonetics, the study and classification of speech
sounds.
scholar (n.) – a specialist in a particular branch of study, especially humanities.
linguist (n.) – a person who studies linguistics.
formulate (v.) – express an idea in a concise or systematic way.

Language and Text Literacy | 9

— ACTIVITY 2:

Define the following terms (found in the article section you should have read above)
in your own words (you may use the Internet or reference books to assist you).

# Term Definition/Explanation

1 arbitrary (adj.) based on random choice or personal whim, rather than any reason or system

2 succinct (adj.) Something written or spoken briefly and clearly expressed

3 presupposition (n.) a thing tacitly assumed beforehand at the beginning of a line of argument or course of

4 excessive (adj.) more than is necessary, normal, or desirable; immoderate

5 legitimate (adj.) conforming to the law or to rules

6 physiologically (adv.) In a way that relates to the functions of living organisms

7 circumscribe (v.)

8 hostility (adj.)

9 substantially (adv.)

10 impede (v.)

11 designated (adj.)

12 superimposed (adj.)

13 infinite (adj.)

14 incommunicable (adj.)

15 temporal (adj.

16 spatial (adj.

17 contiguity (n.)

18 superficially (adv.)

19 controversial (adj.)

20 sociolinguistic (adj.)

21 psycholinguistic (adj.)

22 multiethnicity (n.)

Language and Text Literacy | 10

To form a clearer idea of where our capacity for Language comes from, watch the TedTalk by Dan Everett
titled How Language Began, and write down bullet-point summative notes of the most salient information
he shares. Your notes need to be very specific (such as mentioning particular information like the indexes
that qualify something to be a language), but do not need to be written in full sentences. Be prepared to
discuss in your class.

REMEMBER: your main aim is to answer the questions “What is ‘Language’?” and “Where does ‘Language’
come from?”

Based on all of the information shared thus far, the definition of Language seems to be – at its most
basic level – a systematic combination of symbols (i.e., sounds/shapes that represent abstract concepts
or meanings) and is dependent on conventional or cultural context in terms of being assigned. This, in
turn, brings us to the question: is there a difference between Language and language? The answer to
this is: yes, there is a difference. Language with a capital ‘L’ refers to the general capacity or ability to
use complex systems of communication (at least, more complex than animal communication), whilst
language with a lower case ‘l’ refers to specific systems, e.g., French, or American Sign Language,
or any languages that differ from each other, yet all fall under the larger “umbrella” of Language.
Logically speaking, then, the follow-up question would be: why, if human communication is a necessary
requirement, do languages differ from each other? The answer to this is highly complex and multifaceted,
but can be summarized with the phrase ‘Language variation and change’, and is discussed in the next
section.

Language and Text Literacy | 11

1.2. Language variation and change

If we were to accept the above facts regarding the development of Language amongst Homo Erectus, then
it follows naturally to wonder how and why we have subsequently ended up with between 6000 and
8000 languages today (the number depends on the sources, as well as their criteria for what qualifies as a
language)?

A very clear explanation of the phenomena known as Language Change and Development is provided by
Alex Gendler in the TedEd video: How languages evolve.

Language and Text Literacy | 12

— ACTIVITY 3:

A. Partner up with one of your classmates. Define the following terms (used in or
related to the video) in your own words (you may use the Internet or reference books
to assist you).

# Term Definition/Explanation

1 Linguist (n.)

2 Migration (n.)

3 Isolation (n.)

4 Dialect (n.)

5 Pronunciation (n.)

6 Genealogist (n.)

8 Proto language (n.)

9 False-cognate (n.)

10 Derived (adj.)

11 Syntax (n.)

12 Grammar (n.)

13 Native (adj.)

14 Mutually intelligible (adj.)

15 Language continuum (n.)

B. In your own words, describe how migration and isolation are the main
contributing factors to historic language evolution.

Language and Text Literacy | 13

Now that you understand the basic historic reasons for language variation and change, it is important to
note the uncertainties when it comes to defining languages themselves.

To help explain the issue and practical difficulties of defining language and dialect boundaries, read the
article by John McWhorter, which appeared in The Atlantic online (accessed: 17/09/2023). A glossary of
challenging terms is provided below, after which you should complete the tasks.

quasar (n.) – A massive heavenly body (celestial object) that is extremely far away and emits large
amounts of energy (related to stars and black holes)
pulsar (n.) – A celestial object thought to be a rapidly rotating neutron star that emits regular pulses
of radio waves and other electromagnetic radiation.
Yiddishist (n.) – A person who advocates for the Yiddish language and culture.
navy (n.) – the branch of the armed forces of a state which conducts military operations at sea.
snappy (adj.) – cleverly concise (short); neat.
aphorism (n.) – A highly expressive and accurate observation that contains a general truth.
impose (v.) – Force (an unwelcome decision or idea) on someone.
quirk (n.) – a peculiar aspect of character or behaviour.
incomprehensible (adj.) – not able to be understood; not intelligible.
cozy (adj.) – describing a feeling of comfort, warmth, and relaxation.
trio (n.) – A set or group of three people or things.
distinct (adj.) – recognizably different in nature from something else of a similar type.
respectively (adv.) – seperately or individually and in the order already mentioned.
colloquial (adj.) – (of language) used ordinary or familiar conversation; not formal or literary.
leaves off (v. phrase) – discontinue an activity.
thatch (v.) – cover a roof or building with straw or similar material.
Romance languages (n.) –the group of languages descended from Latin (such as French, Spanish,
Italian, Portuguese)
serendipity (n.) – the occurrence and development of events by chance in a happy or beneficial way,
similar to a ‘happy accident’ or ‘luck’.
enshrine (v.) – preserve something in a form that ensures it will be protected and respected, almost
revered.
obscure (adj.) – not discovered or known about; uncertain.
rural (adj.) – in, relating to, or characteristic of the countryside rather than the town.
impose (v.) – force (an unwelcome decision or ruling) on someone.
standardized (adj.) – adopt something as one’s standard or norm; cause something to conform to a
standard.

Language and Text Literacy | 14

codified (adj.) – arranged according to a plan or system into a systematic code.
legitimate (adj.) – able to be defended with logic and justification; valid.
distinguish (v.) – recognize or treat someone or something as different
bard (n.) – a poet, traditionally one reciting epics and associated with a particular oral tradition
(verbal poetry).
unsophisticated (adj.) – not complicated or highly developed; basic.
abstraction (n.) – the quality of dealing with ideas rather than events.
exquisite (n.) – extremely beautiful and delicate.
plummy (adj.) – a person’s voice having an accent thought typical of the English upper classes
(informal British).
wary (adj.) – feeling or showing caution about possible dangers or problems.
lowly (adj.) – low in status or importance; humble.
sophistication (n.) – a high level of complexity and development, as well as worldly status.
maximal efficiency (n. phrase) – the greatest possible amount or degree of effectiveness.
don (v.) – put on (an item of clothing)
curate (v.) – select, organize, and look after items in a collection or exhibition.
cacophony (n.) – A harsh, discordant mixture of sounds.
qualitatively (adv.) – with regard to the quality or qualities of something rather than its quantity.

Language and Text Literacy | 15

— ACTIVITY 4:

A. Which countries or regions are mentioned throughout this article? List as many as
you are able.

B. What is the main question or issue the author is struggling with and trying to
explain to the reader? Try to be as concise as possible and phrase it as a thesis
statement.
The idea was that he tried to distinguish between languges and dialects. Its not easy to distinguish
between languges and dialect, or to figure out wether the language is actually a seprete languge or
another dislect of the same langauge.

Intelligilbillty: Meaning that you can understand each other. If it is intellegeble to you it could be the
same language, but also history, cultural boudaries and politics play a role in distiguishable between
languages and dialects.

Language and Text Literacy | 16

C. Partner up with one of your classmates. Choose one of the comparisons the author
makes in this article, e.g., Czech and Slovakian, and do research on the political and
social history of those two dialects/languages. In 2-3 paragraphs, explain what these
two varieties might have in common (and why), as well as why they are considered
distinctly different from each other. Remember: you need to consider their cultural
and historic meanings as well.

Language and Text Literacy | 17

D. To help cement the concepts discussed in the previous article, watch this video,
World Languages_ Crash Course Linguistics #14, and fill in the table below as you do.
You may work with one or more of your classmates to complete this task, and do not
need to use full sentences.

# Main concept Examples Explanation

E.g. Number of Factors; mutual Difficulty in pinning down exact number (around
languages in intelligibility, political, and 7000) due to complex factors. Understanding these
the world resources and records. gives us insight into the different structures human
languages exist in.
1 Language vs Even if langugues are mutually intelegable, they
Dialect might be seperate languges due to ther reasons
(politics, religion, history, culture..)

2 Dialect Chains Villages next to each other The further away the villages were, the less mutual
speak somewhat similar intelegability there was.
languges.

3 Diaspora Jewish dispora around 70 The people move from original location elsewhere
Communities CE, scattered around and usually a new language will evolve.
Europe.

4 Village Sign ASL- 19th century Distinct viarities of sign languages even between
Language university students came villeges of close proximity.
together to use sign
language.
5 Identity and Sandinavian languges Although some countires have similar languges,
Politics sound the same, but are due to geopolitical or cultural factors these
seperate languges languges are seen as seperate languges and not
(Swidish) diffrent.
6 Standardized Arabic Fusha is the A languages viarity that has undergone substantial
Languages standerdized version of codfication of grammer and useage,
Arabic.

7 Access to
Resources

8 Linguistic
Justice

Language and Text Literacy | 18

1.3. The utility of Language

Now, we come to the question of function; what do we use Language and languages for? As you have
probably surmised from the videos already watched, humanity’s capacity for Language has led to
the success of our species, but how do languages tie us together as communities, and does one’s own
language and its usage determine important aspects of oneself as an individual?

Watch this Ted Talk video – How language shapes the way we think – where Lera Boroditsky explains how
the language we speak inherently influences our abilities and qualities as individuals and communities.

Language and Text Literacy | 19

— ACTIVITY 5:

A. According to the speaker, Lera Boroditsky, what does our use of language allow us
to do? You may quote her words directly (but remember to use quotation marks).

B. Explain how the two quotations the speaker uses from famous historic figures take
two opposing views of the role and nature of language.

"To have another language is to have a second soul"

Meaning: Language changes your perspective and perception. You will see the world diffrently, and
therefore it is like having a "second soul".

Language and Text Literacy | 20

C. Fill in the table below with the relevant information. You may work with a partner
if you choose, and you may re-watch the video if necessary. Try to use your own
words as much as possible when explaining the points being made.

# Languages Effect Example/Specific element Group/Language studied

Instead of saying left and right,
speakers aloways know they would use direction of a
where each compass compass. Even
direction is at. They stay
1 well oriented.

Russian speakers can Multiple words of diffrent shades Russian language

more easily identify/ of blue.
distinguish diffrent
shades of blue.
2

Language and Text Literacy | 21

As seen above, humans tend to focus very much on the differences between various languages that are
spoken. But what do all languages have in common? One of the main developments in modern linguistics
– as well as one of the most controversial – was the idea of a Universal Grammar by Noam Chomsky,
which attempted to explain the link between humanity and Language.

To better understand the complexity of trying to find a unifying theory of Language amongst the diversity
of world languages, watch this video, What do all languages have in common_ - Cameron Morin. Be
prepared to have a class discussion on the points made.

Language and Text Literacy | 22

— ACTIVITY 6:

Have a class discussion in which you explain whether you are more in favour of one
of the following concepts over the other. You need to first do a bit of research using
either the Internet or reference books so you are informed about the topics to be
discussed. You do not need to limit your arguments and research to language – you
can include other human behaviours and structures as well, e.g., criminality or
success. Having real-world examples and research would strengthen your argument
significantly.

Behaviourism (Nurture) vs Genetics (Nature)

Language and Text Literacy | 23

A fascinating aspect of language usage is the fact that we, as individuals and communities, are both
influencers of and influenced by the language we use. We are shaped by our language – as shown above
– however, we also shape the language we use based on our needs. Different communities have different
needs, as do individuals within communities. When we, as individuals speak, it differs ever so slightly
from everyone around us; a group or community share a linguistic variety called a dialect, however, each
person has a linguistic variety known as an idiolect. One’s idiolect falls within the parameters of the
dialect and language that your community speaks, yet it is unique to the one person who speaks it. This is
a microcosm of language usage, but how do we affect a macrocosm?

This video, Where do new words come from_ - Marcel Danesi, helps explain language change through word
usage. Answer the questions that follow.

Language and Text Literacy | 24

— ACTIVITY 7:

A. Write down the origin stories, the language of origin, and the meanings of the
following words. You might need to do a bit of independent research and may use the
Internet or reference books.
# Word Meaning Origin

1 clue a piece of evidence or information used in the detection of a crime.

2 armoire a cupboard or wardrobe, typically one that is ornate or antique.

3 depot a place for the storage of large quantities of equipment, food, or goods.

4 altar a table or flat-topped block used as the focus for a religious ritual, especially for making s

5 jury a table or flat-topped block used as the focus for a religious ritual, especially for making s

6 coffee a hot drink made from the roasted and ground seeds (coffee beans) of a tropical shrub.

7 spaghetti a long, thin, solid, cylindrical pasta.

8 curry

9 naïveté Naïveté is the state of being naive.

10 machismo Toxic Masculinity, or the sense of being "manly" and self-reliant

11 schadenfreude

12 cone A cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape that tapers smoothly from a flat base (freq

13 airport

14 starfish

15 brunch

16 smog

17 internet

18 villain

19 geek

20 selfie

21 blog

22 meme

Language and Text Literacy | 25

B. What is an ‘autological’ word? Can you provide any examples (besides the one
used in the video)? You may use the Internet or reference books to help you.

Examples of autological words:

- Word
- Text
- Autogical
- Meme
- Buzz Word

Language and Text Literacy | 26

Another important aspect that influences our perception of the world, as well as our language usage, is
whether we are monolinguals, bilinguals, or polyglots. As you will see in the next section, language
usage is constrained by various social elements such as politics, culture, and status. Watch the following
video titled ‘The benefits of a bilingual brain - Mia Nacamulli’ to understand the physiological influence
of multilingualism on a person. Subsequently, we will address commonly held beliefs and biases centred
around language usage in general, and second-language usage specifically.

monolingual (n.) – a person who speaks only one language.

bilingual (n.) – a person who speaks two languages fluently.
polyglot (n.) – a person who knows and is able to use several languages.
constrain (v) – severely restrict the scope, extent, or acitivity of something or someone.
physiological (adj.) – relating to the way in which a living organism or bodily part functions.
multilingualism(n.) – the use of more than one language, either by an individual speaker or by a
group of speakers.

Language and Text Literacy | 27

— ACTIVITY 8:

A. After watching the above video, write down the words or phrases you did not
understand fully, then write down their meanings. You may use a dictionary or the
Internet to help research these.
Word/Phrase/Expression Definition/explanation/examples

B. According to the video, what are the different types of bilinguals, and how do they
differ from each other? Remember to write your answer in full sentences.
Compound bilingual (from early years, learning new concepts simultaneusly in two languages)
Coordinate bilingual (knows concepts in 1st languages, but doesn't filter everything through 1st
language, example: a teenage student learning)

Language and Text Literacy | 28

C. Explain simply how the left and right hemispheres differ from each other (in
general), then explain how that is influenced by the Critical Period Hypothesis.

Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere

Analytical Feelings
Logical Emotions
Speech Production Inutition
Language skills Creativity

Critical Period Hypothesis

There is an ideal time window of brain development to acquire language in a linguistically rich
environment, after which further language acquisition becomes much more difficult and effortful.
The early ages displays the greatest brain plasticity.

Language and Text Literacy | 29

D. How has our understanding of bilingualism changed over the past fifty years?

E. Does being bilingual make you smarter than people who are monolingual? Explain
your answer in your own words.

Being bilingual has many benifits. It improves area like problem solving switching between tasks ,
exective functions and focus. It makes your brain more healthy, complex and activly engaging

Language and Text Literacy | 30

The last – and possibly the most influential – medium that facilitates modern communication and
language in particular, is modern technology. Now, individuals are able to communicate over great
distances, and groups can interact in a virtual space without being limited by a lack of geographic
proximity. However, most people would say that technology has had a negative effect on language in
terms of its correctness and purity. John McWhorter, a well-known American linguist, provides some
interesting insights into this universal phenomenon. Watch this video carefully and complete the longer
written task that follows.

Language and Text Literacy | 31

— ACTIVITY 9:

After watching the above video, explain in 3-4 paragraphs whether you agree
or disagree with John McWhorter’s point of view. You should use P.E.E. for each
paragraph, as well as examples from your own life to substantiate your points of
argument.

Language and Text Literacy | 32

Chapter 2
2. LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY
2.1. Language and identity
Language and identity form a complex and inseparable relationship with profound implications for both
communities and individuals. Language serves as a key means through which individuals express their
cultural, social, and personal identities, while simultaneously shaping and reinforcing those identities.

Language choice plays a significant role in identity formation for both individuals and communities;
linguistic research has highlighted the ways in which individuals consciously or subconsciously employ
specific features in their language usage to express their identities, as well as choosing a specific language
itself.

For instance, in multicultural societies where multiple languages coexist, individuals often have the
opportunity to choose between dominant (native) and heritage languages. Research conducted by
sociolinguists such as Penelope Gardner-Chloros demonstrates that language choice can reflect an
individual's identification with a particular cultural or ethnic group. For instance, an individual raised in
a bilingual household may switch between their heritage language and the dominant language depending
on the situation, thereby navigating and asserting various aspects of their identity.

Defining a Native Language. Defining a Heritage Language.

A native language is the primary language that an A heritage language refers to a language that
individual acquires and speaks most proficiently individuals acquire within their households or local
from their early years. It's the language in which they communities, yet often do not attain a high level of
naturally think and express themselves. For example, fluency. For instance, consider a person residing in
the majority of people living in the United Kingdom Ireland who absorbs certain Irish words and expressions
have English as their native language. When people but lacks the proficiency for meaningful conversational
communicate in their native languages, they typically use. While closely related, the term "heritage language"
do so without a foreign accent, though they may should not be confused with "minority language." A
exhibit a regional accent. In most cases, a person's minority language refers to a language spoken by a
native language aligns with the official language of the minority population within a specific country or region.
country they reside in. However, this isn't always the Heritage languages typically fall into three primary
case, as some countries have multiple official languages. categories: immigrant, indigenous, and colonial.
Occasionally, individuals can have two native languages, Immigrant heritage languages emerge when people who
a phenomenon known as bilingualism, which occurs speak a language have offspring in a foreign nation.,
when someone grows up speaking two languages while indigenous heritage languages evolve when
fluently. indigenous languages are displaced by the languages of
newcomers. Colonial heritage languages manifest when
the language of a colonizing power, once widely spoken,
dwindles as the colonial influence wanes in a particular
region.

Source: Study.com

Language and Text Literacy | 33

What are Primary and Secondary Languages? the age of 10, they will often perceive and utilize that
language as if it were a foreign language.
A primary language is the language predominantly
used by an individual in their daily communication. There are various methods for acquiring a second
Typically, a person's primary language aligns with language. One of the most prevalent approaches is
their native language. On the other hand, a secondary through formal education, such as learning it in school.
language is one that an individual knows but doesn't use Another scenario arises when a child has parents
as frequently as their primary language. The terms "L1" who speak different native languages. Relocating to a
and "L2" are often employed to denote first languages new country presents another pathway to becoming
and second languages, respectively. Heritage languages bilingual. People can either spontaneously assimilate the
are considered to be secondary languages. language of the new environment or undergo language
education through institutions, literature, the internet,
More information on Heritage Languages: and other resources.

There are various ways through which individuals Heritage language learners constitute a distinctive
acquire heritage languages. For instance, if a child is category within the realm of second language
raised in a Mexican-American community where many acquisition. Typically, they do not fully acquire the
residents speak Spanish, they may become proficient second language. In other words, they often possess
in this language alongside their acquisition of English. only a rudimentary grasp of the heritage language.
In such cases, the child becomes bilingual. However, Nevertheless, with additional dedication and effort,
if they only learn enough Spanish to engage in basic some individuals can attain proficiency in their heritage
conversations with their neighbors, then Spanish language. Heritage languages hold immense importance
assumes the role of their heritage language. within minority communities as they serve as a
conduit for preserving a people's cultural legacy. Many
A similar scenario may unfold within Breton individuals opt to acquire heritage languages with the
communities in Brittany, France. Children typically aim of preventing their ancestral languages from fading
grow up using French as their native language, into obscurity or as a means of reconnecting with their
but they often pick up enough of their ancestral cultural heritage.
language to comprehend some of what their elders
are communicating. In this context, Breton, a Celtic The issue of language extinction looms large in the
language, becomes a heritage language. Regrettably, contemporary world. Numerous languages, each with
many Celtic languages have become extinct, and those fewer than 100 speakers, vanish annually, supplanted
that remain have diminished rapidly in favor of English. by dominant global languages such as English, Spanish,
This decline is partly attributed to historical efforts Mandarin, Portuguese, and French. Some individuals
by governments in the United Kingdom and France to have gone to great lengths to resurrect extinct heritage
push the use of majority languages. Nevertheless, recent languages. Examples of this revival effort include the
initiatives have sought to revive Celtic languages. Manx and Cornish languages, which were previously
considered extinct. Moreover, there are practical
Typically, individuals acquire their native languages incentives for learning a heritage language. One of these
from their parents and members of their community is the fact that bilingual individuals tend to command
who converse in the dominant language of that higher wages than monolinguals and have access to a
community. Most children naturally acquire their native broader array of employment opportunities.
languages during their formative years. There exists a
crucial period for the development of native language
skills. If a child doesn't acquire a language by around Source: Study.com

Language and Text Literacy | 34

Code-switching, the alternation between two or more languages within a single conversation, is a widely
studied linguistic phenomenon that sheds light on the intricate relationship between language and
identity. Recent research has provided insights into the motivations behind code-switching in various
contexts. In multilingual communities, code-switching often serves to reinforce group identity and
establish solidarity. For instance, research by Ana Deumert and Rajend Mesthrie on South African Indian
English highlighted how code-switching to Indian languages within English speech creates a sense of
belonging and preserves cultural and ethnic identity.

Furthermore, sociolinguists like Rodolfo Jacobson have noted that code-switching can be a strategy for
individuals to negotiate their social identities in different contexts. A study by Jacobson focusing on
Mexican-American communities in the United States revealed that code-switching between Spanish and
English allowed individuals to navigate their bicultural identities and signal membership in specific
social groups. In such cases, language becomes a tool for adapting to different social situations and
expressing various facets of one's identity.

Linguistic research on language revitalization efforts sheds light on the critical role language plays in
cultural identity preservation. When languages are endangered or marginalized, communities face
the risk of losing not only a means of communication but also an essential component of their cultural
identity. For example, the revitalization efforts of the Hawaiian language among Native Hawaiians provide
valuable insights into the intersection of language and cultural identity. Research conducted by Puakea
Nogelmeier highlights how the revitalization of the Hawaiian language has served as a catalyst for
cultural resurgence and a means to reconnect with ancestral heritage. Language revitalization in such
cases becomes a mechanism for reclaiming and reinforcing the cultural identity of the community.

Similarly, studies by linguists focused on Indigenous languages, such as Leanne Hinton's work on the
revitalization of Native American languages, emphasize the connection between language preservation
and cultural revival. Language serves as a vehicle for transmitting cultural knowledge, practices, and
worldviews, making its preservation crucial for the survival and affirmation of Indigenous identities.

Linguistic research offers compelling evidence of the deep interrelation between language and identity.
Examples from studies on language choice, code-switching, and language revitalization efforts elucidate
the dynamic role language plays in both individual and community identity construction.

Language choice therefore reflects affiliations with cultural, ethnic, and gender identities, while code-
switching helps negotiate social identity in multilingual contexts. Furthermore, language revitalization
efforts demonstrate that the preservation of endangered languages is essential for sustaining and
reviving cultural identities. Understanding the link between language and identity provides a foundation
for appreciating the rich diversity of human expression and cultivating inclusive societies that honour
linguistic and cultural heritage.

Language and Text Literacy | 35

— ACTIVITY 10:

Pay attention to the bolded terms and phrases in the text above. Now, match the
terms on the left with their meanings on the right (see the example provided).

z. Communities characterized by people of different races,

E.g., multicultural societies z
ethnicities, and nationalities living together.
a. unity or agreement of feeling or action, especially among
1 ethnic identity individuals with a common interest; mutual support within a
group.
b. the act of showing that one belongs to a specific group.
2 code-switching

c. the renewal and revival of cultural practices after a period

3 solidarity of time where they were not active.

d. A personal, self-categorizing concept in which an individual

4 group identity identifies with an ethnic group and its cultural identity.

e. A person’s sense of belonging to a particular group based

5 bicultural identity on certain perceived criteria.

f. the practice of alternating between two or more languages

6 signal membership or varieties of a language in conversation.

g. The understanding and incorporation of two cultures

7 cultural resurgence contained in one person’s self and consciousness.

h. A person’s unique, inherited sense of family identity.

8 ancestral heritage

i. An attempt to halt or reverse the decline or death of a

9 Indigenous language language.

j. The language that is native to a region and spoken by the

10 language revitalization indigenous people.

Language and Text Literacy | 36

Read the article titled ‘Language and Identity: the Construction of the Self’ by Jessica Vizuette (accessed:
17/09/2023), and complete the tasks that follow. A glossary of terms for the article is provided below.

GLOSSARY

correlation (n.) – a mutual relationship or connection between two or more things.

static (adj.) – lacking in movement, action, or change, especially in an undesirable or uninteresting
way.
critical (adj.) – having a decisive or crucial importance in the success, failure, or existence of
something.
utterance (n.) – a spoken word, statement, or vocal sound.
stutter (n.) – a tendency to stutter (involuntary repetition of sounds or words) while speaking.
garble (n.) – a confused or distorted sound, account, or transmission.
inconsistency (n.) – something is not compatible or does not stay the same throughout.
define (v.) – state or describe exactly the nature, scope, or meaning of.
intrinsic (adj.) – belonging naturally; essentially.
eliminate (v.) – completely remove or get rid of something.
clarify (v.) – make a statement or situation less confused and more comprehensible.
coherence (n.) – the quality of being logical and consistent.
innovation (n.) – a new method, idea, product, etc. progress.
modification (n.) – a change made.
lexical (adj.) – relating to the words or vocabulary of a language.
persist (v.) – continue to exist.
diminish (v.) – make or become less.
blend in (v. phrase) – to look or seem the same as surrounding people or things and therefore not
be easily noticeable.
emergence (n.) – the process of coming into existence or prominence.
phonology (n.) – the system of speech sounds that constitute the fundamental components of
language.
morphology (n.) – the study of the forms of words, in particular inflected forms.
syntax (n.) – the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.
barrier (n.) – a circumstance or obstacle that keeps people or things apart or prevents
communication or progress.

Language and Text Literacy | 37

— A C T I V I T Y 11 :

Based on the article, consider your own language usage, including your accent and
pronunciation of words. If you are bilingual, think of both the languages you speak –
who do you believe had the greatest influence on your way of speaking? Write down
your observations of your own speech patterns, and explain how they have formed
through either family influence, peer influence, or geographic influence. Write
2-3 paragraphs explaining your thoughts, and remember to use P.E.E.L. as well as
evidence to substantiate the points you make.

Language and Text Literacy | 38

2.2. Language and Status

Language and social status share a profound relationship that shapes human interactions and societies.
Language serves as a vehicle for communication, while social status refers to an individual's position or
rank within a given community.

Language is a powerful tool that helps individuals establish their identity and connect with others
who share a similar linguistic background. Certain dialects or accents can be indicative of someone's
regional or cultural background, allowing individuals to feel a sense of belonging or affiliation within
their respective communities. This connection becomes particularly apparent in close-knit groups or
communities where language is a defining characteristic.

For instance, in many countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, or India, different regions
boast distinct dialects or accents, such as the Southern accent or Cockney dialect. These regional
variations often carry preconceived notions or stereotypes associated with certain social classes,
educational levels, or backgrounds. As a result, individuals who adopt these dialects or accents may be
perceived in a certain way by society, and their social status can be influenced accordingly. For a better
understanding of this, watch this video, titled ‘What makes a language... a language_ - Martin Hilpert’.

Language proficiency plays a pivotal role in determining an individual's access to educational

opportunities and subsequent social mobility. Proficiency in the dominant language of a given society,
typically the language of instruction, is often necessary to succeed academically and professionally.
Consequently, individuals who lack proficiency in this language may face barriers in accessing quality
education and, subsequently, higher-paying job opportunities. Moreover, the linguistic diversity within
a society often results in certain languages being deemed more prestigious or valuable than others.
This phenomenon, known as linguistic elitism, further exacerbates the link between language and
social status. For instance, in many parts of the world, English is considered the "global language" and
is perceived as a symbol of higher social status. Therefore, individuals who are fluent in English may
be more likely to enjoy greater social and economic opportunities, reinforcing existing inequalities.
For a more thorough grasp of this apparently unfair social judgment of language, watch this video
about a recent study conducted in the UK on how accent bias could potentially harm someone’s future
employment prospects.

Language serves as a means of transmitting not only information but also social codes and norms. This
is evident in various speech communities, where specific language codes are employed to convey social
status or signal membership in certain groups. By understanding and adopting these linguistic codes,
individuals can navigate social hierarchies and gain social recognition. For example, in professional
environments or formal settings, individuals often employ a more formal or technical vocabulary to
demonstrate their competence and expertise. Similarly, individuals who possess a vast vocabulary and
command of complex grammatical structures are often perceived as more intelligent or educated, leading
to higher social status and opportunities.

Sociolinguistic variation refers to the study of how language varies in social groups and contexts. Within
a given language, certain linguistic features or pronunciations may be associated with different social
groups. Variation in language can convey power dynamics, with certain linguistic forms being regarded as
more prestigious or representative of higher social status. For instance, the standard form of a language
is often associated with prestige and may be deemed more suitable for formal or professional contexts.
In contrast, nonstandard dialects or vernaculars may be stigmatized or associated with lower social

Language and Text Literacy | 39

status. Consequently, individuals who possess linguistic forms aligned with the standard may be more
likely to be perceived favourably and enjoy social privileges.

Language and social status are intrinsically linked, with language choices, proficiency, and sociolinguistic
variation influencing an individual's position within society. Language acts as a marker of identity,
helping individuals establish group affiliations and connections. Proficiency in the dominant language
plays a vital role in accessing educational opportunities and social mobility. Additionally, linguistic
codes and variations act as social codes, conveying power dynamics and hierarchies. Understanding the
interconnectedness of language and social status allows us to critically examine the role of language in
perpetuating or challenging existing social inequalities, fostering a more inclusive and equitable society.

Language and Text Literacy | 40

— ACTIVITY 12:

A. Pay attention to the bolded words in the text above. Now, write down synonyms for
each (that would be able to replace it in the text and retain the same or most similar
meaning). You may use the Internet or reference book if necessary.

# Term Synonym

E.g., profound deep

1 affiliation attaching/connecting

2 close-knit intimate

3 boast brag

4 proficiency expertise

5 pivotal Importance

6 diversity variation

7 prestigious reputable

8 elitism Exclusivity

9 exacerbate intensify

10 stigmatize dishonour

11 bias partiality

12 expertise skillfulness

Language and Text Literacy | 41

B. To help you understand our linguistic biases – whether conscious or not –carefully
read the article The pervasive problem of ‘linguistic racism’ – BBC online by
Christine Ro (accessed: 17/09/2023). Be prepared to answer questions regarding its
content and the previous videos you have watched in this section. Remember to
write down the words or phrases you did not understand fully, then write down their
meanings. You may use a dictionary or the Internet to help research these.

Word/Phrase/Expression Definition/explanation/examples

Language and Text Literacy | 42

Do you believe you are unbiased when it comes to the language you and others speak? Do you judge or
stereotype people based on their accents?

Watch this video and consider the opinions voiced by the people interviewed, as well as their own biases
that might be fuelling many of their opinions.

Language and Text Literacy | 43

— ACTIVITY 13:

A. Based on general associations, list different accents according to the descriptors

provided. It can be a native or non-native accent. Once completed, discuss your
answers with the other students at your table; do you have any accents in common?
Explain to each other why you listed that particular accent for that particular
stereotype. How did you learn about that accent in the first place, and did that
perhaps have an impact on your association of it with a stereotype?

# Stereotype Your choice of accent

1 Criminal accent

2 Romantic accent

3 Laid-back accent

4 Funny accent

5 Uneducated accent

6 Posh accent

7 Passionate accent

8 Rural accent

9 Charming accent

10 Standard accent

Language and Text Literacy | 44

B. Do you, personally, believe that English is a superior language to other languages?
Does speaking English improve your chances professionally and socially? Do you
think this is fair? Remember to write in full sentences and answer each part of the
question clearly.

C. Many parents believe that focusing exclusively on their children’s use of English
is preferable to splitting their attention between two or more languages (including
their own, mother tongue). Do you agree with this idea? Why or why not?

Language and Text Literacy | 45

D. Listen to the following recordings and rate each English speaker according to
various social criteria based purely on how they speak. Try to also identify their
geographic location, and whether they are a native speaker of English, or a second
language speaker thereof. For each option you have to type ‘High’, ‘Mid’, or ‘Low’. Be
completely honest and give your first impression – no-one will judge you for your
answers.

Speaker A Speaker B

Speaker C Speaker D

Speaker E Speaker F

Speaker G Speaker H

Geographic Social Native

Speaker Education Intelligence Fun Trustworthiness
location Status speaker?
South
E.g. Low Low Mid High Mid Yes
Africa

Language and Text Literacy | 46

E. Which speakers’ accents were most familiar to you? Why do you think that is?
Explain your answer in full sentences, with specific examples to substantiate your
statements.

Language and Text Literacy | 47

2.3. Language Death

Language decline and death refer to the gradual loss and eventual extinction of a language. This process
occurs when a language is no longer spoken actively by a community or when it ceases to be passed
down to new generations. Language decline and death can have various causes and consequences, and
understanding this phenomenon is crucial for preserving linguistic diversity and cultural heritage. Here is
a short video with the world’s foremost linguists explaining the reasons for language decline and death.

Language decline typically begins when a language loses speakers due to factors such as migration,
social and economic shifts, or political suppression. When speakers of a particular language shift to using
another dominant or more widely-spoken language, the original language may become marginalized,
relegated to specific domains like storytelling or religious ceremonies. As more speakers transition to
using the dominant language, younger generations may no longer learn or use the endangered language
as their primary means of communication. Instead, they adopt the language spoken by the majority or
the language associated with economic and educational opportunities. This intergenerational language
transmission gap contributes significantly to language decline.

Several consequences are associated with language decline and death. First and foremost, the loss of a
language entails the erosion of cultural heritage. Each language carries unique knowledge, traditions, and
ways of understanding the world, which are intricately intertwined with the identity and history of its
speakers. When a language disappears, an entire way of life and cultural perspective can vanish with it.
The Economist provides a short video to explain the complexities of language death.

Language extinction also impacts scientific research and linguistics. Each language provides valuable
insights into human cognition, communication patterns, and linguistic structures. With the disappearance
of a language, critical data for linguistic study is irretrievably lost, hindering our understanding of human
language capacities. Efforts to document, revitalize, and promote endangered languages play a vital role
in combating language decline and death. Through language revitalization initiatives, such as community
language schools, cultural festivals, and digital archives, efforts are made to preserve and promote
endangered languages. Collaboration between linguistic researchers, communities, and policymakers
is essential to create language policies that support and sustain linguistic diversity. The United Nations
Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has launched multiple programmes, as well as
documenting the currently vulnerable languages. Others have also joined the struggle to revitalize, or at
the very least document, endangered languages. Watch this short video on the National Geographic’s bid
to help people document and revitalize their languages.

By acknowledging the significance of language in preserving cultural identity and fostering

understanding among communities, steps can be taken to prevent language decline and death, ensuring
that the linguistic tapestry of our world remains vibrant and diverse. You, as an individual within your
community, can also do your part to help perpetuate the knowledge of language health and potential
decline. Daniel Bögre Udell provides some clear guidelines and examples in this TedTalk video titled ‘How
to save a language from extinction.'

Language and Text Literacy | 48

— ACTIVITY 14:

A. Had you ever heard of language extinction before? If yes – where and how much
did you learn? If no – what do you think of this phenomenon? Does this knowledge
affect you on any level in your own life? Remember to write in full sentences when
answering.

B. What are the 5 classifications utilized by UNESCO to describe endangered

languages? Provide one example for each as well.
# Classification Example

Language and Text Literacy | 49

C. Using the link provided above, or additionally referring to the UNESCO endangered
languages list, choose a language that interests you and do some research on the
5Ws and H. Write down a summary of your research below.

Language and Text Literacy | 50

Chapter 3
3. ANALYSIS AND STUDENT TEXT
3.1. Aim
Choose ONE of the following topics and write an essay according to the accompanying instructions.
The main aim of this task is to allow you to use all the knowledge and understanding you have gained
throughout this module, in conjunction with the texts provided below, to construct a meaningful text that
provides insights and valid arguments. Intertextuality and multiliteracy are very important aspects of
this course, and will specifically be utilized in completing this task.

The topics are provided below, and additional source texts (which should serve as the main reference
texts for your essay) are provided in the following subsection. You may use all the resources (video and
text) provided in this workbook, as well as do additional reading and research to enhance the depth of
your essay’s content and perspectives. Most of the topic options are very logical and factual, however,
one option has a more creative aspect. The specific requirements such as length, layout, and style will be
provided by your teacher.

3.2. Topics

a. It is impossible to be completely objective when it comes to others’ use of language as most

of our judgments are inherently below a level of consciousness. Thus, all efforts to ‘educate’
people to be less biased towards people who speak a certain way will not succeed. Agree or
disagree.
b. Languages do not deteriorate or worsen; all changes to written and spoken language are
merely part of the evolutionary process that is language variation and change. Thus, the
gatekeepers of language integrity, like editors and language teachers, are wasting their time
trying to stem the tide. Agree or disagree.
c. Language death is a natural part of language variation and change, thus all revitalization
efforts are essentially fighting a losing battle. Agree or disagree.
d. Learning another language has both broadened my horizons, but also caused a separation
between me and other members of my family.

3.3. Intertextuality
Intertextuality is a key concept in literary analysis, encompassing various ways in which authors
reference, quote, adapt, or reinterpret other literary works within a new text. This practice is broad in
scope and can involve any deliberate connection between one's own work and existing literature.

The original theory of intertextuality was formulated by theorist Julia Kristeva to elucidate the
relationships between texts. According to Kristeva's theory, every literary text is essentially composed
of earlier texts, implying that all literature engages in an ongoing conversation, and no work stands in
isolation. Kristeva posited that every text exists as an "intertext," residing at the intersection of other
literary works. This concept delves deeper than many modern interpretations of intertextuality in media

Language and Text Literacy | 51

and has sparked further discussions among other theorists and philosophers. How can you link this idea
of intertextuality to that of languages?

Authors employ intertextuality for various reasons, often reflecting their specific objectives through the
type of intertextuality chosen for their work. Intertextuality can serve as a tool to provide readers with
insights into a work's themes, thesis, or plot. It can also be a source of humour or a means to creatively
reinterpret source material. Some writers use intertextuality to position their work within a particular
literary tradition or to highlight the contributions of other authors. Additionally, intertextuality can
provide readers with a framework for understanding a new work through comparison. The purposes of
intertextuality are diverse, and each instance may have its own unique purpose tailored to the work's
needs and the author's choices.

Intertextuality manifests in various forms in literature, ranging from subtle references to structures
that make the influence of the source material unmistakable. The following list is not exhaustive but
illustrates some common types of intertextuality:

# Type of Intertextuality Explanation

1 Allusion An indirect reference to another work, often involving characters, themes,
or imagery recognizable to most readers

2 Quotation The direct inclusion of words from one text in another, usually enclosed in
quotation marks. Quotations can also serve as titles for other works

3 Calque The direct translation of loanwords from one language to another, which
can subtly create intertextual connections

4 Homage An explicit and celebratory reference to another work, writer, or character,

often impossible to overlook

5 Plagiarism The unethical practice of stealing someone else's work and presenting it
as one's own, considered a form of intertextuality but widely condemned

6 Translation The act of translating a work from one language to another, which is not
only a linguistic practice but also a creative and intertextual process

7 Pastiche A deliberate stylistic imitation of another work or genre, creating an

intentional intertextual connection

8 Parody A humorous form of intertextuality that exaggerates and satirizes

elements of a work to make a point

9 Reimagining The creation of a new work that offers a substantial reinterpretation of

existing material, such as rewriting a story from a different character's
perspective

Intertextual examples can range from respectful references to outright mockery of the source material,
and some works may exhibit multiple types of intertextuality or defy categorization.

Language and Text Literacy | 52

Intertextuality abounds in literature and other media, making it challenging to find a work that lacks
intertextual references, whether intentional or unintentional. Here are a few notable examples:

Description Types
The Matrix (1999) – film This film alludes to Lewis Carroll's "Alice's
Adventures in Wonderland" through references to
the "rabbit hole" and the "white rabbit."

Frankenstein; or, The subtitle of Shelley's novel, "The Modern

The Modern Prometheus Prometheus," alludes to Greek mythology, and
by Mary Shelley – novel the work contains references to John Milton's
"Paradise Lost."

Beowulf translated by Maria Dahvana Headley Headley's translation creatively engages with
– epic poem the Old English text of "Beowulf," incorporating
contemporary slang and linguistic elements

Monty Python and This film parodies Arthurian legend and is

the Holy Grail (1975) filled with humorous intertextual references to
– film everything related to the legend of King Arthur
and his knights.

Rosencrantz and Stoppard's play reimagines William Shakespeare's

Guildenstern Are Dead "Hamlet" and relies heavily on the audience's
by Tom Stoppard – play familiarity with the source material, featuring
direct quotes and an intertextual relationship that
is impossible to miss

Source: Study.com

Language and Text Literacy | 53

POINTS TO PONDER:
• How is intertextuality linked to language usage?
• Can you think of examples of intertextuality in texts you have read, watched, or listened to?
• Do you agree that no text can exist in isolation? That all texts rely on previous ones for content?
Why or why not?
• Do you think any language can exist in isolation from others? Why or why not?

3.4. Additional Source Texts

1. ‘You can’t even talk English, so don’t talk!’ How linguistic racism impacts immigrants in the UK
(internet article)
2. Linguistic Discrimination (Article Summary)
3. Linguistic Discrimination Still Lingers in Many Classrooms (internet article)
4. Accent Discrimination Is Still A Pervasive Issue In The Workplace, Research Finds (internet
article)
5. Four Things That Happen When a Language Dies (internet article)
6. Endangered Languages: why it matters (TedTalk video)
7. What does the world lose when a language dies (video news report)
8. Why it’s time to stop worrying about the decline of the English Language (internet article)
9. ‘Why can’t the English Learn to Speak’ – My Fair Lady (musical film song)
10. Linguistic Purism: Yea or Nay? (blog post)
11. Search For My Tongue (Poem)
12. My Mother(‘s) Tongue (Poem)
13. Mother Tongue (Essay)
14. Parrots speak lost rainforest tongue (internet article)
15. Speaking in Tongues, Ep.1 – Let there be words (documentary film)
16. Speaking in Tongues, Ep.2 – Constant Change (documentary film)
17. Speaking in Tongues, Ep.3 – Life and Death (documentary film)

Language and Text Literacy | 54

3.5. Evaluation and feedback

ESSAY WRITING CRITERIA

1. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages

Overall written interaction, C1

Can express him/herself with clarity and precision, relating to the addressee flexibly and effectively.
Vocabulary range
Has a good command of a broad lexical repertoire allowing gaps to be readily overcome with
circumlocutions, little obvious searching for expressions or avoidance strategies. Good command of
idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms.
Vocabulary control
Occasional minor slips, but no significant vocabulary errors.

Grammatical accuracy
Consistently maintains a high degree of grammatical accuracy, errors are rare and difficult to spot.

Orthographic control
Layout, paragraphing and punctuation are consistent and helpful. Spelling is accurate, apart from
occasional slips of the pen.

Sociolinguistic appropriateness
Can recognize a wide range of idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms, appreciating register shifts;
(may, however, need to confirm occasional details, especially if the accent is unfamiliar.)(Can follow
films employing a considerable degree of slang and idiomatic usage.) Can use language flexibly and
effectively for social purposes, including emotional, allusive and joking usage.

2. The Dialang Scales, C1

C1: I can expand and support points of view at some length with subsidiary points, reasons and
relevant examples.
I can develop an argument systematically, giving appropriate emphasis to significant points, and
presenting relevant supporting detail.
I can give clear detailed descriptions of complex subjects.
(I can usually write without consulting a dictionary.)
(I can write so well that my language needs to be checked only if the text is an important one.)

C1: Can write a variety of different texts.

Can express oneself with clarity and precision, using language flexibly and effectively.
Can produce clear, smoothly flowing, well-structured writing, showing controlled use of organizational
patterns, connectors and cohesive devices.
Can qualify opinions and statements precisely in relation to degrees of, for example, certainty/
uncertainty, belief/doubt, likelihood.
Layout, paragraphing and punctuation are consistent and helpful.
Spelling is accurate apart from occasional slips.
Expressing subtle nuances in taking a stance or in telling about feelings and experiences can be difficult.

Language and Text Literacy | 55

3. Elements to consider
Content & structure Fluency/Fluidity Register / Terminology
How reader-friendly the text is? Is the chosen register
What is the main message and
How does the text appeal to the appropriate? Does the choice of
how is it organised?
reader? words support the message?
-thesis statement/central idea/ -idiomacy -appropriate register
argument/the purpose of the -natural flow and rhythm (=level of formality for a
essay -acuity / perspicacity particular purpose)
-consistency with the given (=sharpness of thought) -consistency of the register
essay title -lucidity (clearness) -vocabulary range/command of
-clear introduction and -maintaining relevance vocabulary, accuracy, richness of
conclusion throughout the text vocabulary, nuances
-body paragraphs with clear -ability to maintain the reader’s (limited/moderate/extensive)
topic sentences and arguments interest throughout the text -potential use of special/field-
which support the thesis -cohesion specific terminology
statement -correct spelling
-arguments well-presented and -punctuation
justified, evidence is provided to
support the arguments
-coherence and cohesion

4. Evaluating the preliminary exam essays (adapted from CEFR, Dialang, The Finnish Matriculation
Examination Board)
Content & structure Fluency/Fluidity Register / Terminology
What is the main message and How reader-friendly the text Is the chosen register
how is it organised? is? How does the text appeal appropriate? Does the
to the reader? choice of words support the
message?
200, See also CEFR & Dialang See also CEFR & Dialang See also CEFR & Dialang
190, criteria (and category) criteria (and category) criteria (and category)
180 above. above. above.
• Skillfully organized and • Can express oneself • Maintains consistency in
structured. effortlessly, clearly, register and style very
• Clear, well-supported and confidently and with well.
relevant arguments. accuracy. • Lucid language with exact
• Coherent and unified • Conveys the message very use of words and phrases.
paragraphs, the well/excellently. • Pertinent sentences ->
introduction and • Employs idiomatic and grammatical accuracy.
conclusion included -> a natural expressions. • Rich and varied
unified whole. • A lot of variety in vocabulary.
• Single irrelevant points or grammatical structures • Explicit, descriptive
views are non-existent, as • The text is very easy and language.
is wordiness and clichés. enjoyable to read.
The topic is carefully • Maintains the reader’s
presented to the point. interest, (and creates a
lasting impression on the
reader’s mind.)

Language and Text Literacy | 56

 Content & structure Fluency/Fluidity Register / Terminology
What is the main message and How reader-friendly the text Is the chosen register
how is it organised? is? How does the text appeal appropriate? Does the
to the reader? choice of words support the
message?
170, • Well organized and • Can express oneself • Maintains consistency in
160 structured. relatively easily, clearly and register and style well.
• Thoughts and ideas with reasonable accuracy. • Relatively rich and varied
presented relatively • Conveys the message vocabulary.
coherently, developing relatively effortlessly.
them into a well-arranged • The text is easy and
and reader-friendly effortless to read.
paragraphs. • Natural and idiomatic.
• Some variety in
grammatical structures.
• Employs cohesive devices
relatively well.

150, • Moderately easy-to-follow • Can express oneself • On the whole, style and
140 structure. moderately easily and register are appropriate,
moderately clearly. some inconsistency may,
• Conveys the main however, occur.
message moderately, • Moderate/adequate/
but there may be slips/ • ordinary vocabulary
word choices that do not, range.
however, complicate
understanding.
• Some grammatical errors
may exist, but they do not
obscure the message.
• Little variety in
grammatical structures.
• Employs ordinary
cohesive devices.
130, • Difficulties in structuring • Difficulties in expressing • Slips in register.
120 and organizing the text. oneself. Is able to convey • Rather limited vocabulary
• Some incoherence. (only) the main idea of the range.
• There may be irrelevant message. • Frequent grammatical
points, wordiness and • Some parts of the text can errors, and misspellings
clichés. be incomprehensible. that sometimes obscure
• Simple grammatical the message.
structures.
• Employs simple cohesive
devices.

Language and Text Literacy | 57

 Content & structure Fluency/Fluidity Register / Terminology
What is the main message and How reader-friendly the text Is the chosen register
how is it organised? is? How does the text appeal appropriate? Does the
to the reader? choice of words support the
message?
110, • Substantial difficulties in • Substantial difficulties in • Slips in register.
100 structuring and organizing expressing oneself. • Weak, limited vocabulary
the text. • Many parts of the text are range, wrong word choices.
• A lot of incoherence, incomprehensible. • Frequent grammatical
irrelevant points, • Incomplete grammatical errors even in rather
wordiness and clichés. structures. simple structures that
• The writer approaches the • Very few (if any) cohesive often totally obscure the
topic from a very narrow devices. message.
(only one) perspective and • The text is rather difficult
there is a lot of repetition. to read.

90, 80 • Substantial incoherence. • The text is difficult to • Very limited vocabulary

• Somewhat rudimentary read. range, frequent
sentence structures. • The reader gets a vague grammatical errors even in
idea of some parts of the simple structures, spelling
text, some parts remain errors, and wrong word
obscure. choices.

70, 60, • Substantial incoherence. • The text is very difficult to • Very limited vocabulary
50, 40 • Rudimentary sentence read. range, frequent
structures • The message of the grammatical errors even
text is conveyed to the in very simple structures,
reader with substantial and totally wrong word
difficulties, or not at all. choices. Spelling errors
even in basic/familiar
words.
30, 20, • It is impossible to get an • Substantial difficulties • Rudimentary vocabulary
10 idea of the text. in handling the topic, or with plenty of errors.
conveying the message.

Language and Text Literacy | 58

List of images

Cover: unsplash.com

p. 6: pxhere.com

p. 12: unsplash.com

p. 17: pxhere.com

p. 19: unsplash.com

p. 22: unsplash.com

p. 24: unsplash.com

p. 31: pxhere.com

p. 43: unsplash.com

p. 44: pxhere.com

p. 53 top: ECF;
2nd: ECF;
3rd: Amazon.com;
4th: ECF;
bottom: ECF

Language and Text Literacy | 59