MODULE 1: PLANT PRODUCTION ID 48971 LEVEL 1 – CREDITS 29.

FACILITATOR GUIDE

Unit Standards
116206 Fertilise soil and attend to basic plant nutrition
116204 Recognize pests, diseases and weeds on crops
116201 Harvest Agricultural crop
116203 Manipulate plants
116200 Plant the crop under supervision
116148 Perform basic routine in defined hydroponic context

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SAQA: 116200-PLANT THE CROP UNDER SUPERVISION

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Facilitation Methodology
The programme is very practical and aims to provide practical tools and skills for adult learners. The
methodology should ensure that:
● The learning environment is physically and psychologically comfortable.

● Contact training periods are short and varied to avoid boredom.

● Learner expectations are articulated and clarified and managed by the learner and facilitator.

● The experience of participants is acknowledged and drawn on in the learning programme.

● Facilitation, rather than teaching, is used to allow participants to participate fully.

● The facilitator balances the presentation of new material, debate and discussion in such a
way that the outcomes of the module are met, while ensuring that all participants are valued
and is able to contribute to the learning process.
● The learning will be problem-oriented, personalized and accepting of participants’ needs for
self-direction and personal responsibility.
● The module presented in a way that allows a participant to participate fully in the language of
their choice.
● The facilitation process accommodates participants who may not be literate, or who are not
literate in English.

The contact session uses a participatory methodology. This is appropriate for adult audiences who
come with a wide range of experiences and skills. It also accommodates a broader range of learning
styles. Some techniques that can be used include:

Method Description
Structured Participants engage with a complex game or activities that represent real-life
learning situations that they may encounter in the course of their work as a Ward Committee
experience member.
Case study This is a realistic story or real-life situation that has taken place, in which
participants need to apply their knowledge and skills to practice how they can deal
with the issues presented.
Group work Participants work on tasks in their groups and report their findings back to plenary.
Lecture The facilitator presents a short talk (maximum of 10 minutes) to introduce a new
subject, to provide details, or to wrap up a session.
Discussion This is a free exchange of ideas or experiences on a particular topic. It may be
between the facilitator and the participants or between the participants.
Brainstorming Participants generate a number of ideas on a particular subject or question. It may
be used to gather different opinions or to find out what participants know about a
particular topic.
Role-play Participants are asked to act out a scenario where each participant plays a
particular role. A role-play may be used to illustrate how people respond in different
situations.
Panel This is a planned presentation by one or more experts. It may be followed by a
discussion discussion session or a round of questions.

Resources may include, but not limited to:

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● White board and/or Flipcharts

● Laptop & Data Projector (not compulsory)

● Facilitator & Learner Guide

● Learner Workbook

● Appendices (attached to learner guide)

Time Contact/ Facilitation Time 42 Hours/5 Days

Theory 42 Hours
Practical 98 Hours
Assessments 24,5 Hours
Workplace Application Time 98 Hours/12 Days

Facilitator’s Checklist & Training Aids

Learner support strategies:
Learners are supplied with all resources and aids as required by the program – including:
● Objects & devices such as equipment, protective clothing, and safety gear, etc.

● Learner Guides and Learner Workbook

● Visual aids, etc.

Use this checklist below during your preparation to ensure that you have all the equipment,
documents and training aids for a successful session.
Tick/
Preparation: Cross
Yes No
Qualification Knowledge – I have familiarised myself with the content of the applicable
qualification
Unit Standard Knowledge – I have familiarised myself with the content of all aspects of the
applicable unit standard
Content Knowledge – I have sufficient knowledge of the content to enable me to facilitate
with ease
Application knowledge – I understand the programme matrix & have prepared for
programme delivery accordingly
Contextualisation – I have included information which is specific to the commodity and
practices related to the commodity
Ability to respond to learners background & experience – I have studied the
learner demographics, age group, experience & circumstances & prepared for programme
delivery accordingly
Enthusiasm & Commitment – I am passionate about my subject & have prepared my
programme delivery to create a motivating environment with real commitment to success
Enterprise knowledge – I know & understand the values, ethics, vision & mission of the
workplace & have prepared my programme delivery, reporting & administrative tasks
accordingly.
Equipment check:
Learner guides x 1 per learner

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Assessment guides x 1 per learner
Writing materials & stationary (facilitator & learner)
White board & pens
Flip chart paper
Proximal projector & screen
Laptop & programme disk
Sample Hand-outs and examples of laws and other relevant documents
Safety gear as prescribed by unit standard and applicable legislation
Documentation checklist:
Attendance Register
Course Evaluation
Learner Course Evaluation
Portfolios of evidence

Briefing Session: Day 1

Start with an “ice-breaker”, and eventually discuss the global outcome of the learning units with
learners and emphasize the assessment process.
Topics:
● Ice Breaker

● Course expectations

● Assessment Criteria

● Learner’s Responsibilities

Training Ground Rules

Discuss the training session ground rules with learners to avoid disturbance during the session, and
topics may include:
● Learning Units estimated time

● Ethical behavior

● Cellular phones – (off/silent)

● Breaks – (tea, lunch….)

Write down the training session ground rules and keep them posted in the classroom for the duration
of the session.

Discuss the Learning Outcomes introduction with the learners and ensure the following:
● All learners participate in the discussion by asking them relevant questions.

● Learners complete the activity in their learner workbooks.

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 Session 1
Use and care for the tools and equipment in the planting of a specific crop.
SO 1
✔ Tools are used correctly in order to plant a specific crop.
Learning
Outcomes ✔ Equipment is used correctly in order to space plants according to the
(Assessment requirements of a specific species.
Criteria)
✔ Tools are cleaned and returned to storage in good order.

Activity
1
Describe how tools are used correctly in order to plant a specific crop?

There are many hundreds of different types of crops available for the farmer to grow. The activity
of cropping makes use of many different resources and requires the physical labour of many
people and machinery to be applied correctly. A basic knowledge of the tools available for this
purpose and their correct usage will enable the planting of crops to be done more efficiently, easily
and at a lower cost.

The farmer may have access to tractors and ploughs and specialized planting machinery for this
purpose, yet many crops are still planted by hand. For the purpose of this unit standard only hand
tools will be discussed. Use of the correct tools will make this job significantly easier

Activity
2
Explain how equipment is used correctly in order to space plants according to the
requirements of a specific species?
Some of the tools required for planting of crops and their specific uses include the following:

Spades and shovels

Spades and shovels are used for digging holes and trenches, for transplanting trees and shrubs and
for scooping compost, manure and fertiliser. Many styles are available, each designed for a
particular purpose.

Forks:
Forks are available in three different sizes, small, medium and large. A large fork is similar in size to a
large spade and is used to loosen soil and break-up clods. A medium fork is used for digging up bulbs
and tubers such as when harvesting root crops like potatoes. Hay or compost forks are used for
turning or moving hay and compost. A small hand fork can be used in small seedbeds.

Rakes:
Are used to level off freshly turned soil before
planting or sowing the crop. A rake has a handle like a
broom and a cross piece made out of iron or heavy-
duty plastic teeth.
Trowel: A small or narrow trowel can also be used
for digging holes in the soil for planting of seedlings
and bulbs. Trowels have a shaped wooden handle
which fits into the palm of the hand. A trowel allows
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the operator to take better care of seedlings and more
precisely manipulate soil, fertilizer, etc
Hoes: A hoe is a long handled tool which is used to cultivate between cropping rows and cut
through weeds while tilling the soil. A hoe has a sharp blade that can be either narrow or broad.
Wheelbarrow:
A wheelbarrow is used to carry tools, fertilizer, seed and seedlings from
on area to the next.
Other tools:
Many other tools may be required depending on the crop type that is
cultivated. Your facilitator will show these to you during practical field
activities.

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 Session 2 Handle planting material correctly for the successful establishment of a
SO 2 specific crop
✔ Planting areas are prepared to suit the selected planting material.

✔ Plant material that is on hand for planting is kept moist and sheltered.

Learning ✔ Newly planted material that will not survive is removed and replaced with new
Outcomes
material.
(Assessment
Criteria) ✔ Diseased plants are removed from the planting area to prevent contact with
healthy plants.
✔ Basic hygiene standards are maintained, such as cleaning tools to prevent cross-
contamination.

Activity
3
Why is it important to water newly planted material?

During dry land production seed is planted in moist soil, normally after rain. Where production is
under irrigation, the sown seed should be irrigated.

In the vegetable and ornamental crop industry, the crop is established using seedlings. During
planting the seedlings must be kept moist and protected from exposure to direct sun in order to
prevent drying and wilting. After planting the seedlings must be well watered to allow the soil to
settle around the root system. All weak damaged or diseased seedlings must be discarded.
Watering young seedlings can be a tricky job as you do not want your medium to dry out but
you don't want it too wet either. Usually when the top «" of the soil appears dry, you should
water. Use a mister or a fine stream watering can to water seedlings. We recommend that
whenever possible to water your seedlings from below to help to prevent "Damping Off"
disease. To water from below, place your containers in a tray filled with water until the soil
becomes moist (not soggy) and then remove.
Cuttings are mostly used for planting flower crops such as chrysanthemums and carnations and
other ornamental plants. Litchi orchards can also be established by using air layered cuttings.
Cuttings do not have taproots and, the root system may be poorly developed at the time of
planting. As in the case of seedling it is therefore essential that cuttings are protected during
planting. Planted cuttings must be watered well after the planting process.

Activity
4
Discuss the process involved in planting of deciduous fruit trees
Grafted trees on rootstocks are used to establish orchard tree crops. Deciduous fruit trees are often
supplied dormant plants with the roots uncovered. These are planted in spring before the onset of
start sprouting. If the trees arrive before the soil preparation is incomplete, or if weather conditions
are unfavorable for planting, the trees can be stored in a cold room until planting. Make sure that the
roots are kept moist.
If some of the newly planted crops wilt and perform poorly or should die it must be removed and be
disposed of in a way that would not spread diseases etc. These plants must then be replaced
before the end of the planting season.

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 Activity
5
Discuss the process involved in planting of subtropical fruit trees
Subtropical fruit trees are supplied primarily in planting bags and can be planted any time of the
year. After planting the stems are covered to protect them against sunburn and herbicides applied
between the rows. Newly planted trees must be irrigated well. Irrigation systems are usually
installed before
Trees are planted.

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 Session 3
Describe the basic effects of the environment on specific crops.
SO 3
✔ The basic effect of temperature and humidity on seedlings is explained.

Learning ✔ Plants suffering from root shock are identified and the cause explained.
Outcomes
✔ The best time of the day for transplanting is identified.
(Assessment
Criteria) ✔ The effect of heat on transplanted seedlings is explained.

Activity
6
What different specific factors that one needs to look at when selecting a site for growing a
specific crop, discuss in details.

Soil
Most crops can grow in almost any soil type with the exception of extremely poor sandy soil and
very heavy clay soil. One must keep in mind however that you want to create the optimum growing
conditions for the crop plant. If grown under optimum conditions the crop will provide optimum
yields. It is therefore ideal if you could select the soil type to which the crop is best suited. Such
information can be obtained from agricultural soil analyses facilities and crop institutions. Once
you have the information on ideal soil types etc., you can select fields suited to the crop you want
to establish. This is especially important for tree crops as establishment costs are high and returns
may only be provided a number of years after establishing the crop.
Topography
Topography refers to the Slope and Angle of the fields. Consider the angle at which sun shines on
the crop and height above sea level. Consider also the situation of the land in relation to
mountains or water bodies. These factors will influence weather factors such as frost, snow, the
frequency of rainfall etc.
Exposure of fields to wind
The more and the stronger the wind is that the plant is exposed to; the more difficult it is for the
plant to grow optimally. If you have no choice but to plant in windy areas, establish windbreaks to
protect your crop.
Exposure of fields to sunlight
The extent to which the crops are exposed to sunlight determines the amount of light exposure, as
well as the temperature to which plants will be exposed. The temperatures and sun exposure will
influence the growth of the crops. The amount of light and the length of day (number of hours of
light) could also be important in determining crop development and should be considered when
choosing a crop. High temperatures and arid, dry soil may cause root shock as the roots are taken
out of a moist, cool environment and exposed directly to harsh conditions. To avoid root shock one
must plant crops during the coolest time of day and water them properly. Make sure soil is moist
before planting. The best time of day to plant is in the late afternoon when the sun is not so hot,
and the wind has calmed down. By taking advantage of this time of day, the new plants have
overnight to acclimate.
Strong sun and wind are very hard on new transplants and unless you water carefully, and in some
cases provide some shelter from the wind and sun, they can severely wilt. This places your plants
under stress at the very beginning of their growing cycle and is not a good idea be
Humidity
The more humid an area, the higher the potential for more fungal growth. This is not desirable for
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many crop types, especially those susceptible to fungal infection. The changes in humidity during
the course of the season must also be taken into account. Water
The availability and quality of the water used for irrigating the crop is important. Having an
abundance of poor quality water is of no use to a crop producer. It may be required to put the water
through a cleaning or filtering process before use.
Air
Plants need a balanced amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in order to grow optimally. If they are
in an area where the air is polluted they will not be able to photosynthesized effectively, which will
lead to reduced growth.

Activity

7
What are the importances of soil preparation before crops are grown?

It is important to prepare the soil well, as this will provide long term benefits to your crop. Proper
soil preparation improves water penetration and retention. What follows is a summary of steps you
need to take should you have acquired a piece of land and want to plant a specific crop.

Step: Outcome: Action:

1 Make sure you choose Dig a profile pit of 1 x 1 x 3m (deep) in various parts of the field
the correct planting site. you want to cultivate.
Look at the soil depth.
Check for rock layers.
Look at the visible differences in soil layers.
Collect soil samples and have the soil chemistry analysed so that
you know what soil type you are dealing with and also know the
fertility of the soil. The analyses will also inform you as to the
challenges you might be up against. In addition, have the soil
analysed for soil pathogens and nematodes.
Look at what types of weeds or other plants are growing on the
specific area you want to cultivate.
Look at the types of pests or insects that may be prominent in the
area.
xLook at the crops being cultivated in the surrounds, and for how
long they have been there. This will give you an indication of
possible pest pressures.

2 Clearing the Field Remove all the shrubs, trees, rocks etc. from the sight.
Remember that you can’t just chop trees & shrubs down. You have to
dig them out and make sure that no roots are left behind.
Some trees are protected by law and may not be removed without
permission from Government.
Rip or plough the soil. This means that you have to loosen all the soil
in the area up to a depth of 1.2 meters.

Step: Outcome: Action:

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3 Till & Treat Tilling the topsoil i.e. ensures that the soil is fine and even and that
there are no lumps in between. This is especially important when
establishing seeds. In such cases a proper seedbed needs to be
prepared in order to get the best germination.
This can be done manually with a pitchfork or mechanically with a
plough and a disc.
xTreat the soil against weed.

4 Adjust for optimum If you have your soil analysed to see how fertile it is, the expert Soil
efficacy Scientists will also draw-up a list of actions you can take to
improve your soil. This is often done by adding Chemical
fertilisers or ameliorants.

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 Session 4 Plant planting stock at correct spacing between rows, between individual
SO 4 plants, and at the correct depth for specific plant species
✔ Seedlings are planted correctly, as per prescribed methods, under close
Learning supervision.
Outcomes
✔ Seedlings are placed in holes that are the correct depth for specific species.
(Assessment
Criteria) ✔ Seedlings are planted at the correct distance from each other, as per
instructions.

Activity

8
When planting seedlings, rooted cuttings or trees what is the general rule to apply
When planting seedlings, rooted cuttings or trees, a general rule is to plant the plants at the same
depth as they were growing in the seed trays, beds or Bags. The planting holes must be large
enough to accommodate the root ball.

No compost of fertilizer is required in the holes if the soil is well prepared. Once the plant has been
placed in the hole, the hole is filled with soil. Once completed, the soil must be slightly compacted
around the plant. Irrigate well after planting. Commercial seedling planters are available on the
market that can be used for large scale planting. These machines can be set according to the
required planting distance within rows and between rows as well as planting depth. They can also
apply fertilizer at the required rate and position at the same time.

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SAQA -116204: RECOGNISE PESTS, DISEASES AND WEEDS ON
CROPS

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 Session 1
Distinguish between insects and other classes of animals.
SO 1

✔ The broad classification of animals is explained.

Learning
Outcomes ✔ The broad classification of insects is explained
(Assessment
Criteria) ✔ The basic difference between the broad classifications of insects is
described.

Activity Questions Description Mark

1 Briefly explain how animals are classified?

1. Vertebrates are animals with backbones. Examples of vertebrates are fish, humans, birds
and snakes. Verbrates are categorized into 5 major groups:
• Fish
• Amphibia (Amphibians)
• Reptilia (Reptiles)
• Aves (Birds)
• Mammals
Invertebrates are animals that don't have backbones. About 97% of all animal species are
invertebrates. There are eight major groups called phyla of invertebrates:
• Sponge
• Cnidarians
• Echinoderms
• Flatworms
Radically symmetrical animals (such as anemones and sea stars) have body parts
organized around a central point and tend to be cylindrical in shape.
Bilaterally symmetrical animals (such as humans and fish) have their body parts arranged
the same way on both sides.
Activity Questions Description Mark
Explain how insects classified
2

Classification of insects
The Insecta (insects) are a Class of the large animal Phylum called ARTHROPODA
(arthropods) - a name that refers to the jointed limbs. The other major Classes of living
arthropods (i.e. animals related to insects) include the Crustacea (crabs, lobsters, shrimps,
barnacles, woodlice, etc.), the Myriapoda (millipedes, centipedes, etc.) and the Arachnida
(scorpions, king crabs, spiders, mites, ticks, etc.). In addition there are several minor
Classes, the Onychophora (velvet worms), Tardigrada (water bears), Pentastomida (tongue
worms) and Pycnogonida (sea spiders), all of which contain somewhat aberrant living forms
of uncertain likeness to the any of the preceding groups, and finally a Class of extinct
arthropods, the Trilobita (trilobites), known only from their fossil remains. All these animals
are characterized by a tough outer body-shell or exoskeleton, with flexible joints between the
skeletal plates to allow the animal to move.
The main external body features which distinguish each of the four major Classes of living
arthropods, Crustacea, Myriapoda, Arachnida and Insecta, are shown below.
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Each of the Classes of arthropods, including the insects, are split into a number of smaller
groups, which reflect progressively more detailed structural similarities between the group
members. These smaller groups follow a strict hierarchy. The major class divisions in
descending order of common features are called Subclass, Order, Suborder, Family,
Subfamily, Genus and finally the species belonging to the same genus.
The scientific name of a species includes, first, the Genus to which it belongs and, second,
its specific name, e.g. A kind of fruit fly is called Ceratitis capitata meaning the specific kind
capitata in the genus Ceratitis (by convention, generic and specific names are always printed
in italics. The generic name spelt with a capital letter and the specific name with a small
letter).
Activity Questions Description Mark
Describe the basic difference between the broad
3
classifications of insects

What do insects look like?

Insects are distinguished from other animals by the following morphological characteristics:
• Insects are arthropods and have an exoskeleton i.e. the skeleton is on the outside of the
body. Other animals have the skeleton on the inside as in dogs, humans and reptiles etc.
• The body is divided into three distinct parts, a head, thorax and abdomen. With the exception
of arthropods, other animals are not divided into three distinct parts.
• The head usually carries one pair of antennae and mouth-parts.
• They have six legs, attached to the thorax. This is the only group of animals that have three
pairs of legs.
• Winged species normally have one or two pairs of wings also attached to the thorax.

Figure 1.1 Diagram of an insect showing morphological features

• Some insects have wings (moths, fruit flies and bees) and others don’t (ants and beetles).
• Insects lay eggs and mammals give birth to live animals.
• Insects are cold blooded. This means that they can cool themselves down by staying in cold,
moist places and keep their temperature high by sitting in the sun or on warm surfaces

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 Session 2 Describe the general anatomy of an insect and where the crop
SO 2 damaging appendages are found.

✔ The different broad anatomical parts of an insect are explained.

✔ The difference between an insect and other animal classes is

Learning broadly described.
Outcomes
✔ The location of the mouthparts is discussed.
(Assessment
Criteria) ✔ The different types of mouthparts found are described.

✔ The different types of appendages found on the abdomen are

described.

Activity Questions Description Mark

4 Give an explanation on the different anatomical parts of an

insect.

Insects have no backbone and their body is divided into:

• A head and thorax.
• Abdomen.
• Six legs.
• Sometimes they have one pair of antennae.
• Sometimes they have wings.

Activity Questions Description Mark

5 Describe the difference between an insect and other animal

classes.

Insects can be divided into groups according to their feeding habits, similar to the
classification in other animals. The groups of plant feeders, predators, scavengers and
parasites can be distinguished. In this session we will concentrate on insects that use plants
as food source.
On the basis of the plants that insects feed on insects can be further divided on the basis of
the plants they feed on. Insects that feed on a single plant species are known as
monophagous insects, those that feed on related species are oligophagous, and those that
feed on a variety of plants are polyphagous insects.
Furthermore insect are classified as those with biting-chewing mouth parts and those with
sucking mouth parts. Insects with biting-chewing mouth parts include caterpillars of moths
and beetles, leaf miners, stem borers and stalk borers. Those with sucking mouth parts
suck the plant sap from plant tissues. The best known of this type of insects is probably
aphids.

Activity Questions Description Mark

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 6 Discuss the location of the mouthparts as outlined in your
leaner guide.

The mouthparts of insects are found on the head of the insect. The mouthparts of different
insects are designed for specific feeding habits. Some insects have chewing mouthparts
such as in grasshoppers where others have sucking mouthparts for sucking their food such
as in flies, butterflies and mosquitoes.
1. Labrum
2. Mandibles
3. Labial palps
4. Labium
5. Maxillary palps
6. Maxillae
7. Compound eye
8. Ocellus (one of three)
The chewing mouth parts (Grasshopper)
• One pair of mandibles (used for tearing and chewing).
• One pair of maxillas (with serrated edge. used for grinding and cutting).
• The labrum (sensory upper lip to keep food from falling out).
• The labium (sensory lower lip to keep food from falling out).
● The hypo pharynx (sensory tongue structure).

When a flower with nectar in it is located, the butterfly inserts its tube (its proboscis) into the
flower and sucks up the nectar, so obviously butterflies have sucking mouthparts

Activity Questions Description Mark

7 Describe the different types of mouthparts found as outlined

in your leaner guide

On the picture below you see the head of a mosquito. Of course mosquitoes are famous for
being "flying syringes" as they fly about finding animals from which they suck blood using
their specialized mouth parts. In the picture you can clearly see the proboscis, the "needle"
part of the "syringe." The antenna and pulp help the mosquito feel. Actually, the proboscis is
not nearly as simple in construction as a hypodermic needle. As the drawing on the left
shows, the proboscis has a groove down its front inside which reside several extremely
slender, sharp, saw-toothed stylets. If you ever watch a mosquito "biting" you, try to notice
that the entire proboscis does not enter your skin.
Instead, as in the drawing, its thick outer part, known as the sheath, bends, or "buckles," as
the mosquito inserts its stiff stylets into your body. These stylets hold together in a way that
allows blood to be sucked up.

Activity Questions Description Mark

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 Describe the different types of appendages found on the
8 4
abdomen as outlined in your leaner guide.

The appendages of the abdomen of Insects

The Insect abdomen has different functions like:
• Reproduction (carrier of genitals) - the 8th to 10th segments of the abdomen normally
carry appendages that are involved in reproduction.
• Cercus - waste products are excreted through the Cercus.
• Spiracles. Insects respire through spiracles located on the sides of the insect. There
are usually 4 on the thorax and 16 on the abdomen. Some water-breathing insects have gill-
like structures rather than spiracles.
• Protective appendages. In some insects protective appendages are carried. An
example is the sting of a bee.

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 Session 3
Explain the different life cycles of an insect
SO 3
✔ The different life cycles in the life of an insect are described.

✔ The difference between the two is explained

Learning
Outcomes ✔ A complete metamorphosis is explained by using an example
(Assessment
Criteria) ✔ An incomplete metamorphosis is explained by using an example

✔ The effect of these lifecycles on the control methods applied is

discussed.

Activity Questions Description Mark

9 Describe different life cycles in the life of an insect. 4

Metamorphosis refers to the way that insects develop, grow, and change form.
Metamorphosis actually means "change". There are two types of metamorphoses--
incomplete and complete.
Complete Metamorphosis
About 88% of all insects go through complete metamorphosis. Complete metamorphosis has
four stages:
• Egg - A female insects lays eggs.
• Larva - Larvae hatch from the eggs. They do not look like adult insects. They usually
have a worm-like shape Caterpillars, maggots, and grubs are all just the larval stages of
insects. Larvae molt their skin several times and they grow slightly larger.
• Pupa - Larvae make cocoons around themselves. Larvae don't eat while they're
inside their cocoons. Their bodies develop into an adult shape with wings, legs, internal
organs, etc. This change takes anywhere from 4 days to many months.
• Adult - Inside the cocoon, the larvae changes into adults. After a period of time, the
adult breaks out of the cocoon
Incomplete Metamorphosis
About 12% of all insects go through incomplete metamorphosis. Incomplete metamorphosis
has three stages.
• Egg - A female insect lays eggs. These eggs are often covered by an egg case which
protects the eggs and holds them together.
• Nymph - The eggs hatch into nymphs. Nymphs looks like small adults, but usually
don't have wings. Insect nymphs eat the same food that the adult insect eats. Nymphs shed
or molt their exoskeletons (outer casings made up of a hard substance called chitin) and
replace them with larger ones several times as they grow. Most nymphs molt 4-8 times.
Adult - The insects stop molting when they reach their adult size. By this time, they have also
grown wings

Activity Questions Description Mark

10 The difference between the two is explained 5

The process in which the insect “loses its skin”, replacing it with a new one in known as moulting.
The development stages after moulting are known as instars. In most insects the instars that

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develop are not alike look different. The change in morphology of instars within single species is
known as metamorphosis. Insect are divided into two groups, those with incomplete or complete
metamorphosis.
Insects where metamorphosis is simple – incomplete metamorphosis

Figure 3.1 Diagram illustrating incomplete metamorphosis as found in the Leafhopper. A: egg, B – F
First to Fifth instars, G: Adult.

Activity Questions Description Mark

11 use an example to complete metamorphosis as explained 5

Complete metamorphosis is one of the three ways that insects reach the adult stage. Most insects,
about 87%, undergo it. Butterflies and moths are the best known example of complete
metamorphosis.
Butterflies, skippers, and moths are all members of the order Lepidoptera. Among them, moths have
by far the largest numbers. There are five families of butterflies worldwide, one family of the closely
related skippers, and 125 families of moths. Many people wonder how to tell the difference between
butterflies and moths. Some people think they know, but it is not so simple. It is commonly believed
that moths are dull colored or white, while butterflies are brighter. This is true to a degree, but there
are plenty of bright moths, such as the Uraniid moth, Chrysiridia madagascarensis, which has intense
iridescent colors, and is one of the most vivid of the Lepidopterae. A number of butterflies, on the
other hand, resemble dried leaves or dust. Another determinant is thought to be the way the wings are
held when the butterfly or moth lands. Moths hold their wings flat when at rest, while butterflies hold
theirs together above their bodies. Again, this is generally true, but not completely reliable. Geometrid
moths rest with their wings up, like butterflies, while Riodininae and Pyrginae butterflies hold their
wings flat as if they were moths. Possibly the most reliable way to tell them apart is the presence or
absence of a frenulum or a jugum. Moths have a mechanism that hooks their double wings together in
flight. Most have a frenulum, a strong bristle or group of bristles on the front base of the hind wing that
catches on a special mass of scales or hairs on the corresponding front wing. It works something like
Velcro, to hold the two wings as a single structure in flight. A smaller group of moths have a different
structure, the jugum, which is a sort of lobe on the front wing that slips over the edge of the back wing.
Butterflies, as a rule, lack either structure. Their double wings are held together in flight by a broad
overlap at their base. This would be a universal way to tell them apart, except that an Australian

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skipper, the Regent Skipper, Euschemon rafflesia, has a frenulum. And, as it happens, quite a few
moths lack one.
Many believe that moths fly by night and butterflies by day, and this is almost true. Butterflies in
general do only fly in the daytime or at dusk, but there are numbers of diurnal moths, ones that fly by
daylight.

Activity Questions Description Mark

12 use an example to explain an incomplete metamorphosis

The process of incomplete metamorphosis is set out below:

The insect hatches from the egg as larvae called nymphs. The larvae and the adult insects are
similar in appearance. There are no pupae. The larvae and adults live in the same habitat and the
use the same food source. Examples of these types of insects are locusts and cockroaches.
Insects with more complex metamorphosis – complete metamorphosis.

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Incomplete metamorphosis is the gradual development of an insect into its adult stage. It is
characterized by the absence of the pupal stage which exists in complete metamorphosis. Complete
metamorphosis, such as what a butterfly goes through, involves four stages: egg, larva, pupa and
adult. Incomplete metamorphosis varies in that it only involves three stages: egg, nymph and adult

Read more:
Egg
The first stage of incomplete metamorphosis is the egg stage. The female insect lays the eggs. The
eggs are sometimes contained in an egg case that keeps them together and protected. The earliest
development happens during this stage; the insect takes form and will usually develop everything
except the wings. The gestation period for the eggs varies greatly depending on the variety of insect.

Nymph
When the eggs hatch, the nymphs emerge. Nymphs look like small adult insects but they are lacking
wings, and organs may still be underdeveloped. Nymphs will eat the same diet as their adult versions.
As they grow and developt they will go through periods of molting, where they shed their exterior
skeletons and grow new ones. Nymphs generally molt four to eight times in their growth cycle

Adult
Once nymphs have reached their full development in terms of size, they will stop the molting process.
At this stage they are now fully formed adult insects. During their molting process, insects that have
wings will have also grown wings. The length of life of an adult insect varies by species

Activity Questions Description Mark

13 Discuss the effect of these lifecycles on the control methods

applied

Control, which combine chemical and non-chemical control methods. Non-chemical pest control
includes physical control, agricultural control, natural control as well as biological control.
Insect control practices are detailed below:
Natural control
Natural control is concentrated around the environmental factor, which prevent increases in pest
numbers and their distribution. It also includes the presence of natural pest enemies in the
environment.
Physical control

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Physical control occurs when there is a physical or mechanical action that causes control of a
pest. It includes physical changes in the environment that will lead to control of the pest.
Physical control methods include:
● Physical removal of the pest by hand, which is impossible in a crop situation.

● Mechanical exclusion of the pest such as fly screens on windows.

● Mechanical traps i.e. those that are non toxic, such as sticky traps and electric traps.

● Manipulation of the environment has limited application, but can be used with success in
processes such as dehydration, low relative humidity and regulating temperature.
● Control through agricultural practices.

● Pest control through agricultural practices or cultural control is used in the large-scale
cultivation of crops. It is relatively cheap and environmentally friendly. Such practices
include:
● Ploughing in of host plants for pests

● Sanitation practices

● Destroying of remnants of pest infested crops

● Crop rotation

● Mixed cultivation

● Strip cropping

● Establishment of trap crops

● Cultivation of pest resistant crops

Biological control
Biological control is the manipulation of pest enemies such as parasites, predators and
pathogens in such a fashion that pest numbers are reduced. Biological control agents for pests
are specific to a pest species, and once established can increase and spread independently
making the control self-perpetuating. The control is however expensive, slow and the pest
cannot be eliminated even for short periods of time.
Genetic manipulation
Genetic manipulation of the pest or the crop plant can be employed as a pest control strategy. The
release of sterile male pest insect into a normal population has been shown effective in parasitic fly
pests in Central America. Sterilisation can be achieved through radiation of chemically. The
process is however expensive.
Manipulation of the genetics of crop plants can produce pest resident crops. This can be achieved
by producing a plant that will repel the pest, or the production of a crop that produces toxic
compounds. An alternative is a crop plant where growth is stimulated through insect attack, the
crop thus compensates for the losses due to the pest. An example of this is found in soybean
plants.
Chemical pest control
Chemical pest control is done using pesticides. The term pesticides refer to the wide spectrum of
agrochemicals used in plant protection.
Pesticides include herbicides (plant or weed killers), insecticides, rodenticides (rodent killers),
avicides (bird killers), molluscicides (snail killers) and acaracides (mite killers). Insecticides are
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classified in three major groups according to their mode of action, the contact insecticides, systemic
insecticides and those with stomach action. Contact insecticides enter the insect primarily through
the exoskeleton and do not penetrate the leaves and are not translocated through the plant,
whereas systemic insecticides must be taken in through feeding.
The compounds are taken up by the plant and translocated throughout the plant. Insects with
sucking feeding habit are the primary targets of systemic compounds. Stomach poisons must be
ingested and is absorbed in the stomach of the insect. Fumigants are pesticides in a gaseous for
and enter the insect through the respiratory system. Pesticides with translaminar action, penetrate
the leaves of plants, but are not translocated through the plant.
Insecticides are classified according to their chemical structure. There are four major groups of
compound that can be distinguished. The organochlorines insecticides are primarily contact or
stomach poisons that affect the nervous system through disruption of impulse conduction. The
best-known pesticide in this group is DDT.
The organophosphate insecticides are also nerve impulse disrupters. The majority of these
compounds are contact killers, but some organophosphate act as stomach poisons and systemic
compounds.
The carbamates have the same mode of action as the organophosphates. The active ingredient
carbaryl and aldicarb fall in this group.

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 Session 4
Identify and explain the damage insects cause
SO 4

✔ The damage caused by the feeding habits of certain insects is

described.
Learning ✔ The damage caused by certain insects by stinging or laying their
Outcomes
eggs into the crop or animal it attacks is described
(Assessment
Criteria) ✔ The damage caused by certain insects by being vectors for other
pests and diseases is discussed.
✔ How this affects the methods of control of these insects is explained.

Activity Questions Description Mark

14 What are the damages caused by the feeding habits of certain

insects

Insects damage crops through biting, sucking, chewing and egg laying. These actions may have
minor or major consequences for the crop.
● Examples of biting damage: Snout beetles Bite holes in leaves and stems of crop
plants. The beetle may even attack young fruit. Damage can thus be indirect on the
leaves, reducing productivity, or directly on the harvested product.
● Examples of sucking damage: Leafhoppers and aphids suck the sap through the leaf
veins. The insects tend to attack the underside of the leaf blade. On young leaves this
causes deformation or dead areas spots on the leaves and young stems.
Examples of chewing damage: Grasshoppers chew holes in young leaves and shoots.
When the hoppers swarm, they can destroy vast cropped areas.

Activity Questions Description Mark

What are the damages caused by certain insects by stinging or
15 4
laying their eggs into the crop

● Direct damage – is the damage caused to the marketable crop product, directly by the insect.
This class of damage is found predominantly with biting-chewing insects an example of which
is fruit fly damage to fruit.

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 o Figure 4.1 Direct damage to apples caused by fruit fly.

● Indirect damage occurs to a marketable product which occurs as a secondary effect of insect
feeding. This occurs especially due to insects with sucking feeding habit. An example of this

type of damage is aphids sucking on plant sap decreasing crop yields potential.

● Figure 4.2 Indirect damage caused by maize stalk borer

Cosmetic damage occurs where the insect damage is caused to the marketable
product, but the damage is of a cosmetic nature, and thus a consumer issue. An
example is that of citrus scale damage where the citrus is marketable but the
product is of lower fiscal value.

Activity Questions Description Mark

What are the damages caused by certain insects by being
16 7
vectors for other pests and diseases

The mealy bug and aphids that suck sap from leaves, shoots and young fruit, produces honeydew
on which a black, sooty mould develops. This leads to unsightly fruit, which are unacceptable for
marketing. Ants associated with aphids have no effect on the mould.
The mealy bug and other sucking insects can also act as vectors for viruses and bacteria, and
spread these diseases throughout the crop.
Remains of the crop of the previous season often serve as a source of infection of the new crop on
the same field.
Virus Vector Groups
Most vectors of plant viruses are sucking insects in the order Homoptera
(considered the order Hemiptera by most recent classifications). Their small stylets allow vectors to
introduce virus into plant cells or vascular tissues with minimal feeding damage. Aphids (Aphididae)
transmit the greatest variety of plant viruses. Next in importance are the whiteflies (Aleyrodidae),
followed by the leafhoppers (Cicadellidae) and planthoppers (Fulgoroidea). Some viruses have
mealybug vectors (Pseudococcidae), and various other hemipteran families have virus vector species.
Only a few viruses are transmitted by thrips (Order Thysanoptera), but their economic impact is
internationally important. However, some important viruses require leaf beetle (Chrysomelidae) or
weevil (Curculionidae) vectors. Viruses transmitted by beetles (order

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Coleoptera) seem to be best able to withstand, perhaps even require, the severe tissue damage
caused by beetle vector feeding that inoculates the virus into plants.
The microscopic bud or gall mites in the family Eriophyidae are the most important of the noninsect
arthropods that are virus vectors.
Vectors and Fungi
Insect feeding damage can cause wounds that promote the invasion of fungi that damage plants or
their fruit.
A variety of sucking insects that feed on fruits can introduce the fungus Nematospora corylii, which
causes yeast spot disease of bean, coffee, cotton, and a variety of other crops. The feeding of a
sucking insect, the grape phylloxera, causes lesions on the roots of grapevines that are invaded by
soil fungi that deteriorate the roots.
Dutch elm disease is a representative example of a disease caused by a beetle-transmitted fungus,
Ophiostoma ulmi.

Activity Questions Description Mark

17 How this affects the methods of control of these insects 7

The principal methods to control crop disease spread by vectors limit vector acquisition of
the pathogen or prevent infective vectors from transmitting to susceptible crops. The impact
of insecticides for vector control on disease spread depends on the vector transmission
characteristics of the pathogen, as previously discussed. Sanitation is most often used to
prevent vector acquisition. This requires the removal of diseased plants or insuring that new
plants are free of the targeted pathogen by using certified propagating materials. Physical
isolation of crops from exposure to vectors can be used in greenhouses or by growing crops
in regions where the vector populations are very low. Varying planting dates can be used to
avoid peak periods of vector activity if these can be reliably predicted and do not cause
unacceptable losses in yields or quality. Using resistant varieties of plants is a highly
effective control if genetic resistance is available. Molecular methods of producing new
varieties promise to increase the availability of resistant

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 Session 5 Scout for insects (pests and beneficial insects), disease symptoms
SO 5 and weeds.

✔ Pests and beneficial insects on specific crops are recognized and

reported
Learning
Outcomes ✔ Observe and report on any Damage, or disease symptoms is
(Assessment reported and observed.
Criteria) ✔ Monitoring of pests after chemical application is supported.

✔ Hygiene measures (personal, equipment and plant) are applied

Activity Questions Description Mark

recognize and report pests and beneficial insects on specific
18 7
crops

Scouting for pests in crops is an important operation and should be done at regular intervals. On
large-scale commercial farms, experienced scouts scout cropped fields at regular intervals in order to
survey for the presence of pest and disease organisms. The scouting procedure also includes the
determination of population numbers and the extent of damage to the crop. Insect traps such as sticky
and pheromone strips can assist in determining population numbers. When population numbers
exceed a set threshold value, action will be taken to address the problem.
In an integrated pest control system, beneficial organisms can be introduced to keep population
numbers of pest insects down. Spraying with ‘mild’ pesticides are applied when population numbers
exceed the threshold values

5.1 Monitor for pests and diseases

Why pests should be monitored.
In order to prevent crop damage from insects and diseases it is essential that crops be inspected
regularly. These inspections should be done regularly and could be done in conjunction with
inspections for weed densities and crop nutrient and water status.
Crop monitoring indicates the pest status and extent of the crop diseased. In this way the crop
producer remains informed of the health status of his crop. Information on the crop disease and pest
status enables the farmer to make decisions on whether control actions need to be taken, and select
a suitable control action.

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In this way the farmer can e.g. chemically treat crops as and when required instead of according to a
strict spraying programme. In this way the amount of pesticide applied and labour inputs can be
reduced, reducing the crop production costs.
The monitoring process is generally known as scouting. Scouting is used to identify pest species
present as well as the extent of infestation of the pest. This can also be applied to crop diseases. In
the case of crop disease it is not always possible to identify or see the causal agent of disease. Thus,
when monitoring for crop disease the scouting process is aimed at identifying symptoms of disease,
rather than collecting, identifying and counting individual pests. Plant samples can be collected for
identification by experts.
Pest control programmes are based on infestation thresholds as well as economic thresholds for pest
control. The programmes take into account the growth stages of the crop plant and relate this to pest
infestation rates. This aids in evaluating the vulnerability of the crop and the potential for damage that
exists. The occurrence of natural pest enemies and pathogens must also be taken into account in the
monitoring process.
The monitoring process starts with surveys. Monitoring techniques exist to aid in crop survey. The two
most useful survey techniques are the transect and step-wise method scouting or placement of traps.
Both techniques require the investigator to walk through a field, then stopping and sampling or
scouting or counting at pre determined, set intervals. Where scouting is done for diseases the
monitor should collect leaf, shoot, bud and fruit samples for identification by experts. Where the
presence of diseases is suspected samples must be collected and sent for analysis and identification
by an expert The transect scouting method involves scouting along a line across a field. The line can
be diagonally across the field or parallel to the side of the field.
When using the transect scouting method a minimum of five sampling points per hectare should be
selected.
When using the stepwise scouting method the scout starts in the middle of one side of the field.
The scout moves forward and to his right stopping at pre determined distances. Once he has

crossed the whole field, the scout moves to the point of origin and repeats the exercise, but now
moving forward and to his left. A maximum distance 5 m should be used as pre set distance.
Once samples of insects or diseased plant parts have been collected the insects and diseases are
identified. Counts of the number of pests are done to determine infestation rates. Based on the
identity of the pest and degree of infestations, crop information and environmental information a
management strategy can be implemented.
At the pre-determined intervals using either of the scouting methods, sampling techniques for insect
collection can be used. Sampling techniques generally used in pest monitoring are set out below:
● Shake and beat method: involves placing plastic sheeting under the crops then shaking the
plants or beating them with a sick and insect which fall on the sheeting are then collected.
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● Knock- down sampling: an insecticide is applied to a small area within the target area,
which kills all insects present. Similarly to the shake and beat method, insects are collected
on a pre-set plastic sheet.
● Baits containing insecticides: can be used to attract and sample insects. Insecticide laced
molasses is an example Mites can be sampled by brushing the crop leaves onto a glass
sheet. Alternatively the mites can be brushed onto paper, the paper flattened and the stains
on the paper counted.
● Sweep nets are used to sample for flying insects such as leaf-miners. The net made from
suitable material is swept across the plants and insects so collected.

● Malaise traps are used for active insects and consist of an open-ended tent like net
with one end open. A container for trapping the insects is placed at the highest end.
● Sticky traps are made from suitable surface cover in sticky surface. The sticky trap
can be baited to attract certain species. The trapping efficacies of these type of
traps are influenced by environmental conditions and the positioning of the trap.
● Water traps are suitable containers containing water to which a soapy substance
and a preservative is added erected 1 m above soil level. The traps are suitable
especially for trapping aphids.
● Sucking traps are basically modified vacuum apparatus, which sucks the insects
into a net.
● A light trap is a lamp, usually ultraviolet, surrounded by a vertical baffle at the top of
a funnel–shaped container, and a sampling container at the bottom.
● Pheromone traps are used for moths and butterflies. Pheromones (sexual
hormones) of the target species is placed in a suitable container. The traps are set
up over a large area and are suitable for monitoring of populations and also for
pesticide application timing.
● Pit fall traps are containers with a small volume of preservative which are placed
into the soil so that the open end is level with the soil surface. These traps are
effective for insects that live on the soil surface.
● Soil sampling for soil dwelling insects can be done by using and auger soil coring
device or a blade sampler. It is important that the volume of soil is known, so that
the infestation per volume can be calculated.
●

● 5.2 Pests and beneficial insects on specific crops are recognized and reported

● Not all insects are pests

● Some insects are beneficial to the crop. A beneficial insect is an insect that
influences the crop in a positive way. The ladybird, for example, is a natural
predator and feeds on pest such as aphids that damage crops.

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● Bees are also beneficial because they ensure pollinations of the flowers of crop
plants, which may ultimately determine the harvest.
● The presences of beneficial insects have advantages such as:

● Reduced costs of pest control.

● Beneficial insects are environment friendly.

● Beneficial insects provide a natural way to control pests.

● The balance in the environment is not disturbed through releasing harmful

components.
● Their presence contributes to restoring the balance in the food-chain.

● In the following section a number of examples of beneficial insects are provided.

● Many species of ladybird have an enormous appetite for aphids one of the most common
crop pests. Other ladybirds prefer scale insects and mites and are very effective in reducing
infestations
● Ladybug larvae are equally relentless predators. Their colourful, but ferocious appearance
often causes unknowing growers to assume that they are harmful. Nothing could be further
from the truth
● The praying mantis is a widely recognized insect predator. Nymphs and adults alike predate
insects, which stray too close, then strike out to grab it with their modified front legs.
● Ambush bugs use the same lie-in-wait tactic. Their front legs are enlarged and modified
similarly to those of the Praying mantis.
● The larvae of common lacewings are miniature monsters when viewed at close range. They
are deadly enemies of small caterpillars, aphids, and other soft-bodied insects.
● The lowly ground beetle, commonly found under logs and debris feed on a wide variety of
insects.
● Less common, but still important, robber flies are deadly enemies of grasshoppers, wasps,
and other flies, which they capture on the wing. Some of their prey is as large as or larger
than they are.
● Tachinid flies are parasites of other insects. This fly has laid its small white eggs just above
the legs of the caterpillar in front of it. Upon hatching, the fly maggots will burrow through
their hosts skin and feed on its internal organs. The caterpillar will die just as the larvae
emerge and complete their development.
● In addition to these flies, many small wasps are important parasites of other insects. It is very
difficult to measure how important these insects are, but there is no doubt that they are
extremely valuable allies to us. Without their behind-the-scenes help, our pest problems
would be infinitely worse.

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● The benefit of insects, which pollinate flowers, is somewhat easier to estimate since without
them there would be no apples, pears, cherries, citrus fruit, nuts, berries, coffee, melons,
cucumbers, squash, or many other common foods.

● The introduction of beneficial insects goes hand in hand with careful planning. Integrated
pest Management relies on integration of all potential pest management tools. It may
therefore be necessary to plan chemical application such that they are applied when

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 Session 6 Recognize that not all insects are pests, and that not all pests are
SO 6 insects.
✔ The difference between problem insects and beneficial (predatory)

Learning insects is discussed

Outcomes ✔ The fact that other animal classes can be pests to agricultural
(Assessment enterprises is explained.
Criteria)
✔ How the presence of beneficial insects affects the control methods of
pests is briefly explained

Activity Questions Description Mark

What is the difference between problem insects and
19 7
beneficial (predatory) insects?

Beneficial insects fall into a variety of categories, two of which are predators and parasites.
Predators hunt and feed on pests, while parasites hatch inside or on a pest, and then they
eat the pest as they grow.
First, we need to be able to recognize the difference between pests and beneficial insects.
Then try to minimize insecticide applications, because many insecticides will kill the
beneficials as well as the pests. We need to use selective insecticides that target a particular
pest and use spot-treatment if possible.
Maintain the habitat of beneficial insects by leaving crop residue on the ground and
preserving woodlots, windbreaks, fencerows, and un-mowed grassy ditch banks and
waterways. Finally, provide pollen, nectar sources, or artificial food.
Harmful insects attack or damage plants or eat the crop. Harmful insects are also vectors
that spread disease. Harmful insects can be controlled by introducing or maintaining
beneficial insects in the fields or orchards.

Many biological control agents do not have unique common names.

Aphidious testaceipes. A, adult male; B, Female laying eggs in

aphid; C, aphid mummies from which aphids had emerged

Beetle Loosestrife defoliating Galerucella pusilla

Leaf feeding (loosestrife) Galerucella calmariensis
Root boring Sphenoptera jugoslavica
Scotch broom seed-eating Bruchidius villosus
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 Klamath weed Chrysolina quadrigemina
Loosestrife defoliating Galerucella pusilla
Leaf feeding (loosestrife) Galerucella calmariensis
Root boring Sphenoptera jugoslavica
Scotch broom seed-eating Bruchidius villosus
Klamath weed Chrysolina quadrigemina
A Russian thistle bio control Coleophora parthenica
Borer St. John's wart Agrilus hyperici
Red-Headed spurge stem Oberea erythrocephala
Mite Gorse spider Tetranychus lintearius
Spurge shoot-tip gall Spurgia esulae
Moth Water hyacinth Sameodes albiguttalis
Nematode Stem-gall Subanguina picridis

Activity Questions Description Mark

Explain the fact that other animal classes can be pests to
20 7
agricultural enterprises.

Whether an insect species is a pest depends on the situation. A definition of "pest" is: animals causing
damage or annoyance to man, his animals, crops or possessions, such as insects, mites, nematodes,
rodents, birds. This means that a certain insect could be a pest in one situation, but the same insect
would be neutral in another situation. For example the caterpillars of Diamondback moth (Plutella
xylostella) feed on cabbage and other plants of the Cruciferae family. A farmer who grows cauliflower
or kale will therefore consider it a pest. But for a farmer who grows potatoes or bananas the
Diamondback moth is an innocent, neutral insect. As humans we have adapted the nickname pest for
other things as well. Let's say you were looking at apartments and the neighbors around you were
making so much noise at all the apartments you checked out. Those people would be called pests
and it might change your mind on choosing that apartment.

Activity Questions Description Mark

How does the presence of beneficial insects affects the
21 7
control methods of pests

Bees
You can encourage these diligent little plant pollinators to your garden by planting the flowering
shrubs and herbs they love - lavender, lemon balm, marjoram, hyssop, basil, coriander, thyme,
borage and mint.
Beetles
Just as bees should be encourage to call your field or orchard home, it is important not to see every
beetle as an enemy. Many are beneficial predators and feed on slugs, snails, caterpillars, cutworm,
moth larvae and small insect pests, even if they do chew the odd leaf of a prized rose bush as well.
Butterflies
Although their hatched eggs - as caterpillars - will damage crops, butterflies themselves do little harm
and help to pollinate many flowers. As with many aspects of companion planting, this is one area
where the aspiring organic garden may have to tolerate a less-than-perfect compromise.
Centipedes
Centipedes are very useful as they eat caterpillars, slugs and other pests and help break down
decaying garden waste.
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Earthworm
Most important to the success of agriculture planned along organic principles. They virtually create the
topsoil by depositing their mineral-rich castings back into the earth.
Earwig
They look like small beetles, the main difference being the pair of pincers they have at the end of their
body. On the positive side they eat small insects and their larvae, particularly codling moth. On the
negative side, they can also make quite a mess of your plants.
Hoverflies
Don't see these odd, wasp-shaped little insects as enemies. They are to be cherished as natural
predators, and significantly contribute towards the maintenance of a healthy garden. They prey on
scale insects, mealy bugs and mites. Their larvae eat aphids, codling moth larvae, caterpillars and
slugs.
Lacewings
Nature is often quite deceptive. The aptly named lacewing, with its beautiful, gauzy, iridescent wings
and huge golden eyes is actually one of the garden's most efficient assassins. In a single season, the
larvae of just one female lacewing - called 'aphid lions' or 'ant lions' because of their voracious
appetite - can eat over 13 million aphids in a most savage fashion.
Ladybirds
A most useful insect to have in the garden having a prodigious appetite for aphids, thrips and the
larvae of many leaf-eating insects. A single adult ladybird can devour up to 400 aphids a day.
Praying Mantises
A ferocious killer. Both the mantises and their larvae will kill and eat most beetles, bugs, wasps,
spiders, flies and caterpillars, helping to keep these pests at tolerable levels. Unfortunately, they will
also eat beneficial insects, like bees and other predatory wasps.
Spiders
Spiders come in an enormous variety of shapes and sizes and, to the uninitiated gardener; they can
all be seen as pests. However, spiders are extremely useful creatures. Natural predators, they feed
upon many insects which are a nuisance.
Wasps
Wasps need protein-rich food for their young and so often help the gardener by eating small insect
pests like slugs, codling moth larvae, thrips, stink bugs, weevils, grubs, caterpillars and scale insects.

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 Session 7 Name what causes diseases in plants and explain the basic life
SO 7 cycles of microbial diseases

✔ The differences between symptoms of plant deficiencies and plant

diseases are explained
Learning ✔ The different microbes that result in plant diseases are discussed
Outcomes
(Assessment ✔ The basic life cycles of fungal diseases are discussed.
Criteria)
✔ How a virus affects a plant is described

✔ The nature of a bacterial disease is described

Activity Questions Description Mark

What is the differences between symptoms of plant
22 7
deficiencies and plant diseases

Plant deficiencies result because of mineral shortages and can be classified as:
Chlorosis General yellowing of the leaf tissue. A very common deficiency
symptom, since many nutrients affect the photosynthesis process
directly or indirectly
Colouration abnormalities Some deficiencies lower the amount of photosynthesis and
chlorophyll which is produced by the plant. Other coloured
compounds can then become dominant. When normal nutrient
sinks are not available, the plants can store up excess sugars within
other compounds which have distinct colours of red, purple, or
sometimes brown. The absence of chlorophyll altogether causes
the plant to turn white.
Firing Yellowing, followed by rapid death of lower leaves, moving up the
plant and giving the same appearance as if someone touched the
bottom of the plants.
Interveinal Chlorosis Yellowing in between leaf veins, but with the veins themselves
remaining green. In grasses, this is called striping.
Necrosis Severe deficiencies result in death of the entire plant or parts of the
plant first affected by the deficiency. The plant tissue browns and
dies. This is called necrosis. The tissue which has already died on a
still living plant is called necrotic tissue.
Stunting Many nutrient deficiencies result in decreased growth. This can
result in shorter height of the affected plants.

Activity Questions Description Mark

23 Discuss the different microbes that result in plant diseases 7

Plant Diseases
A plant disease is a disturbance brought about by a factor, which interferes with the manufacture,
transport and utilisation of energy sources or mineral nutrients and water in such a way that, plant
growth is negatively affected. Plant diseases are caused by pathogens and environmental factors.
A plant pathogen is an organism which grows on a plant which provides growth factors. These
organisms are generally not capable of producing their own food sources. The pathogenic organisms
that cause disease are funguses, bacteria, mycoplasms, viruses and nematodes. Environmental
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factors which can cause plant diseases include temperature extremes, soil moisture extremes, and
light extremes, lack of oxygen, pollutants and nutrient stress. This section deals with the pathogenic
origins of plant diseases.

Activity Questions Description Mark

24 What is the basic life cycle of fungal diseases? 7

Fungal Diseases
Fungal diseases are caused by Fungi. Fungi are plants that do not contain chlorophyll and thus they
are not green and cannot convert sunlight energy to chemical energy. Fungi cannot produce
carbohydrates. The vegetative parts of fungi consist of thin filaments known as hyphae, which
masses together form a body or a mass known as a mycelium.

Figure 7.1 Diagrammatic representation of the fungal filaments, known as hyphae

(left) and a hyphal mass known as mycelium (right)

Fungi reproduce vegetatively through the filamentous hyphae and sexually through
spores. Fungi as a group is divided into two sub-groups; the slime moulds (lower
fungi) and the true fungi (higher fungi). Disease causing fungi are found in both these
groups.
● The lower fungi – diseases are caused by three distinct groups of lower fungi. These
diseases are discussed below:
● Diseases caused by lower fungi without hyphae - are soil borne diseases
that have a limited host range. The fungi rest and survive as resting spores
in soil or in infected plants. They spread through movement of infected plant
material, soil and water. Diseases of this nature are club root in crucifers,
powdery scab and wart disease in potato and maize brown leaf spot
● Diseases caused by lower fungi with hyphae and zoospores – these
fungi produce mycelium, form resting spores, produce living swimming
spores (zoospores) which infect plants and spread through infected soil,
infected plant material and through airborne sporangia. Examples of these
fungal diseases are downy mildew and late blight.
Fungal diseases caused by lower fungi with hyphae but without zoospores - produce mycelium,
produce air-borne thin walled spores and are generally weak parasites which grow on dead plant
material. These fungi will attack live plant tissue only if the plant is under stress. Examples of these
diseases are pumpkin fruit rot, vegetable soft rot, and bread mould and fruit rot

Activity Questions Description Mark

25 describe how a virus affects a plant 7

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 The major symptoms of virus infections are reduced growth, colour mosaics, ring
spots, stem pitting, chlorosis and leaf roll.
Figure 7.5 Chlorosis in streaks on maize leaves, caused by maize streak virus.

● Viruses are not transmitted through rain or wind.

● Virus transmission requires a vector.

● Viruses can be transmitted through movement of plant sap from infected to

uninfected plants, such as in grafting.
● Viruses are transmitted through infected seed stocks, through pollen, fungi and
especially insects.
● The most virulent plant diseases are transmitted through insect vectors.

Activity Questions Description Mark

26 Describe the nature of a bacterial disease 7
Bacterial Diseases
Spots, steaks and blights – these bacteria cause stripes and spots on the leaves, stems and fruit of
crop plants. In a few bacterial blights the leaf spots flow into each other. Symptoms are necrotic
spots, circular spots with a halo around it. When limited by leaf veins the spots may be angular. On
grass crops the symptoms are streaks and stripes rather than spots. Shot hole effects are visible
when the infected tissues fall out.

Figure 7.4 Bacterial black spot on plum fruit and leaves.

● Vascular wilt – found mainly on herbaceous crops where the bacteria multiply in the
vascular tissue, eventually blocking the transport system. The end result is wilting of the
plant and eventual die-back. Discoloration of vascular tissues is not uncommon.

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● Soft rot – enters plant tissues mainly through wounds and could spread through storage.
Leads to separation of plant tissue cells and tissue collapse.
● Galls – crown gall in woody species is cause by a bacterium.

● Cankers – causes splits and cankers in woody tissues. Spot formation on leaves and fruit
and die-back of buds and blossoms.
● Scab – the bacterium enters the plant tissue, and the plant cells around the point of entry
divide forming layers of corky cells, pushing the infected tissue out, forming the scabs.

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 Session 8
Explain the ways in which insects, diseases and weeds can spread.
SO 8
Learning ✔ The factors playing a role in the spreading of insects, diseases and
Outcomes
weeds are identified.
(Assessment
Criteria) ✔ The role of each of the factors is explained

Activity Questions Description Mark

What are factors playing a role in the spreading of insects,
27 7
diseases and weeds?.

The following factors will each play a role in the spreading of insects, diseases and weeds in their own
specific way. That will be discussed in the next topic.
Climate
Tourism
Regulatory regimes

Activity Questions Description Mark

28 explained the role of each of the factors 7

Climate
How does climate change affect agricultural pests and disease?
Climate change poses a threat to the control of pest and disease invasions. These "pests and
diseases" include insects, plant diseases, and invasive weeds. As climate variables continue to
change in the Central Valley, new pests and diseases may become able to invade previously
uninhabitable areas like Yolo County. Climate factors that aid in pest and disease invasions are
mostly temperature related and include increasing average temperatures, warmer winter minimum
temperatures, changes in precipitation patterns, and water shortages.
Tourism
With approximately 650 million tourists crossing international borders every year, the opportunities for
the introduction and spread of alien invasive species is profound and increasing . Travellers can
intentionally transport living plant and animal species that can become invasive or they can carry fruits
and other living or preserved plant materials that contain potentially invasive insects and diseases that
can have profound effects on agriculture, forestry and other sectors (Travellers themselves can also
be the vectors for parasites and diseases between countries. Parks and protected areas have
experienced increased biological invasions due to human activities
Biological factors contributing to the spread of insects weed and diseases
Regulatory regimes
A country’s lack of regulatory regimes, including resources for prevention and enforcement measures
(i.e. a sustainable institutional framework) as well as attitudes and views regarding risks, make it more
vulnerable to invasions. Regulatory systems for managing alien invasive species are heavily
dependent on the actions of both the government and private sectors and the effectiveness of such
systems is determined by the level of resources that governments can provide as well as the technical
capacity that exists nationally
Countries vary in their tolerance of the risk of alien species. Since countries are linked to others by the
transboundary movement of people, goods and services, the level of control applied by one country
will in turn affect the vulnerability of other countries
Regulatory systems can also break down, or when faced with new challenges in alien species control
can become inadequate to respond effectively either because of systemic deficiencies or because
safety measures are evaded

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Page 42 of 94
SAQA -116206 FERTILISE SOIL AND ATTEND TO BASIC PLANT
NUTRITION

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 SESSION 1:
Apply appropriate nutrient substances to soils or crops under
close supervision.
UNIT STANDARD ID: 116206

Activity Questions Description Mark

1 What are the most important plant nutrients elements? 5
The most important plant nutrients
elements are:
Nitrogen (N),
Phosphate (P), and
Potassium (K).
Nitrogen (N)
Nitrogen helps plants grow faster but too
much of it will burn the roots and prevent
flowering.
Too little nitrogen will cause leaves to turn lighter green and cause the older leaves to
turn yellow. The best type of
nitrogen-rich fertilizer should have slow release formula rinted on the bag label.It dissolves
slowly so the plants don't get too much nitrogen at once.Slow release fertilizer is, however,
usually more expensive.
Phosphorus (P)
Phosphorus plays an important role in cell division.It is therefore needed for root growth,
leaf formation and flower, fruit and seed development.
Plants that aren't getting enough phosphorus will have darker old leaves or develop a
purplish colour. The plant will start to produce poorer flowers and fruit when the needs more
phosphorus. Phosphorus moves very slowly in the soil and needs to be added to the soil
during tilling.
Potassium (K)
Potassium plays a role in sugar and starch formation and plants need higher
concentrations potassium during flowering and fruiting.
Too little potassium will show up as a general slowing of growth and leaves that are smaller
than usual. Fruit production is lower.
Activity Questions Description Mark
2 Where do plants get these mineral elements from? 5
MINERAL ELEMENTS
Macro-elements: Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P) Potassium (K) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium
(Mg) Sulphur(S)
Micro-elements: Copper (Cu) Boron (B) Zinc (Zn) Iron (Fe) Mangane (Mn)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Where do plants get these elements from?:
From salts dissolved in the ground water (or fertigation solution) When a salt dissolves in
water it dissociates into its two ions
+ -
E.g. KNO3 K and NO3
Plants cannot absorb salts, but are able to absorb ions.
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 Activity Questions Description Mark
3 What is agricultural lime? 5
An agricultural liming material is defined as a material who’s Calcium and Magnesium
compounds are capable of neutralising soil acidity. These materials include limestone and
chalk, quicklime, hydrated lime, marl, shells and by-products such as slag.
Activity Questions Description Mark
4 Define the term chemical fertilizer or organic fertilizer? 5
Chemical Fertilizer or Organic Fertilizer

A chemical fertilizer is defined as any inorganic material of wholly or partially synthetic origin
that is added to the soil to sustain plant growth.
Many artificial fertilizers contain acids, such as sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid, which
tend to increase the acidity of the soil, reduce the soil's beneficial organism population and
interfere with plant growth.
Generally, healthy soil contains enough nitrogen-fixing bacteria to fix sufficient atmospheric
nitrogen to supply the needs of growing plants. However, continued use of chemical fertilizer
may destroy these nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Furthermore, chemical fertilizers may affect plant
health.
Activity Questions Description Mark
5 Define the term Compost? 5
Composting is Nature's way of recycling. Composting refers to a solid waste management
technique that uses natural processes to convert organic materials to humus through the
action of microorganisms. Compost is a mixture that consists largely of decayed organic
matter and is used for fertilizing and conditioning of soil.
Compost is thus a mixture of decayed organic matter, high in nutrients. Compost must be at
least one year old. When too young, decomposition uses nitrogen after sufficient
decomposition, compost releases nitrogen.
Activity Questions Description Mark
6 Describe the importance of mulching 5
One of the benefits from winter applications of mulch is the reduction in the freezing and
thawing of the soil in the late winter and early spring.
These repeated cycles of freezing at night and then thawing in the warmth of the sun cause
many small or shallow rooted plants to be heaved out of the soil. This leaves their root
systems exposed and results in injury or death. Mulching helps prevent the rapid fluctuations
in soil temperature and reduces the chances of heaving.

Activity Questions Description Mark

7 List and explain the common fertilizer application methods. 5
Some of the common fertilizer application methods are as follows:
Broadcast Application
Broadcasting refers to uniformly applying the fertilizer over the entire area before planting.
This is the safest and easiest method for the small farmer and best accomplished with a
mechanical spreader. The fertilizer should be worked into the soil to a depth of 10 – 15 cm.
Band Placement
Banding fertilizer refers to placement of fertilizer 4 – 8 cm to each side and below the seed at
planting. This technique is risky for gardeners to use as placement too close to the seed or

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at too high rate can cause fertilizer burn and inhibit germination
Side dress Application
Side dressing refers to placing the fertilizer beside the row during the growing season. This
technique is usually used to apply additional nitrogen during the growing season and is
particularly useful for applying nitrogen on sandy soils.
Top dress Application
Topdressing is similar to side dressing except that the fertilizer is applied around the plant.
Caution: fertilizer applied too close to the plant can cause fertilizer burn.
Starter Solution Application (Organic Teas)
Starter solution fertilizers are soluble in water, usually high in phosphorus, and applied as a
liquid around the plant roots at the time of planting. They are primarily used for vegetable
transplants to hasten root development and establishment.
Activity Questions Description Mark
8 Demonstrate the proper use of fertilizers and pesticides. 5
Proper use of Fertilizers and Pesticides
Proper use of fertilizers and pesticides, whether of synthetic or natural origin, contributes to
healthy plant growth. Applying too much may cause foliar burns or other toxic reactions in
the plant. Using too little may result in damaged plants from inadequate pest control or
nutrient deficiencies.
The only way to know just how much fertilizer or pesticide is being applied to the plants to
your crop is to calibrate the application equipment. Calibrating an applicator is relatively
simple.

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 SESSION 2:
Understand how to make compost and when to use it.
UNIT STANDARD ID: 116206

Activity Questions Description Mark

9 Demonstrate your knowledge on how to make compost? 5
Compost is the end product of a complex feeding pattern involving hundreds of
different organisms, including bacteria, fungi, worms, and insects. What remains after
these organisms break down organic materials is the rich, earthy substance your
produce will love.

Composting replicates nature's natural system of breaking down organic materials on the
ground. In every forest, grassland, jungle, and garden, plants die, fall to the ground, and
decay. They are slowly dismantled by the small organisms living in the soil. Eventually
these plant parts disappear into the brown crumbly material. This humus keeps the soil
light and fluffy.
Activity Questions Description Mark
10 What are the basic ingredients of a compost pile? 5
The basic ingredients of a compost pile
Carbon (from organic matter like leaves) provides the food for micro- organisms.
Micro-organisms like specific bacteria and fungi
Nitrogen (the fertilizer) comes from grass clippings and dead green plants and provides the
energy microorganisms need to break down the carbon.
Water and oxygen, which microorganisms need lots of to
do their job.
Activity Questions Description Mark
11 What is Passive Composting? 5
Passive Composting
This involves the least amount of time and energy on your part. This is done by collecting
organic materials in a freestanding pile. It might take a long time (three to six months), but
eventually organic materials in any type of a pile will break down into finished compost.
More attractive than a big pile of materials sitting in your yard is a 3-sided enclosure made
of fencing, wire, or concrete blocks, which keeps the pile neater and less unsightly. Add
grass clippings, leaves, and kitchen scraps (always cover these with 10 cm of other
material). The pile will shrink quickly as the materials compress and decompose. Wait a
year or two before checking the bottom of the bin for finished compost. When it's ready,
shovel the bottom section into a wheelbarrow and add it to your crop. Continue to add
greens and browns to have a good supply of finished compost.
Activity Questions Description Mark
What is the importance of carbon-nitrogen ratios in organic
12 5
compost?
The microorganisms responsible for breaking down the organic matter need nitrogen for
energy and therefore the balance between nitrogen and carbon is important. A carbon:
nitrogen (C:N) ratio of between 20:1 and 30:1 is generally considered appropriate for
agricultural wastes:
higher C:N ratios slow material decomposition, because low nitrogen limits
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microbial activity.

Lower C:N ratios may contain excessive nitrogen that may be volatilised as ammonia,
thereby producing odours and wasting nitrogen. If odours are a major concern,
consider a feedstock mixture with a higher C:N ratio.
Activity Questions Description Mark
13 Explain how to manage the composting process? 5
After the readily decomposable material is depleted, the compost pile will no longer heat
upon remixing. The temperature will continue to drop to ambient. Only very slow
decomposition will continue. The material should have a pleasant odour and a friable
texture similar to a good potting soil. The material will likely feel moist and cool and have a
dark brown colour. Several tests can be used to determine "doneness" of the compost,
including incubation to test for generation of metabolism by-products and respirometer
testing to measure oxygen use.

Activity Questions Description Mark

14 Explain why is it important to store manure? 5
It is important to manage manure so that nutrients are not lost before they were cycled
back to the soil. The seepage of liquid waste or urine, leaching of manure by rain and
runoff water, and the "decay" of manure solids and the subsequent loss of nitrogen are all
a result of poor handling techniques. It is recommend that the most practical method of
manure handling would be to feed the stock on the cultivated fields so that the manure is
scattered by the animals and the nutrients are retained by the soil. In any case, the
manure should be returned to the soil as soon as possible and long term, open storage of
six months or more should be avoided).

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 SESSION 3:
Identify basic symptoms of nutritional deficiencies in different
crops.
UNIT STANDARD ID: 116206

Activity Questions Description Mark

15 What are basic symptoms of nutritional deficiencies? 5
● Plant turns pale green, then yellow. It begins at the tip of leaves at the bottom of plant
especially older ones and works its way in the direction of the main stem. Yellowing
gradually spreads up the plant to the top. Can be normal during fruiting.
● Early in the deficiency, plants look almost too healthy. Growth is normal but undersized.
Plants become dark green frequently changing to purple, especially the undersides of
leaves. Sometimes stems also take on this colour. Leaves then yellow in the final
stages. Poor flowering and fruiting.
● Older leaves become mottled or spotted, edges become dry and scorched. Dead spots
begin to appear, stems are weak, root systems are poor, and fruit ripens unevenly.
Reduced disease resistance, poor storage qualities.
Activity Questions Description Mark
16 Describe the Importance of the Position of Discolored Leaves? 5
It is important to remember that in some crops, leaves naturally discolour due to
growth renewal, or in the case of deciduous plants – complete leaf drop.
Nitrogen is needed for protein and nucleic acid synthesis. It is mobile in the plant (i.e.
it can be recovered from proteins in senescent leaves and recycled to some extent into
new proteins in young leaves). Consequently, deficiency strikes the older leaves first,
and leads to stunting and chlorosis (yellowing) primarily of the lower leaves.

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 SESSION 4:
Demonstrate a basic understanding of soil properties.
UNIT STANDARD ID: 116206

Activity Questions Description Mark

17 List the basic properties of soil. 5
Soil has some basic properties:
● It has texture and structure

● It has organic context

● It contains solutions of salts (minerals) that facilitate electrical conductivity

● It has a water holding capacity

● It can be Acidic (low pH) or Alkaline (high pH)

Activity Questions Description Mark

18 Describe the importance of soil texture 5

The Importance of Soil Texture
The texture of a soil influences how the soil responds to different stresses.
Sandy soils are much better drained than clay soils but do not retain much water and
therefore dries out quicker.
In a heavy rain, sandy soils allow the water to freely enter and wash through.
Clay soils can be poorly drained and water might start accumulating on the surface but they
retain a lot of water and therefore stay whet longer.

Activity Questions Description Mark

19 Explain the Drainage Capacity of Different Soil Types 7
Soil drainage is defined as the rate and extent of water movement in the soil, including
movement across the surface as well as downward through the soil. Slope is a very
important factor in soil drainage. Other factors include texture, structure, and physical
condition of surface and subsoil layers. Soil drainage is indicated by soil colour. Clear,
bright colours indicate well- drained soils.Mixed, drab, and dominantly grey colours
indicate poor drainage.
Low-lying areas within the landscape receive run-off water. Frequently, the water from
these areas must escape by lateral movement through the soil or by evaporation from the
surface, as poor structure and other physical influences do not allow drainage through
the soil. Continuous, cemented hardpan layers such as caliche also greatly reduce the
internal drainage through a soil profile.

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 SESSION 5:
Apply soil preparation tasks that require hand-held tools and low-
technology ploughing implements.
UNIT STANDARD ID: 116206

Activity Questions Description Mark

20 List the Basic Methods of Soil Preparation 7
To Prepare the Soil means:
● To find the right type of topography & soil type for your specific crop.

● To test the soil.

● To treat the soil to compensate for nutrient deficiencies.

● To treat the soil against pests & diseases.

● To manually “loosen” the soil to the right depth for your plant’s roots to grow effectively.

● To till the soil with implements such as Shovels, Pick-Axes, Gardening Forks, Ploughs
and Tillers.
● To break-up any physical soil barriers such as hard rock layers.
Activity Questions Description Mark
21 What are the beneficial effects of ploughing? 7
Ploughing has several beneficial effects. The major reason for ploughing is to turn over the
upper layer of the soil. This may also incorporate the residue from the previous crop into the
soil. Ploughing reduces the prevalence of weeds in the fields, and makes the soil more
porous, easing later planting.
Activity Questions Description Mark
22 What is Tilth? 7
Tilth is the physical condition of the soil as it relates to ease of tillage, seedbed quality,
ease of seedling emergence, and deep root penetration. Good tilth is a sign of healthy
soil organisms. While digesting, bacteria secrete gum and slime-like matter in the. This
works like glue, binding soil particles and together to form aggregates. When preparing
soil, rake the soil to a fine tilth. The finer the soil, the better foundation you will have for
your seedlings.
Activity Questions Description Mark
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of effective and
23 ineffective soil preparation, and the effects thereof on 7
plant roots.
Advantages

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● Remove physical barriers from soil

● Improve soil chemically

● Improved water conditions in soil

● Hard layers are removed

Disadvantages
● Physical barriers remain in soil

● Soil isn’t chemically improved

● Soil remains compact

● Water conditions in soil is poor

● Hard layers remain in soil profile

Page 52 of 94
SAQA: 116203 MANIPULATE PLANTS

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Session 1 Use tools and / or equipment for a pre-determined manipulation method in the
SO 1 correct way.
✔ The correct tools for the manipulation method are selected.

✔ The correct manipulation method is identified.

Learning ✔ The correct stage of plant growth for the crop and the selected manipulation
Outcomes method is identified.
(Assessment
✔ The manipulation method is executed correctly.
Criteria)
✔ Equipment is used safely and in such a way to prevent damage to tools and the
plant material.

✔ Tools or material are used appropriately to pre-determined manipulation method.

Activity

1
List the types of pruning tools
The right tools

There are various types of tools used in pruning and training of plants. The size of the plant material
determines the best tool for the job. The section below discusses the major tools used, during pruning
and manipulation.
Pruning Shears

Pruning or hand shears are used for cutting stems (branches) that are up to 2 cm in diameter.

There are 2 basic types of pruning shears.

⮚ The scissor-type shears have curved blades that overlap (scissor action) when making a cut.

⮚ Anvil-type shears have a sharp top blade that cuts against a flat surface (anvil). Each of the
types of shears are available in various sizes.

In general the scissor-type shears are used on softer tissues such as when pruning young tomato
shoots.
A sharp, scissor-type shears will make closer cuts and is less likely to crush stem tissue than anvil-type
shears. However harder tissues such as dead branched of fruit trees will be more easily cut using an
anvil type shears.
Hand shears are not of much use when stems larger than 2 cm diameter are pruned. Larger branches
are better pruned using Lopping shears.
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Types of pruning shears

As mentioned before, there are two common types of pruning shears: bypass and anvil. Bypass shears
(scissor-type) have two curved blades that slide past each other like a pair of scissors (1). One blade is
usually thick, with a mildly tapered edge; the other blade is thinner and sharpened. Anvil shears have
one flat blade (anvil) and a second, straight-edged sharp blade that closes against the anvil (Figure 2).
It is assumed that a bypass shears can make a neater cut, with less crushing and tearing of the wood,
but testing has shown that bypass shears will actually crush the branch more than a sharp anvil shears.

Most professional pruning shears are the bypass type; homeowner shears are available in both types,

Activity
2
Explain how the pruning shear can be maintained
Maintenance

Cleaning the shear after use will prolong the life of the tool. A solvent may be required to remove sap
from the blades. Avoid cutting anything except branches if you want to keep your blades in good
condition. A pruning shear is not a wire cutter. Oiling the blade after cleaning will help prevent rust. The
cutting blade should be sharpened as needed.

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Session 2
Develop frameworks as part of plant manipulation methods.
SO 2
✔ The trellis is applied by taking into account the height of the stem, the spacing of
bearers, shoots and spindles.
Learning ✔ The plant framework is developed appropriate for the identified trellising system.
Outcomes
(Assessment ✔ The growing points and bearing unites are manipulated according to the
Criteria) identified trellising method.

✔ The plant is shaped to determine the position of bearing units according to the
identified cultivation practice.

Activity
3
Define Balanced growth
Balanced growth in a Tree refers to balance between.
⮚ Above soil parts and below soil.

⮚ Sunlight exposed leaves and Shadowed leaves

⮚ Old leaves and New leaves.

Activity
4
What types of tree crops can be trellised and for what purpose?
Production of crops such as tomatoes, cucumbers and peppers under protection, the plants are
trained, pruned and trellised to increase growth and production. Trellising and pruning is also
applied in certain field crops such as tobacco and field grown indeterminate tomato varieties.

Activity
5
Explain the technique to heal cuts quickly
NB - When making pruning cuts, it is important to use techniques that will allow the cut surface to
heal quickly. Rapid healing minimizes the incidence of disease and insect infection. Pruning cuts
should always be flush with the adjacent branch without leaving stubs.

Many wound dressing or pruning paints are available . The ideal treatment is to make proper
pruning cuts and allow the tree to heal naturally.

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Session 3
Understand flower and fruit manipulation principles.
SO 3
✔ Fruit and flower manipulation principles are listed.
Learning
Outcomes ✔ The correct spray chemicals for flower/fruit manipulation are identified.
(Assessment
Criteria) ✔ Physical manipulation on the fruit and flowers of an identified crop is carried out
correctly.

Activity
6
Discuss how deciduous fruit can break bud dormancy
Deciduous fruit require a minimum number of cold units (cold unit = 1 hour below 7ºC) to break bud
dormancy (trigger the flower and vegetative buds to open. Apple trees are more prone to bud
dormancy if winters are not cold enough, trees can then be sprayed with chemicals* that will break
bud dormancy. Subtropical fruit crops like mangoes, avocados and litchis also need a cold period
during winter for flower induction and chemical sprays can also be used in cases of insufficient cold.

Chemical sprays that are also used to prevent excessive fruit drop if fruit set is low. In order to
produce high quality fruit, the number of fruit per tree must be reduced in cases of high fruit set.
Manual thinning by experienced workers is a standard practice, but chemicals are also available for
fruit thinning.

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Session 4
Apply correct simple pruning principles appropriate to the crop.
SO 4
✔ Elementary pruning principles are explained.
Learning
Outcomes ✔ The appropriate pruning method for a specified crop is identified.
(Assessment
Criteria) ✔ Unwanted growth is removed according to the pre-determined manipulation
method.

Activity
7
Discuss the training methods for fruit trees
The need for pruning

Trees are pruned to maintain a specific shape, size, quantity & quality of crop that comes from
your Orchard.

If no pruning is done

⮚ The plants will grow wild.

⮚ The plants will outgrow the trellis that you have put in place.

⮚
The number of Fruit that grow will increase dramatically, but the
quality will become unacceptable.
⮚ Each Tree will not produce the best quantity & quality Fruit in balance.

⮚ All the different Trees will start producing different quantities & quality of Fruit.

⮚ Eventually your Orchard will not produce any real Fruit for harvesting.

Activity
8
List the reasons for prunning
The reasons for pruning

⮚ Prunin
g of fruit trees is done when the plants are dormant and cannot be
damaged by the pruning process.
⮚ In South Africa pruning is normally done between July and the end of August.
Activity
9
List the rules to be considered when prunning
There are no hard and fast rules that dictate the shape into which a tree should be pruned, but
each Tree is pruned according to its own merits according to:

⮚ The cultivars.

⮚ The shape of the trellis system.

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 ⮚ The yield desired (the amount of fruit per Ha).

⮚ The quality of the fruit required.

Activity
10
Discuss the concept of Deciding on Fertile vs. Infertile shoots or bearers.
Deciding on Fertile vs. Infertile shoots or bearers.

When you are standing in front of a Tree you have to make some very important decisions with
regards to deciding what to leave and what to cut away.
This is called deciding to choose “fertile” vs.” infertile” shoots.
It is quite a specialized selection principle, which you will once again only really learn through
practice and experience.
Remember that the fruit that will form in say 2006 has already been influenced by the
season of 2004 (i.e. 2 years in advance).
Generally you will regard only shoots that are at least pencil thickness as worthwhile to keep
working with.
nd
Cut away anything that isn’t growing on top of anything else that is already into its 2 year of
growth.
When you start cutting bearers, make sure you cut from the inside out (i.e. first cf the bearers
closest to where the 2 cordon arms fork).
When you cut a bearer on the left, there has to be one that balances it on the right.

If you get to a point where there is no bearer to balance the bearer on the other arm, you’ll cut
the lateral down to the very basal bud You’ll be shown this in practice.
When you cut a certain amount of bearers on the right cordon arm here has to be the exact amount
of bearers on the left cordon arm.
Both cordon arms need to be developed to the same length each time.
You will always cut back to the lower bud position to prevent the build up of bearer positions or
infertile bearers.

The buds that we choose for forming cordon arms, laterals & bearers are very important.

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SAQA – 116148 PERFORM BASIC ROUTINE OPERATIONS IN A
DEFINED HYDROPONIC CONTEXT

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 LEARNING UNIT 1:
Prepare a production area for crop establishment.
UNIT STANDARD ID: 116148

Activity Questions Description Mark

1 Describe how one can prepare a production area? 5
Land preparation
Land preparation typically involves plowing, harrowing, and leveling the field to make it
suitable for crop establishment. Draft animals, such as buffalo and oxen, 2-wheel tractors or
4-wheel tractors can all be used as power sources in land preparation. The initial soil tillage
can also be performed with a rotovator instead of a plow.
The object is to produce a level seedbed with fine soil tilth and free of established weeds.
Depending on the available machinery locally, this may be achieved by ploughing at the end
of the dry season followed by harrowing or firstly using heavy disc harrows followed by light
harrowing, or rotovation with a single axle tractor. Allowing weeds to grow between
cultivations may reduce the incidence of weeds in the subsequent crop.
Activity Questions Description Mark
Explain your understanding on the cleanliness of the
2 6
production environment.
Environmental cleanliness means an evaluation of the growing environment, taking into
consideration factors including topography, hydrology and geographical features, climatic
conditions, land history, near-by land use, agricultural water, and domestic animal and
wildlife presence to evaluate any safety risks that may affect the potential for the tomatoes to
be contaminated. Environmental assessments may be conducted prior to planting, during
production, and immediately prior to harvest.
The question of environmental cleanliness raises an important economic principle. All
economic decisions are made at the margin.
Activity Questions Description Mark
Demonstrate the knowledge on ability to prepare the
3 5
bags/beds with media.
Creating your new flower bed correctly saves you work down the road. Nutrient-rich soil,
plenty of sunshine and the ability to hold onto water without holding on to too much are all
necessary for a healthy flower bed. If you dig your new flower bed and amend it properly
initially to supply everything your flowers need, and all that will be required over the years is
standard maintenance. Dig new beds in fall for spring planting or in spring or summer for fall
planting.
Prepare a bed is a convenient and easy way to produce homegrown vegetables. Unlike
traditional
in-ground gardening where lots of space is usually required, prepare bed is a perfect
alternative for people who cannot garden due to limited space, poor or rocky soil, inadequate
soil drainage, or physical limitations.
Be diligent in pulling and digging the area and amend the soil. The time spent building a
good weed free soil base before planting will make the future tending of the bed much easier
and satisfying.
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Page 62 of 94
 LEARNING UNIT 2:
Establish a hydroponic crop.
UNIT STANDARD ID: 116148

Activity Questions Description Mark

4 Explain your own understanding on hydroponic crop. 8
Growing crops hydroponically allows gardeners the opportunity to have fresh, home-grown
vegetables at their fingertips. Home-grown vegetables taste better, cost less and, when
grown in hydroponic gardens, are available all year long. The best hydroponic crops are
those that don't require a lot of growing room; avoid crops that spread or take up a lot of
space. Most importantly, select crops that everyone in the family enjoys eating.
One of the most popular hydroponic vegetables is the tomato, and all varieties of tomato will
thrive in hydroponic conditions. Grow big, meaty beefsteak varieties such as Trust,
Geronimo, Blitz and Quest. Cluster or truss tomatoes are smaller in size and grow on one
vine. The Ambiance, Tradiro and Locarno are all good varieties of cluster tomatoes that grow
in a hydroponic garden. Cherry tomatoes are a good choice, too: Sweet Million, Flavorita,
Sakur and Sungold are a few varieties of cherry tomato that flourish in hydroponic
conditions.
Activity Questions Description Mark
5 List the common crops used for hydroponics. 5
Common Crops Used for Hydroponics
Salad Greens
Lettuces are the most popular of all salad greens. The lettuce plant requires little care and
maintenance and is an ideal beginner plant for new hydroponic growers. Leaf lettuces are a
good choice for a hydroponic system; red and green romaine, green leaf, red leaf lettuces
will all thrive. The bibb lettuces Salina, Rex and Vegas are small head lettuce varieties that
grow well in hydroponics. Other salad greens that flourish in a hydroponic garden are
endive, chicory, arugula, cresses, chard, spinach and kale. Choose varieties of lettuces that
are resistant to tip burn and bolting.
Peas
Peas are a highly nutritious vegetable and are very easy to grow in hydroponic conditions.
Sugar snap and snow peas thrive in the hydroponic garden. Once the pea plant is
established in a hydroponic environment, it produces crops all year long. Snowbird, Dwarf
Gray Sugar and the Snowflake are varieties of the sugar snap pea that grow well in
hydroponic conditions. Snow peas are the type of pea where the pods are also eaten (they
are sometimes known as Chinese peas). Mammoth Melting Sugar and Oregon Giant Pod
are two types of edible snow peas that grow in hydroponic gardens.
Peppers
Pepper plants are a good selection for a hydroponic gardening. Peppers come in a large
variety of colors and flavors. The sweet bell pepper is a popular choice for hydroponic
gardens. Initially all bell peppers are green, and change colors as they mature. Varieties of
red bell pepper include Mazurka and Cubico. Orange cultivars are the Eagle and Fellini and
yellow peppers are Fiesta and Gold Flame. Hot, spicy, peppers flourish in the hydroponic
garden as well, so plant a few habaneros, cayennes and jalapenos.

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 Activity Questions Description Mark

Describe the successful removal of propapules (without

6 8
damaging the roots).
Propapules are normally planted mechanically into the tray cavities. The trays are then
lightly irrigated and placed in germination rooms with high humidity and moderate
temperature. About 3 days later the trays are removed and placed in the nursery where they
are irrigated, often several times a day during hot weather. Nutrients are added to this
irrigation water. It is essential that the runoff water is drained from the nursery, as pooled
water is ultimately detrimental to the health of the growing plants. To prevent disease the
trays are sterilised before planting, either by means of steam or chemical means such as
plazdip, sporekill and pathoclen. It is essential with seedling production to maintain good
sanitation in the nursery.
Activity Questions Description Mark

7 What are the steps to transplant propapules into beds/bags? 8

Prepare the transplant location in advance by removing rocks and adding any natural soil
enhancements like compost or manure. If you plan on treating your garden with herbicide,
apply at least three days before transplanting.
To transplant seedlings, follow these steps:
1. Use a hoe, spade, or trowel to make a small hole in your garden for each seedling.
The hole should be deep enough so the transplant is at the same depth in the ground as
it was in the pot (except for tomatoes). Make the hole twice as wide as the root ball.
2. Unpot a seedling (unless it's in a peat pot) by turning its pot upside down and
cupping the seedling with your hand.
Be sure to keep the root mass and soil intact. If the seedling doesn't come out easily,
gently tap on the edge of the pot or gently press on the bottom of each cell of the flat
with your fingers. Whatever you do, don't yank out a plant by its stem.
3. Check the root ball's condition.
If the roots are wound around the outside of the pot, work them loose with your fingers
so they can grow out into the soil. Unwind larger roots and break smaller ones (this
won't hurt them) so they all point outward. Try to keep as much of the original soil intact
as possible.
4. Mix a diluted liquid fertilizer into the soil of the planting hole to help the plants get
off to a fast start.
Reduce the recommended strength on the fertilizer container by half. For example, if it
says apply 1 tablespoon per gallon of water, use only 1/2 tablespoon.
5. Put each prepared seedling into the holes that you made.
6. After firming the soil around the roots with your hands, form a shallow soil basin
around the base of the transplant.
The soil basin serves as a moat around the seedling to hold water. When you water or
when it rains, the moisture stays in the moat and drains to where the roots are located.
7. Depending on the conditions, water the bed that day or the next.
If the weather has been dry or if the soil is sandy, you may want to water the entire bed;
if it's rainy or the soil is already very wet, wait until tomorrow to water.
8. Keep the bed moist while the seedlings get established and begin to grow
strongly.mulch after the seedlings becomes well-established. In extreme hot, dry

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 weather, provide temporary shade for transplants with paper tents or wooden shingles
pushed into the ground on the south or west side of the plants.
If you don't get an ideal transplanting day and the weather is hot and sunny, shade the
plants until the sun goes down. And don't be alarmed if your plants look a little droopy
after you set them out; they'll soon recover.
Activity Questions Description Mark

8 Describe the appropriately place irrigation in bags/beds. 8

Irrigation systems are used to ensure that they receive the proper amount of water. Once an
irrigation system is installed, homeowners can set the device on a timer and not have to
worry about watering their lawn. Irrigation systems are also commonly used on farms and
golf courses.
The right type of sprinkler system for your project depends on the landscape that you plan to
irrigate, the level of your plumbing skills and your budget. The broad range of sprinkler and
irrigation equipment available at a standard home-improvement store provides solutions for
nearly every project. Whether you're looking for temporary irrigation, a permanent irrigation
system or specialty sprinklers, an overview of conventional and alternative sprinkler ideas
helps you match your sprinkler-irrigation system to your project.

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 LEARNING UNIT 3:
Identify the basic differences i.e. hydroponic and
conventional (soil) production.
UNIT STANDARD ID: 116148

Activity Questions Description Mark

Explain the difference between hydroponic and conventional

9 8
(soil) production.
The main and glaring difference between hydroponics and conventional farming is that
hydroponics does not use soil to grow plants. Hydroponics uses nutrient rich formulas in
place of soil. These formulas consist of the same nutrients, and more, than soil naturally
produces to provide the ideal growing environment for plants. Hydroponic growing is
typically on much smaller scales than conventional farming due to the cost of the formula.
Hydroponics is perfect for personal home growing, but would require an elaborate set-up to
produce growth on scales capable of feeding populations.
Hydroponic soil
Hydroponics is a soil-less growing technique used worldwide to grow bigger plants, faster
than ever before. Most of the groceries from your local supermarket are produced this way. It
offers the potential to accurately control irrigation rates, pH, nutrient strength and content,
temperature and oxygenation. Now you can grow like the professionals too! All systems
come with full instructions.
Conventional soil:
Clear fell land clearing - siltation, topsoil loss, erosion and salinity
● Logging - erosion, change in weather patterns, habitat loss

● Limited contour ploughing - inefficient water run-off, topsoil loss, - erosion and land
slippage
● Traditional tilling methods - loss of topsoil - erosion - dust storms and high level of
disturbance for micro-organisms
Activity Questions Description Mark

What is the difference between soil and an artificial growing

10 8
media?
Soil
Soil is the outer weathered portion of the earth's crust. Sometimes it is called field soil. It
is very important to realize that soil is differentiated from dirt, in that dirt is that which occurs
under your fingernails. A thorough understanding of the nature and properties of soils is
essential for field production of fruits, vegetables, turfgrasses, and ornamentals that are field
grown or planted in the landscape.
Potting Soils, soilless growing media, or artificial growing media are used in the
production of horticultural plants in containers, such as in outdoor container nurseries,
greenhouse pot plant production, and indoor gardening and landscaping. Pure field soils

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are unsuitable for container growing. In the small volume of containers, soil packs
excessively and forms many small pores. Both of these factors decrease aeration (air
movement and exchange) and drainage (water movement and exchange). However, many
artificial growing media may contain up to 25% to 50% of their volume as field soil. The
value of using some soil as a component of the growing medium is that it supplies many
micronutrients and beneficial microorganisms.

Activity Questions Description Mark

Describe the difference between protected and unprotected

11 8
production environments.
Protected environment
To be truly sustainable, agriculture must find a balance with nature, using production
methods that preserve rather than exploit. Modern agriculture has caused considerable harm
to the environment, which threatens the sustainability of the sector.
Agriculture has had to cope with population increases and growing demand for food, and
thus has intensified production systems. Already, the consequences of modern farming
methods include a loss of biodiversity, exploitation of natural resources and contamination of
soil, water and air.

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SAQA: 116201 HARVEST AGRICULTURAL CROPS

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 Session 1
Use appropriate tools / equipment for pre-determined harvesting method.
SO 1
✔ What tools to use for which harvesting process as advised are explained.
Learning ✔ The safe use of the harvesting tools as advised is demonstrated.
Outcomes
(Assessment ✔ The basic safety precautions to be adhered to while handling the harvesting tools
Criteria) are described.
✔ How the tools are cleaned and safely stored are demonstrated.

Introduction

The nutritional value, freshness, and flavour of fresh produce (includes all fruit and vegetables
marketed fresh) will depend on the
● stage of maturity and

● The time of day at when they are harvested.

If the harvested produce is overly mature they will be stringy and coarse. Produce picked too soon
may be too tender and will lack substance and flavour.

The sequence of events from harvest

HARVEST (e.g. by hand, or specialized shears)
∇
Place into picking bag or crate
∇
TRANSPORT (e.g. in a bin)
∇
PACKINGHOUSE

Dump (e.g. bin tipper)

Cull (e.g. discard damaged produce and debris)

∇
Treat (e.g. wax)

Sort (e.g. colour grade)

Size (e.g. weight grade)

Pack (e.g. cell-pack fibreboard cartons)

Palletise (e.g. wooden pallets)

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 Cool (e.g. pressure cool)

Store (e.g. cold room)

TRANSPORT (e.g. refrigerated sea container)

WHOLESALE (e.g. regional market)

TRANSPORT (e.g. green-grocers flat top truck)

RETAIL (e.g. fresh produce stall)

CONSU
MER

The diagram above shows that there are many steps in the process before the produce gets to the end
user. It is therefore critical that all possible steps be taken not to cause injury or stress to fruit during
harvest.

The time for harvesting varies with

● climate,

● the particular season,

● the variety, and

● the crop involved

For instance, tomatoes can be left on the vine until fully ripened or taken off when partially ripened.
Other crops such as winter squash and watermelon are not ready until after they are fully developed.
Export citrus is often harvested fully matured, but green. These are then later put through a ripening
process.

Crops may be harvested at different stages of fruit maturity depending on the produce and
factors such as:
⮚ The market destination.

⮚ The purpose of the produce i.e. is it to be used as fresh or processed produce.

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 ⮚ The time it takes for the produce to reach the consumer.

● If the produce is aimed at the local market the fruit may be harvested when ripe
or are about to ripen
● If the produce is destined for the export market the fruit can be harvested when fruit is
mature, but not ripe yet.
⮚ The external appearance of the produce is less important when the fruit is meant for
processing. There remains quality standards such as:
❖ Water,

❖ Sugar and

❖ Acid content of the fruit.

Vegetables

For vegetables, seed packages give an indication of "days to maturity". This indication can also
be found in seed catalogues. Because the ripening of a crop is largely dependent on
environmental conditions the time indication of “days to maturity” should only be used as a
guide.

The best way of determining the readiness of the crop for harvest is to check the garden
frequently for ripe produce during close to the expected harvest time.

When harvesting, avoid bruising or damaging the vegetables as this will lead to decay of the
produce. Vegetables continue to carry on life processes even after harvesting. It is thus
important that we retard these processes in mature products. With the exception of ripening
storage of vegetables does not improve the quality of the produce. A vegetable must possess
high quality characteristics and be cultivated properly for it to be acceptable.

It is not easy to determine the point at which specific crops reach their peak quality. It is essential that
one keeps accurate and complete records of the varieties that you use, when they were planted etc.
This will help you gauge the ideal time of harvest.

Some crops are more easily damaged during harvesting than others. However bruises and cuts must
be avoided during handling with all crops. All produce showing decay or rot must be removed and
disposed of.

Washing certain vegetables in cold running water immediately after harvesting removes soil, dust or
other contaminants and helps lower the temperature. By adding a suitable sanitizer, microbial
contaminants may be removed.

When storing vegetables the following requirements need to be considered:

Temperature
The conversion of sugar to starch is critical in products such as sweet corn and peas. It is necessary to
cool these products immediately after harvest to minimize this conversion. If possible, harvest
vegetables early in the morning or right before you intend to use them.

Moisture

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Proper humidity varies with different commodities. In general however leafy vegetables need a high
humidity (95 %) whereas onions should be stored in a drier atmosphere (65 to 70.5 relative humidity).

Ventilation

Wilting and tissue breakdown are minimized if the storage area is well ventilated. In preparation for
harvesting, an assessment is done of the tools and equipment required. This is done taking into
account the size of the farm, the crop and/or ultivar, the period during which the harvesting must be
completed, and the capacity of storing facilities, where if applicable.

Once this information has been gather a decision can be made as to the number and size of picking
teams, which in turn determines the equipment requirements.

In the case of mechanical harvesting such assessments will determine when a harvester should be
booked, if the farmer does not own a harvester, and the number of harvesters that may be required. In
addition the numbers of back-up equipment such as tractors and trailers used for transporting
harvested goods can be decided upon.

Harvesting Methods

The crop type and expected harvest volume will determine the harvesting method that is to be used.
Certain crops are harvested by hand, while others are harvested either manually or mechanically. Hand
harvesting usually provides a better quality product than mechanical harvesting. Harvesting by hand is
however more time consuming and expensive than mechanical harvesting and is not always practical
or economical feasible.

The harvesting method to be used is also affected by the area (size of the field) to be harvested. A
farmer might easily be able to harvest half a hectare of maize by hand, but it is not possible hundreds
or even thousands of hectares are to be harvested.

In addition the market may often dictate the harvesting method. If for example tomatoes are to be sold
on the fresh produce market, harvesting will be by hand in order to ensure that the crop is not
damaged. If, however, the fruits are destined to be processed a certain degree of damage can be
tolerated at harvest.

Crops that are exported as fresh produce, including most of the tree fruit and vegetables, are
traditionally harvested by hand. The quality of fruit and vegetables play an important role in their
marketing and thus the amount of damage should be minimised. Physical damage also leads to
shortened produce shelve life.

Crops such as tobacco, and cotton are examples of industrial crops, which are harvested by hand. In
the case of tobacco this is because the leaves mature from the bottom of the plant up. The time lapse
between ripening of the bottom to the top leaves is such that the plant cannot be harvested at once.

Hand picked cotton is of a higher quality than machine picked cotton, because hand picked cotton can
be picked sooner and cleaner than with a harvester.

Grain (wheat and maize), oil (sunflower and canola) and protein (soybean and groundnut) crops are
seldom harvested by hand. These crops are harvested using specialized combine harvesters.

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There are instances where a combination of hand and machine picking is practised. An example is
where onions or potatoes are lifted out of the soil using machines. The bulbs or tubers are then picked
up and sorted by hand.

Harvesting Equipment

Harvesting equipment may include a wide range of different instruments and containers.
Ladders are used especially in tree crops to reach fruit high in the tree. The ladders should be kept
clean and in good condition, ensuring that pickers do not fall and injure themselves.

Picking bags are used especially in orchard, as they are easier to handle that crates or baskets. The
bag is slung across the shoulder and fruit placed carefully into the bag after being picked. The bags
must be kept clean and not be thrown on the ground or walked on. This will ensure that no sand and
grit gets into the bag, which can damage the produce.

Where bins are used the same principals apply. The crates must be keep clean and should not be sat
on. The bins into which produce is placed must be handle with care so-as they do not break or splinter.
Splinters in the bins will perforate the harvested produce.

Picking knives and shears - In crops such as lettuce and cabbage, harvesting knives are usually
used. The knife is placed between the first and second leaves and a single clean cut removed the head
from the stem. The knives must be sharp at all times; otherwise it will not give a clean cut. The knife
must be kept clean at all times. In between cutting, the knife must be dipped in a sanitising solution.
This will ensure that potential post-harvest diseases are carried from one head to the next.

In the case of fruit harvesting, fruit are harvested either by hand or some for of harvesting sears or
cutter. These are used to cut the fruit stem from the branch. In this way you ensure that the fruit stem is
not torn from the fruit. If the fruit tears, it will enable entry of disease and lead to rotting of the fruit. It is
important that the fruit stem is not left too long as it could puncture the accompanying fruit in the bags
on bins.

All equipment must be cleaned and stored in a designated storage area for the harvesting equipment.
The equipment must be kept dry and should not be kept on
a dirty floor. Harvesting equipment must not be stored in close vicinity to pesticides, pesticide
application equipment or fertilisers. The equipment could become contaminated and thereby
contaminate the harvested produce.

All tools and equipment used in the harvesting process must be properly cleaned and sterilized before
and after use as well as at regular intervals during harvesting. Workers must also wear clean and
suitable protective clothing.

Pruning shear

The most common tools used for harvesting fruit are steel pruning shears. They are used to cut the
stem of the fruit as close to the button, or calyx, as possible without injuring the shoulder of the fruit.
Some vegetable fruits, like tomatoes, can easily be picked by a simple twist of the hand, while pruning
shears are used on others like peppers.

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In some crops, specialised shears and snips are used for harvesting. Pruning shears fit comfortably
into the palm of the hand, have a rounded point and curved blade to avoid damaging the fruit. A spring
keeps the blade in an open position and ensures fast recovery for efficient picking.

In preparation for harvesting, all pruning shears must be checked to ensure that the spring action is
working well, and that the blades are sharp and closely aligned. This should also be checked on a
regular basis during picking. Pruning shears must also be cleaned and sterilised and prior to harvesting
and regularly during picking.

Picking containers

A number of receptacles are used to collect picked fruit, but the most common is a picking bag. Picking
bags are generally made from canvas or polyvinyl. They have a single strap and are slung over the
shoulder of the picker. As the picker picks the fruit, it is placed inside the bag until it is full. It is then
taken to a general collection point in the orchard where the bags are emptied into bulk bins or picking
trailers.

A number of different bag designs, are available and used in various industries.

In preparation for harvesting, all picking bags and containers must be checked for holes and/or tears.
The containers must be cleaned before harvesting is initiated. When cotton is handpicked, the cotton is
placed in picking bags before being emptied into metal baskets. Unlike for tree crops the bags are non-
woven bags (material or polyvinyl) as the strands of these bags contaminate the cotton fibre. Cotton
picking bags most often used are empty plastic fertilizer bags. Because these bags are not porous and
the cotton will still contain moisture, picked cotton should not be left in these bags overnight as the
cotton may rot.

Fruits and vegetables, which damage easily, are picked into picking crates taken to the cold rooms or
packing sheds as soon as possible. These crates are usually made from durable plastic and are well
ventilated. They are also designed to be stacked.

Clean, dry and sterilized crates should be used to prevent disease contamination. Crates, which are
damaged in such a way that bruising or puncturing of the crops could occur should be discarded.

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Harvesting Knives

Knives are used in harvesting leafy crops such as cabbage heads, Swiss chard leaves and lettuce. A
good quality knife with a strong blade should be supplied to the harvesters. The blade should be sharp
enough to facilitate easy cutting. A blunt knife will not only reduce the harvest speed, but can cause
unnecessary damage to the produce. Knives should be regularly cleaned and disinfected whilst
harvesting to prevent the spread of post harvest decay organisms.

Ladders

Ladders are used during harvesting of tree crops depending on the height of trees. Ladders are placed
alongside trees, or rested against the canopy in the case of larger trees.

Ladders vary from home-made, single-sided, two-legged ladders made from locally grown wood to
factory-manufactured, two- or three-legged ladders generally made from aluminium or wood.

In preparation for harvesting, ladders must be checked for sharp edges, splinters, loose components
and dirt to ensure fruit is not damaged when the ladders are placed alongside the trees or against the
canopy. The ladders should also be checked for defects that may compromise the safety of the
harvesters.

Mechanical harvesters

Field crops such as grains, vegetables produced for industrial purposes, potatoes, onions, oil crops,
protein crops and cotton are harvested mechanically. The different types of harvesters are specially
designed to for a specific crop or group of crops.

Wheat, maize, sunflower and soybean can be harvested with combine harvesters. These types of
harvesters harvest the whole plant. This usually involves fast moving rollers and or blades.

The harvester then removes kernels from the ears or the seeds from the heads or pods in a process
known as threshing. It is a complex mechanical action that results in clean seed being dropped into a
storage compartment. The remaining plant residue is released (stalks, straw, pods, leaves, etc.) back
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onto the field. As soon as the storage compartment is full, it is offloaded into bulk trailers and
transported to silos where it is stored.

Servicing the harvesters should be done before the start of the season to prevent hold-ups due to
breakage during the harvesting process. During harvesting, any blockages must be dealt with as soon
as it occurs, as permanent damage may result. The harvesters should be cleaned at the end of each
day to prevent any hold-ups the following day. While cleaning one can also easily pickup any
problems such as broken blades or other damaged parts etc.

Cotton harvesters have rotating comb-like spindles, which comb the cotton out of the open cotton
bolls. At the back of the harvester, metal baskets, are attached into which the cotton is blown. When a
basket is full, it is emptied into another basket in which it is then transported to the gin. Harvesters
should be serviced before the start of the season

Onions, potatoes and groundnuts grow below the soil surface. Commercially these crops are
harvested by lifting the bulbs, tubers or pods from the soil before. Once lifting has been completed the
crop is picked up by hand, sorted and packed. Lifting is done using specialized implements containing
a blade, which is attached to the back of a tractor. The “blade” is then inserted into the soil at one end
of a row and drawn just below the soil surface (at a depth of ± 15 – 20 cm).

The next step can be manual or mechanical. In both cases it involves the pulling of the plants from the
soil and removing the tubers etc. from the plant. Potato tubers can be placed in bulk trailers or bulk
bins on trailers and transported to the pack
houses. In the case of onions the bulbs are first left on the field for at least a week to cure before the
dry leaves are cut (with sharp knives) from the bulbs and the bulbs placed in onion bags, ready for the
market. Peanut plants are also left on the field for a week or two in heaps or in windrows to cure. Then
only will the plants will be threshed and the pods placed in woven material bags or bulk trailers and
transported to where the peanuts will be processed.

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Garden fork

In the case of smaller production areas, where mechanical harvesters cannot be used, a fork can be
used instead for lifting produce. The fork is inserted into the soil at an angle, close to the crop plant
and then the plant and soil are lifted. Take care not to push one of the fork teeth into a tuber, bulb etc.

Bulk Bins and Picking Trailers

Fruit are transported from orchards in bulk picking trailers with a capacity of 2t to 3t or in wooden or
plastic bulk bins with a capacity of 350 kg. In small operations, crates with a capacity of 15 kg to 20 kg
capacity are used.

Bulk bins are normally supplied by pack houses, or rented from an equipment supplier. In preparation
for harvesting, bulk bins are checked for sharp edges and splinters to avoid damage to fruit. They are

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also cleaned and sterilised to prevent contamination and decay. The supplier of the bulk bins normally
does this.

All moving parts of picking trailers must be serviced before the harvest starts. Also check the tyres to
make sure they are in good order. If trailers have to be used on national roads, they must be
roadworthy. The fruit carrying area of the bin must be checked for dirt, sharp edges, latch functioning,
etc.

The metal baskets in which the cotton-picking bags are emptied and in which the cotton can be
stored, should be dry and clean before the seed cotton is placed therein. Because it is made from
metal, any rust should be removed and treated.

Cleaning, sterilizing and maintaining harvest tools and equipment

Cleaning of harvesting tools refers to both removal of dirt and plant material becomes adhered as well
as to the removal of microscopic particles including disease organisms.

The harvested produce must not come into contact with post-harvest decaying organisms, as it will
reduce the shelf life and quality of produce. Removal of dirt, plant material etc. from tools and
equipment prolongs the lifespan of the tools.

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 Session 2 Carry out sampling for maturity indexing according to pre-determined
SO 2 requirements.
✔ How to harvest the sample as advised is explained.

Learning ✔ How the sample would be handled for testing is described.

Outcomes
✔ The basic processing of the sample is discussed.
(Assessment
Criteria) ✔ Why it is important to sample correctly is explained.

Harvest Timing

Fruit testing

In some cases fruit need to be tested for parameters such as :

● sugar contents or

● acidity etc. prior to harvest.

How to test
In order to generate accurate analyses results however, one needs to take a sample of fruit or
produce that represents the status of the fruit of the field or orchard. To this end the samples to be
taken must be taken randomly from the field.
To do this, divide the field into equal parts or sampling units. If a tree crop is involved each tree could
be viewed as a sampling unit.

Number the sampling units starting from one. Then using a random number generator (on a
calculator) or random number tables, select 5 sampling units that to be sampled. Once selected go
to those specific sampling units and sample the area. In the case of tree crop divide the tree
into 4 quadrants. Pick a fruit from each quadrant representing and from each of the lower middle
and upper part of each quadrant. Also sample from the outer reaches of the branches and the inner
(closer to the stem).

Maturity Indexing and Sampling

⮚ Maturity Indexing Maturity indexing is, the process of monitoring the physiological
development of fruit as it ripens.

Sampling Taking of a few individual fruits from some trees in the orchard of the same
cultivar. These fruits then represent all the fruits in that orchard and specific cultivar.

Before a crop can be harvested, it must be determined whether the crop is ready to be harvested. To
this end maturity indexing is done for a crop.
Ready for harvesting does not necessarily mean that the fruit is mature or ripe. Different crops are
harvested at different stages of development. Baby vegetables for example are harvested at a young
stage mostly before the crop is mature. In vegetables such as carrots, beetroot and lettuce the size
requirement for the crop may determine when it will be harvested.
Fruit crops and fruit bearing vegetables can be divided into two groups with regards to harvest. In the
one group the fruit is harvested at a fairly green stage because full ripening will only occur post harvest.

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This often helps to prolong the shelf life of the produce. Examples of these crops include avocados,
mangoes, bananas and tomatoes. Other fruit crops such as grapes, litchi’s and strawberries will not
further ripen or improve quality after harvesting. This means these types of crops must be harvested
when mature.

Maturity indexing information is used to plan harvesting, by determining whether fruit should be picked
earlier or later than the historically recorded picking dates, and adjust orchard practices where needed.

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 Early
light
red

Pal
e Full red
gre
en

L
i
g
h
t
r
e
d

Maturity indexing also provides information on how the internal physiological development of the fruit
is progressing relative to other physiological factors, such as the colour and size. Equally importantly it
allows the manager to assess how the fruit timing, or readiness for picking, and quality relates to the
specific requirements and opportunities in the market.
The basic parameters that are assessed and monitored during maturity indexing are internal quality
parameters and fruit colour, as defined by colour plates (Available from the different growers’
associations’ retailers and exporters).
There are four stages of ripening for tomatoes, pale green, early light red, light red (shoulders of fruit
not full red yet) and a full red colour. Despite the outside colour, the flesh is already ripe and
harvesting at any of these stages will produce an acceptable product. Some consumers prefer pale
green to early light red fruits if they go camping for long periods of time, as the fruits will turn full red
over time and the chances of rotting will be minimal. However, a housewife who is preparing a meal
for her family would prefer a light red to full red coloured tomato.

Maturity indexing is a common practise in tree crops like citrus and mango and prescribed norms are
available. In vegetable crops like tomatoes, colour changes can be used to classify maturity, but no
fixed norms have been developed.
Many fruit are harvested when a desired colouring has developed. The colour development is used as
an indication of internal ripeness.
In grain and other field crops, maturity is usually determined by the moisture content of the produce.
For each of these crops there are set norms in terms of moisture content.
Table below provides some of the norms as to the relation between moisture and harvest ability.
When the crop is too dry, conditions in the silos can become instable and explosions may occur. If the
moisture content is too high, problems with rotting and mould develop.
The moisture content norms at harvest for certain field crops
Crop Moisture content (%)
Maize kernels ± 13%
Sunflower seeds 10 to 13%

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 Seed Cotton ±12% (for machine harvest)
Soybean pods 10 to 13%
Groundnut seeds ± 10%

Sampling techniques
In order to conduct maturity indexing, the crops must be sampled and then a specific test is performed
on the sample.
Fruit sampling – example citrus and tomatoes
Sampling for maturity indexing are generally initiated two months before the historically initiation of the
harvesting period of a cultivar.
It is important that the correct fruit is sampled on a plant. The first principle of sampling is that the
sample must be representative of the bulk of the medium that is being sampled. A sample is not a
piece or a section of a whole, but rather the whole reduced to a manageable volume.
Although a fruit sample must be taken randomly, the focus should be on fruit that represent the
development stage of the bulk of the crop. The focus should also be on the fruit that is likely to be
harvested in the earlier part of the season, referred to as the first pick. Unusually large or small fruit
would not be included in the sample.
The sample is placed in a bag and the details of the field / orchard, the date of sampling is written on
a label and sealed. Do not write on the outside of the bag, as the writing will wipe off.
Sampling Field crops
Using maize as an example the following applies for sampling field crops. The maize kernel goes
through a number of developmental stages before maturing. One of these is the soft and hard dough
stage. Pressing the kernel with a fingernail identifies the soft dough stage. If it releases a white milky
substance the kernel is at the soft dough stage. This is the ideal stage for harvesting of green cob
corn. If the same test is preformed and the kernel is still soft, but no milk flows from it, the hard dough
stages has been reached, and at this stage the cobs are no longer suitable for cob corn.
After this stage the kernels keep on losing moisture and become harder and harder. Physiological
ripeness is reached when a black abscission layer develops between the ear and the individual
kernel. At this stage the kernels can easily be removed from the cob by simply rubbing two ears over
each other. The kernels will however still be too wet and harvesting cannot commence.

Place where black abscission layer will develop.

The abscission layer forming around individual maize kernels (left). On the right is an immature ear on
which the arrow indicates the place where the black layer will develop.

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Analysis of Fruit Samples
The procedures set out in this section are applicable to citrus fruits. Similar tests are also conducted
on tomatoes for the tomato processing industries where the Brix, acidity and juice percentage is
measured. Most other vegetable fruits and leafy vegetables will not be analysed chemically, while
grain, oil etc. crops will only be monitored for moisture content. In the laboratory, details relating to the
sample are noted, including the producer, orchard number, and fruit size and colour. The fruit is then
weighed, cut, its juice is extracted and the following parameters are measured:
⮚ Juice percentage;

⮚ Brix, which relates to the total soluble solids or sugar content; and

⮚ Acidity.

The ratio of Brix to acidity is a further parameter used by the industry to determine acceptability of
taste for different markets.
The norms for different varieties are set at different levels. In the case of lemons, the only deciding
factor for export is juice percentage, as neither Brix nor acidity levels are generally used for table fruit.
In the case of niche cultivars, higher standards, meaning higher Brix and ratios, have been set to
place the fruit in a particular marketing bracket. That standard has to be maintained to assure the
producer of the potentially higher return from that market.
Recording Maturity Indexing Information
Once the internal quality results are received from the laboratory, the data is assessed relative to the
management plan on the farm.

The maturity indexing information is stored in a file and presented as a graph to develop a picture of
how the fruit is maturing. If orchard practices need to be changed to manipulate fruit development,
maturity indexing is a key factor in guiding this.

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 Session 3
Harvest crops following specific prescribed procedures.
SO 3
✔ How the crops will be harvested for the specific enterprise as advised, is described.
Learning ✔ How harvested crops will be handled before being transported to the processing or
Outcomes
packing plant is described.
(Assessment
Criteria) ✔ Illustrate How to harvest the crop as advised, is described.

✔ The following of certain harvesting procedures are explained.

Harvesting Processes

Before harvesting can commence, a number of decisions must be taken and preparations must be
made.
The harvesting process can be divided into sections. If for instance a reasonable percentage of the fruit
in a certain orchard will not be fit for export because of external damage, a decision must be taken to
pick the fruit that is more likely to be fit for export separately. Note that pickers who are entrusted with
pre-selection in the orchard / field must be well trained and closely monitored to ensure that export fruit
is not picked by mistake.
Based on the maturity indexing data and the crop estimate, a decision has to be taken on when picking
will start, and on the picking period.
A decision can also now be taken on the number of pickers and picking teams that will be required. The
necessary workers are recruited and trained, if necessary prior to the harvest.
In preparation for harvesting, a general inspection of the equipment is required to ensure that
maintenance has been adequately seen to. Pruning shears, picking bags, ladders, bins or trailers, and
tractors are inspected to ensure that they are in the proper working condition. All equipment that may
come into contact with fruit must also be cleaned and sterilised to limit waste and decay.
Mechanical harvesters are very expensive and harvesting is often contracted out. It is therefore
essential for a farmer to book the harvesters well in advance to prevent yield and quality losses due to
too late harvesting. Contractors usually prefer to harvest all the fields in a particular production area
before moving on to the next production area and will seldom return to an area in the same season.
Therefore the planting time of the crops should also be seen as part of the harvest preparation,
because if you plant earlier or later than the other farmers in the area, your crops development will not
be in synchronization with the rest of the fields in the area and that can lead problems come harvest
time. If a farmer, however, has his/her own harvesters, the latter is not of importance. As with contract
harvesting, make sure to enquire and plan for contract labour, transport of the produce to markets,
gins, silos etc., if it has to be contracted out.
Harvesting Methods

Fruit picking methods

⮚ Snap picking; and

⮚ Clipping
Snap picking is a method whereby fruit is twisted off sharply by hand without using an implement.
Clipping makes use of specifically designed pruning shears that are used to cut the stem of the fruit.
Clipping is generally recommended in most situations, but there are cases where snap picking, which is
faster, is appropriate.
In the case of clipping, purpose-built pruning shears are used to cut the stem as close to the button, or
calyx, as possible without injuring the shoulder of the fruit. Long stems of between 1mm and 4mm,
which result from inefficient cutting, are a frequent problem in harvesting and can lead to injuries to fruit
when they are put into the picking bags, trailers or bins. Injuries of this nature can cause the fruit to

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decay at a later stage. If fruit is handled roughly or if the shoulders are cut by inexperienced pickers or
pickers who are not taking enough time, it also increases the risk of fruit decay.
Snap picking is not recommended for produce such as export citrus fruit for a number of reasons. The
calyx buttons are pulled out easily, oleocellosis develops because of the pressure on fruit as it is pulled
and twisted, and stems are sometimes not cleanly broken off. It is however appropriate in certain
situations, such as when a team is sent in to select and pick non-export fruit.
Snap picking is often done in tomatoes and other vegetable fruit crops, while the use of clipping is often
done to improve the quality of the produce less bruising and other physical damage associated with
snap picking occurs.
Harvesting of leafy vegetables
In most cases the cabbage and lettuce heads are cut from the root at the base of the head and as
close as possible to the soil surface, using a knife. Where individual leaves are harvested such as
Swiss chard (spinach) or lettuce, the fingers are placed close to the base of the petioles and while
firmly keeping hold of the petiole the leaf will be removed from the plant in the same way as the snap
pick procedure followed in tree fruit. This may, however, cause tearing of the petiole tissue and knifes
could also be used for a cleaner cut.
Harvesting of grain and seed crops
If small areas are to be harvested, maize ears can be harvested with the snap picking explained in
session 3.1, while pruning shears can be used cut the heads of the sunflower stem. The ears can then
be taken to the shed where the ear leaves have to be removed to gain access to the kernels. By simply
rubbing the hand palm firmly over the ear, the kernels can be removed. An alternative is to rub two ears
together. When soybeans are harvested it would be easier to cut the stem with pruning shears or any
other sharp tool close to the soil surface, taking the stems to the shed and manually removing the pods
from the stem there. The seeds can be removed by pressing hard on the sides of the pods to force it
open.
Guidelines to Harvesting Crops
The section below summarises harvesting guidelines for selected crops.
Citrus
Once picking starts, a few basics guidelines should be adhered to, as set out below.
Picking bags are suspended from the side of the pickers and not in front of them. This prevents
damage to the fruit as the picker leans against a ladder or pushes into branches in the canopy
Pickers must walk with full picking bags and not run, as running will bounce and chafe the fruit, leading
to the development of oleocellosis.
When picking bags are emptied they should be placed close to or on existing fruit lying in the bulk bins
or picking trailers before being emptied. This will also limit injury.
Once a bag has been emptied, it must be opened and shaken to remove loose twigs, leaves and sand
that might have collected during the picking process.
Fruit that were dropped during the picking process must not be picked up off the ground and put with
export fruit. Similarly, fruit lying on the ground and in contact with the soil should not be picked up and
mixed with export fruit.
When varieties that are susceptible to oleocellosis are harvested, filling of bulk bins and trailers should
be limited. The extent of the limitation will depend on the specific condition, but it would generally never
be approximately 50% of the volume of the bin/trailer. As an added precaution, rubber or cardboard
sheeting can be used to line bins providing protection.

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Soft fruits such as tomatoes
Ensure that clear instructions are given on which colour fruits should be harvested and which should be
left for the next picking. Follow the site procedures where they are available. Provide examples of some
poor quality fruits and what should be done if such fruit are encountered. These fruits bruise easily and
should not be thrown into the picking crates from a distance
Ears, heads and pods - dry
As these are already dry, care should be taken to prevent the seeds from falling out of the head or pod
before it reaches the threshing area. At this stage some diseases could have attacked the ears, heads
or pods. The pickers should know how to identify these and should separate diseased pods and cobs.
Vegetable Crops
Vegetables should be harvested during the cool part of the morning and should be stored as soon as
possible. If the produce is destined for the market, ensure that the storage conditions are correct for the
produce. If they are destined for processing, they should be cooled and stored under refrigeration to
preserve flavour and quality. You need to ensure that you know the basic harvest practice for each crop
you are dealing with. What follows are some examples of harvest practices for different crops.
⮚ Beans – green - Start harvesting before seeds develop in the pod – when the green pods are
about the diameter of a pencil. To determine harvest readiness bend them in the middle, if they
snap easily, they can be harvested.
⮚ Beetroot - Harvest when they are about 5 to 8 cm in diameter. If the market is for smaller beets
they can be harvested at about 2 – 3 cm diameter. The leaves should be about 10 – 15 cm
long. The beet tops can also be eaten as greens.
⮚ Broccoli - Harvest the dark green compact clusters or heads when they are about 15 cm in
diameter. The buds must be tight and should be harvested before any yellow flower develops.
As you harvest the heads, smaller side shoots will develop providing an almost continuous
harvest.
⮚ Cabbage - Harvest cabbage when the heads feel hard and solid. If left to late the heads will
crack and split. Cut the heads from the stem just below the point of attachment to the stem.
Ensure that you use a clean, sharp suitable knife. Always clean the knife using a dip mixture of
suitable sanitizer in water. One can harvest the sprouts that develop as a later crop.
⮚ Cucumbers - Harvest when the fruits are deep green and before a yellow colour develops.
The cucumber fruit should be 5 – 8 cm long for sweet pickles; 13 – 16 cm for dill pickles, and
16 – 20 cm for slicing pickles. Harvest 4 to 5 times per week to encourage continuous
production. Mature cucumbers left on the vine will stop the production of the entire plant.
⮚ Lettuce - For non-heading types harvest the older, outer leaves from leaf lettuce when they are
approximately 12 cm long. For heading types harvest when the heads are moderately firm but
well before seed stalks form.
Onions - Harvest when the tops fall over and begin to turn yellow. Dig out the onions and place
them to dry out in the open sun for a few days. The onions are sufficiently dry when skin is
toughened. Remove the dried soil by brushing the onions lightly. Cut the stem, leaving 4 to 5
cm and store in a net bag in a cool, dry place.

Tree crops - general

Do not shake the branches of the trees to make the fruits fall down as this will lead to bruising.

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Use ladders where possible.
When harvesting for processing, a harvesting stick can be used where fruit are to high to each but
allow the fruits drop onto a soft surface, such as a net.
When mango and avocados are to be exported or transported for extended periods, leave a
portion of the stalk on the fruit.
⮚ Do not throw fruits out during harvest.

⮚ When harvesting heavy banana bunches use two people per bunch.

⮚ Harvest in the early morning or late afternoon.

⮚ Do the first grading according to market destination during harvest.

Ensure that the latex from mango, banana and paw paw does not come into contact with the skin of the
fruit. If this happens wash the fruit in clean water.
Take care of your eyes, if harvested fruits contain latex juice.
Place your fruits on a well-aerated surface or in containers that are not made of rough surfaces.
Handle the fruit as little as possible.
Pack the fruits as soon as possible into the final transport box or container.
Export fruit may have to be cooled.
The basic principals or orchard hygiene are:-
⮚ In order to avoid mould infections and rind damage a number of standard orchard hygiene
practices could also be implemented.
⮚ Prune trees of dead branches twigs.

⮚ Prune the trees to allow light and air movement through trees.

⮚ Harvest cultivars that are susceptible to splitting early.

⮚ Never place fallen fruit into bins together with fresh fruit.

The harvesting checklist

The list provided below is a checklist of items that should be kept in mind before harvest commences.
Harvesting equipment.
⮚ Maintain ladders, bins, picking bags and crates in good condition.

⮚ Wash and clean all equipment used for picking fruit.

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Harvest and the weather.

⮚ When harvesting during colder conditions the harvest should be during the warmer parts of
the day to reduce the risk of skin damage in some fruit.
⮚ During hot conditions wilted fruit should not be picked and the orchard should be, irrigated
before harvest.
Handle fruit with care.
⮚ Wear gloves.

⮚ Have short fingernails.

⮚ Empty bags carefully.

⮚ Do not drop fruit.

⮚ Do not overfill bags or bins.

⮚ Ensure farm road surfaces are smooth.

⮚ Use minimum trailer tyre pressures to cushion the ride.

⮚ Drive slowly to the packing shed.

Protect fruit from the sun.

⮚ Keep harvested out of the sun.

⮚ Erect shelters if necessary.

⮚ Transport full bins directly to the packing facility.

⮚ Bulk dip or spray a suitable post-harvest fungicide onto fruit within 24 hours of
harvest where appropriate

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 Session 4
Adhere to personal health, hygiene and safety during harvesting.
SO 4
✔ The types of safety clothes or equipment used during harvesting are described.
Learning
Outcomes ✔ Why it is necessary to follow certain basic hygiene procedures during harvesting are
(Assessment explained.
Criteria) ✔ The importance of revealing minor accidents that result in cuts or minor wounds to
management and have it taken care of is discussed.

Safety wear appropriate to harvesting crops and/or handling the harvested crop

Working with machinery

Operators should not touch any machine unless he/she is trained to conduct maintenance on the
machinery. When machinery is involved, it is best to wear overalls, protective gloves and closed end
shoes (not barefoot or sandals). All parts of the body, except the face is covered, reducing the risk of
injury due to stray rocks or even plant debris during the harvest process.
Wear protective eyewear. Fine dust, soil and plant particles are always present during mechanical
harvesting of dry products such as maize and soybean, and can cause severe eye damage. Due to the
dust and fine particles surrounding the harvester at work, dust masks should be used to prevent these
from being inhaled. Do not wear loose clothes that may be caught in moving parts of machinery.
Safety during hand harvesting
Wear overalls and closed shoes. Although no machinery is involved, grass leaf blades can cut exposed
skin. Some crops such as tomato contain chemicals that may irritate the skin. Unprotected feet may be
injured if harvesting bins are dropped on the foot. If pruning shears, knifes or other tools with blades are
used during the harvesting process, wear protective gloves.
Post Harvest
When machinery is involved, it is best to wear overalls, protective gloves and closed shoes. Post
harvest treatment of the produce may involve the use of chemicals. In such situations ensure that the
correct Personal Protective Equipment is used.
Personal hygiene and health
To prevent contamination of produce with human related diseases, all labourers should practice strict
personal hygiene and should know that their health may affect the safety of the end user.
Important rules to adhere to are listed below:
● Wash hands under running water and with soap after each visit to the bathroom.

● Wear a hair net if you are involved in packing and further processing of the produce.

● Wear a mask over the mouth and nose if you have to handle fruits and vegetables.

● In the case of a severe cold or other disease, inform your employer or group leader so that the
correct health procedures can be followed.
● If you have or if you suspect you have some other contagious disease, inform your employer or
group leader so that the appropriate measures can be followed. This may involve you being
used in aspects of the harvest process which will not place you in direct contact of the produce
etc. Remember your problem might be curable, but if you do not inform or trust your employer
or group leader with this information, you could suffer unnecessarily.
● When you have open wounds on your body, cover it with clothes or bandages. Replace
bandages at least once a day and make sure you are treating the condition correctly. If the
wound is on the hands, use gloves when the produce has to be handled. Also inform your
employer or group leader of this situation, to ensure the right health procedures are followed.

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 ● In case of an accident during the harvesting or post harvesting of the crop, call the person(s)
responsible for first aid to the scene of the accident, and then inform the group leader and
employer immediately.
● If a fellow worker is not adhering to the rules set out by the employer, report it to the group
leader or employer promptly. Rules are usually set to protect all role players in the harvesting
process, this includes you, and a person not following these rules are not only endangering
him/herself, but you also.
● Therefore, love yourself and report any potential problems promptly.

Safety and the use of loaders and fork lifts

The safe and efficient operation of any equipment, including loaders, is the sole and direct
responsibility of the operator. Experience and skill in this type of task can only be gained through
training and supervision.
It is important that a safety inspection program is followed. Such inspections allow for the detection of
unsafe equipment and unsafe conditions early. In this way counter measures can be set up before
someone is injured. However accidents do occur and should someone be injured the injury must be
reported immediately so that the injury can be properly treated and produce is not contaminated. This
also allows for an injury record to be evident over time. Such records will highlight potential problem
areas that can be eliminated from the harvesting procedures.
General safety inspections should be conducted daily before the equipment is being used. So
checkpoints for equipment such as tractors and forklifts are:
● Check water, fuel, fan belts, etc.

● Once engine is running, check hand and/or air brakes, this ensures that brakes will hold while
loading.
● Inspect hydraulic lines for kinks, cracks, and general wear and tear.

● Inspect the frame for hairline cracks, or fatigue in the metal. Cracks in the metal may cause the
equipment to break either completely or parts coming off.
● Pickers must be at a safe distance from the equipment when loading or unloading bins.

● Operators must be aware of the location of the harvesters at all times. Drivers and operators
must be on the look out for harvesters on ladders while driving through an orchard.
● Operators must look out for overhead power lines during loading and unloading of fruit. Always
discuss unsafe acts seen during the day with the supervisors so that preventative measures
can be developed and implemented.

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 Session 5
Dispose of waste.
SO 5
✔ How waste is categorized is explained.
Learning ✔ The importance of disposing of waste as prescribed is explained.
Outcomes
(Assessment ✔ Demonstrate and describe How waste is collected as prescribed is demonstrated
Criteria) and described.
✔ How waste is loaded and/or deposited according to procedures is described.

Handling Waste

Often much of the harvested produce is lost. This is because fresh produce tends to go into a steady
decay almost immediately after harvesting. Although post harvest treatments will preserve the produce
to some extent, there is always some extent of post harvest wastage. The amount of waste that is
generated should be minimized.
To minimize such damage, care must be taken to ensure that fruit is not damaged in any way. Losses
associated with wastage extend beyond the physical loss the produce itself. Such wastage leads to
reduced income, they contribute to environmental pollution. Most fresh produce farms will however
have an area set aside where harvest wastage is either stored and later used as animal feed, or is
composted. Such areas must be at a distance from both the fields and the processing areas.
Waste produced during the harvest process
Waste in this sense is a plant residue left on the field after harvesting. Examples include:
⮚ The stubble, cobs and leaves of a maize plant.

⮚ The stem leaves and discarded fruit of tomatoes and other fruit crops.

⮚ The stem and wrapper leaves of a cabbage crop.

Such materials are normally degradable and seldom cause environmental problems. However
crops diseases and pests maybe harbored in such material, and should therefore be allowed to
completely decompose before the new crop is introduced.
After harvesting various non-degrading or slow degradable waste are generated. These
include:
⮚ Damaged plastic bags in which produce were to be packed, plastic bags, which contained
the packing material.
⮚ Cardboard boxes in which packing materials were delivered.

⮚ Broken/damaged picking containers.

⮚ Un-repairable harvest tools and equipment

Dealing with waste produced during harvesting

Firstly, waste in this case does not necessarily have a negative connotation. The waste or rather
plant residue produced during harvesting are the plant parts (leaves, stems, cobs, heads etc.) that
do not contribute to the yield of the crop. These are often left on the field after harvesting. The
following processes can be followed to deal with such waste:
The plant residue can be left on the field where it can be used as:

⮚ Animal feed. Cattle etc. can be allowed onto the field after harvesting and utilize the plant
material in producing milk and meat.

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 ⮚ Mulch. The plant residue can be chopped into smaller particles with a disc implement
pulled by a tractor. The plant residue then acts as a mulch to protect the soil against water
and wind erosion.
⮚ The plant residue can be incorporated into the soil during primary cultivation and in this
way replace some of the nutrient which were extracted out of the soil during the growth of
the crop.
⮚ The residue of some crops like soybean, peanut and wheat can be baled and removed
from the field. This is again used to feed animals.
⮚ Maize residue can be put through a hammer-mill to reduce the particle size. This chopped
rest are stored in bags and can be used as is, or mixed with molasses etc. to be fed to
animals.
⮚ Where diseases are problematic or no there is no other use for the rest, it can be burn to
get rid of it in an easy and quick way.
⮚ The residue, especially if it is still green and moist, can be used in the making of compost,
which can be used as an alternative to inorganic fertilizers.
⮚ Discarded vegetables and fruits can also be used in the making of compost. Do not use
diseased material for this.
⮚ Discarded vegetables and fruits can be used as animal feed.

⮚ Diseased material should be discarded of in a safe way by burning or burying it in a pit, far
away from the crop fields.
⮚ Most of the plant residue can therefore be used successfully in other farming
enterprises, contributing to the overall success of the farm.
⮚ The non-degradable waste requires extra care. A few examples of process that can be
followed to deal with such waste are provided below.

Recycling of plastics, cardboard, glass etc.

⮚ If recycling is not an option, discard waste in a safe way. Away from animals and where
children play, ideally making use of purpose build waste disposal areas.
⮚ Discard of the waste by putting it in a pit and covering it with soil as soon as the pit is full.
Keep record of where such a pit was dug to prevent later problems when the pit is opened
up by accident.
⮚ Some of the waste can be use in alternative ways. Cardboard boxes can for example be
used to store gloves, picking bags etc.

Waste management planning and record holding

Plant residue can be accommodated in different safe and useful ways on the farm. It remains
advisable that a waste management plan includes the processes for dealing with such waste. All
harvesting personnel must know the areas for composting or dealing with the biological material.
Keeping records of waste management remains important, as it provides an account of the type of
waste being produced and what it can be used for. Especially where the plant residue is used as
animal feed. This helps for planning fodder flow of an enterprise. The same principal can be
applied for compost. Knowing the type of residue that may be available and when it could become
available makes scheduling the composting and compost use possible.
Keeping records of recyclable materials allows one to determine the extent of waste that is
produced. This in turn adds in the planning for numbers of waste bins that may be required per
waste type, and the scheduling of waste removal.

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