materials

Article
Impacts of Aggregate Gradation on the Volumetric Parameters
and Rutting Performance of Asphalt Concrete Mixtures
Weihua Li 1 , Weidong Cao 2, *, Xianfu Ren 1 , Shurong Lou 1 , Shutang Liu 2, * and Jizhe Zhang 2

1 Shandong High Speed Group Weifang Development Co., Ltd., Weifang 262500, China; [email protected] (W.L.);
[email protected] (X.R.); [email protected] (S.L.)
2 School of Qilu Transportation, Shandong University, Jinan 250002, China; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] (W.C.); [email protected] (S.L.)

Abstract: The main objective of this study was to determine the effect of aggregate gradation (AG) on
the volumetric parameters (VPs) and rutting performance (RP) of asphalt concrete (AC) mixtures. The
boundary sieve (BS) between fine and coarse aggregates was 2.36 mm size, and 15 gradation curves
of three nominal maximum aggregate sizes (13.2, 19.0, and 26.5 mm) were designed based on the
percentage passing of the BS. A vibrating compaction test of coarse aggregates, Marshall compaction
and wheel-tracking tests of AC mixtures with various gradations were conducted. It was found
that AG had crucial effects on the VPs and RP of AC mixtures. The AC mixture can be designed
as a skeletal dense structure provided that the percentage passing of the BS is appropriate. More
notably, AC mixtures with a skeletal dense structure showed the best rutting resistance performance.
Therefore, it is important to optimize AG for enhancing the high-temperature RP of AC mixtures.

Keywords: aggregate gradation; asphalt concrete mixture; volumetric parameters; rutting perfor-
mance; skeletal dense structure
Citation: Li, W.; Cao, W.; Ren, X.;
Lou, S.; Liu, S.; Zhang, J. Impacts of
Aggregate Gradation on the
Volumetric Parameters and Rutting 1. Introduction
Performance of Asphalt Concrete
It is well accepted that the performance of asphalt concrete (AC) pavement is greatly in-
Mixtures. Materials 2022, 15, 4866.
fluenced by its aggregate characteristics, since AC mixtures contain approximately 90–95%
https://doi.org/10.3390/
of mineral aggregate by weight. In particular, aggregate gradation (AG) is a significant
ma15144866
factor to be considered in the design of AC mixture. Hence, different methods have been
Academic Editor: Angelo developed and applied on gradation selection [1,2], including Superpave and Marshall mix
Marcello Tarantino designs, which meet the requirements for the volumetric properties of AC mixture. The
Received: 20 June 2022
paramount volumetric properties of a mix design include voids in the mineral aggregate
Accepted: 11 July 2022
(VMA), voids filled with asphalt (VFA), and air voids (AV). Current VMA requirements
Published: 13 July 2022
are built upon the premise that pavement performance and durability reduce when the
VMA drops below the minimum value. However, an increase in minimum VMA can
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
attenuate the performance of some mixtures. AG plays an important role in ensuring that
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
an adequate amount of VMA is obtained to achieve the desired performance levels [3].
published maps and institutional affil-
Therefore, VMA has a crucial effect on the designs of aggregate gradation [4]. According to
iations.
the Asphalt Institute, the recommendations for optimizing the gradation curves to achieve
the desired effects on AV and VMA are largely dependent on the experience of designers in
handling different materials [5]. A growing body of research has focused on the association
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
between AG and Maximum Density Line (MDL) and how this connection can affect the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. VMA of AC mixtures [6].
This article is an open access article With regard to volume fraction, the fine and coarse aggregates account for 85–90% of
distributed under the terms and the volume of hot mix asphalt (HMA) [7,8], in which the proportion of coarse aggregates
conditions of the Creative Commons (particle size > 2.36 mm) is also prominent. From a different perspective, coarse aggregates
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// in HMA play dual roles: (i) the internal resistance of HMA is characterized as stone-on-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ stone skeleton established in the mix design (also for open-graded friction or stone mastic
4.0/). asphalt course), and the coarse aggregate contact of HMA gradation is regarded as the

Materials 2022, 15, 4866. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15144866 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2022, 15, 4866 2 of 12

primary source of internal resistance [8,9]; (ii) the percentage voids in the coarse aggregate
of asphalt mixture (VCAmix ) structured by coarse aggregates can provide a maternal space
for VMA and partially restrict the VMA values [4]. Hence, VCAmix is also a critical volume
indicator that has no direct relationship with the gradation design.
AG is one of the important properties of HMA, as it has various aspects of mixture
performance, including VMA, resistance to permanent deformation, durability and com-
patibility [10–14]. It has been reported that AG is closely related to the rutting and indirect
tensile (IDT) performance. The gradation effect is aggregate specific for rutting. The design
binder content can be used to measure the effect of gradation on indirect tensile strength
(ITS), which is associated with the VMA values of AG [15]. Sangsefidi and colleagues [16]
assessed the moisture susceptibility of warm mix asphalt and the effect of AG on creep.
Their findings demonstrated that AG could differently affect the moisture vulnerability
and rutting resistance of the studied mixtures. Hafeez and co-workers [17] evaluated the
effects of AG with various nominal maximum aggregate sizes on the fatigue, rutting and
stiffness performance of stone mastic asphalt (SMA). Their findings showed that stiffer
SMA had lower rut values and fatigue life. A mixture of stiffness and rut resistance may
enhance with increasing aggregate sizes during AG. Xiao and colleagues [18] found that
AG could affect the rutting resistance and moisture susceptibility of open graded friction
course (OGFC) mixtures. Kim and co-workers [19] conducted a study to examine the effects
of mix gradations related to the Superpave restricted zone on rutting potential, particularly
for low traffic volume roadways. They concluded that similar to that for medium to high
traffic volume pavements, the restricted zone is not a significant factor influencing the RP of
HMA for low traffic volume local pavements. The fineness of AG, rather than the restricted
zone, may serve as a promising factor that influences rutting performance. Sun et al. [20]
evaluated the skeleton contact stability of a graded aggregate system and analyzed the
slip creep properties of asphalt mixture from the geometric characteristics of aggregates.
Devulapalli et al. [21] summarized the concerns in the SMA mixtures and gave knowledge
about the gradation, stone-on-stone contact, drain down, and stabilizing agents based on a
detailed literature review.
According to the relevant literature [7] and our research [22,23], a 2.36 mm size can
be employed as the boundary sieve (BS) between fine and coarse aggregates. Hence, the
coarse aggregates > 2.36 mm constitute the skeleton structure of asphalt mixtures. The AC
mixture has been widely used in the asphalt pavement structure in China, which is often
regarded as a dense-suspended gradation structure. However, the dense skeleton structure
in AC mixture can also be formed when the suitable AG is designed. The main objective of
this study was to assess the quantitative impacts of AG variations (i.e., different percentage
passing of 2.36 mm sieve) on the volumetric parameters (VPs) and high-temperature RP
of AC mixtures. In this paper, the relations between key volumetric parameters, rutting
resistance performance and percent passing of BS for AC-13, AC-20 and AC-25 were
established, respectively. In addition, the reference values of the percentage passing of
BS were presented for guiding the gradation design of AC mixture with dense skeleton
structure.

2. Materials and Experiments

2.1. Materials
2.1.1. Aggregates and Filler
AC mixtures with 3 nominal maximum sizes of 26.5, 19 and 13.2 mm, namely, AC-25,
AC-20 and AC-13, were employed in the present study. AC-25, AC-20 and AC-13 were ap-
plied in the bottom, middle and upper surface layers of the asphalt pavement, respectively.
Considering the mechanical properties and abrasion resistance of crushed basalt stones,
they were employed for fine and coarse aggregates in AC-13. Meanwhile, the crushed
lime stones were applied for fine and coarse aggregates in AC-25 and AC-20. One basalt
fine aggregate (0–3 mm) and three basalt coarse aggregates with different particle sizes
(3–5, 5–10 and 10–15 mm) were selected. Table 1 shows the properties of basalt coarse
Materials 2022, 15, 4866 3 of 12

aggregates according to the Chinese specifications [24], while Table 2 shows the properties
of lime coarse aggregates with different particle sizes (3–5, 5–10, 10–20 and 20–30 mm). The
basic properties of the two kinds of fine aggregates are presented in Table 3. The limestone
powder was used as a mineral filler after passing through the #200 sieve. All the materials
have met the technical requirements specifications [24].

Table 1. Properties of the basalt coarse aggregates.

Test Values
Properties Specification
10–15 mm 5–10 mm 3–5 mm
Apparent specific gravity 2.835 2.848 2.823 ≥2.60
Bulk specific gravity 2.770 2.679 2.703 –
Water absorption (%) 1.0 1.5 1.2 ≤2.0
Percent of flat and elongated particles (%) 8.3 9.5 9.8 ≤15
Crushed stone value (%) 12.6 12.6 – ≤26
L.A. abrasion (%) 9.3 9.6 9.0 ≤28

Table 2. Properties of the lime coarse aggregates.

Test Values
Properties Specification
20–30 mm 10–20 mm 5–10 mm 3–5 mm
Apparent specific gravity 2.737 2.727 2.747 2.673 ≥2.50
Bulk specific gravity 2.700 2.687 2.694 2.612 –
Water absorption (%) 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.9 ≤3.0
Percent of flat and elongated particles (%) 10.3 11.5 9.8 11.0 ≤15
Crushed stone value (%) 18.5 18.5 18.5 – ≤28
L.A. abrasion (%) 17.3 17.6 17.2 – ≤30

Table 3. Properties of the two fine aggregates.

Test Values
Properties Specification
Basalt Limestone
Apparent specific gravity 2.821 2.723 ≥2.50
Angularity (s) 38 36 ≥30

2.1.2. Asphalt Binder

A 70 penetration grade (Pen 70) asphalt binder was supplied by a commercial petroleum
company and was employed in all mixture designs. Table 4 shows the properties of the Pen
70 asphalt binder. The specifications for pavement asphalt binders are met for all data [24].

Table 4. Properties of the Pen 70 asphalt binder.

Softening Point Penetration Specific Gravity Ductility (cm)

Index
(◦ C) (25 ◦ C, 0.1 mm) (15 ◦ C) 15 ◦ C 10 ◦ C
Test values 49.6 71 1.021 >100 40

2.2. Mix Design

The size of BS between fine and coarse aggregates was 2.36 mm. Five grading curves
of AC-25, AC-20 and AC-13 were designed based on the percent passing (PP) of the BS.
The structure and type of the aggregate can be reflected by the PP of the BS. The gradation
curves of all aggregates demonstrated S type. Figures 1–3 show the design gradation curves
of aggregates with 3 nominal maximum sizes. The gradation curves can be seen in two
 2.2. Mix Design
2.2. Mix
The Design
size of BS between fine and coarse aggregates was 2.36 mm. Five grading curves
of AC-25, AC-20
The size and
of BS AC-13fine
between wereanddesigned based onwas
coarse aggregates the 2.36
percent
mm.passing (PP) of
Five grading the BS.
curves
The structure
of AC-25, andand
AC-20 typeAC-13
of thewereaggregate
designedcan based
be reflected
on theby the PPpassing
percent of the BS.(PP)The gradation
of the BS.
Materials 2022, 15, 4866 The structure
curves and type of the
of all aggregates aggregate can
demonstrated S be reflected
type. Figuresby the
1–3PP of thethe
show BS.design
The gradation
gradation
4 of 12
curvesof
curves ofaggregates
all aggregates
withdemonstrated
3 nominal maximum S type. Figures
sizes. The1–3gradation
show thecurvesdesigncan gradation
be seen in
curves
two of aggregates
parts consisting with 3 nominal
of a coarse maximum
section (sieve sizes.
size isThe gradation
equal curves
or greater thancan2.36
be seen
mm)inand
two
fine parts
section
parts consisting
(sieveofsize
consisting of a coarse
is less
a coarse section
than (sieve
section (sieve
or equal
sizeto size
is 2.36is equal
equalmm). or greater
Additionally,
or greater than
than 2.36 mm) 2.36 mm)
the coarse
and fine and
sections
fine section
ofsection (sieve size
(sieve sizecurves
five gradation is less
is less than than or
or equal
for each equal to 2.36
to 2.36maximum
nominal mm). Additionally,
mm). Additionally,
aggregatethesize the
coarse coarse
were sections
sections
designedof as S
of five
five gradation
gradation curves
curves for for
each each nominal
nominal maximummaximum aggregate
aggregate
type curves, and the proportion of the coarse aggregates was constant. size size
were were
designed designed
as S type as S
type curves,
curves, andproportion
and the the proportionof the of the coarse
coarse aggregates
aggregates was constant.
was constant.

Figure 1.1.Gradation
Figure1.
Figure Gradation curves
Gradation curves of
curves of AC-13.
ofAC-13.
AC-13.

Figure2.
Figure Gradation curves
2. Gradation curves of
of AC-20.
AC-20.
Figure 2. Gradation curves of AC-20.
Materials2022,
Materials 2022,15,
15,4866
x FOR PEER REVIEW 55 of 13
of 12

Figure 3. Gradation
Figure 3. Gradation curves
curves of
of AC-25.
AC-25.

According
Accordingtoto the
the China
China specifications
specifications [24],
[24], our
our previous
previous research
research and
and field
field experience
experience
of AC mixture [25], the asphalt contents of the three AC mixtures were evaluated, which
of AC mixture [25], the asphalt contents of the three AC mixtures were evaluated, which
were 3.9%, 4.4% and 5.3% for AC-25, AC-20 and AC-13, respectively. To further assess the
were 3.9%, 4.4% and 5.3% for AC-25, AC-20 and AC-13, respectively. To further assess the
individual effect of AG on the VPs and high-temperature RP of AC mixtures, 5 AGs of each
individual effect of AG on the VPs and high-temperature RP of AC mixtures, 5 AGs of
AC mixture used the similar asphalt contents.
each AC mixture used the similar asphalt contents.
2.3. Experimental Program and Testing Methods
2.3. Experimental Program and Testing Methods
First of all, VCA formed from the packing of coarse aggregates for three kinds of
First of all,
AC mixtures at VCA formed
the state from any
without the packing
asphalt of coarsewere
binders aggregates for three
conducted usingkinds of AC
vibrating
compaction. Then, the VPs and RP of AC mixtures were assessed by determiningcom-
mixtures at the state without any asphalt binders were conducted using vibrating the
paction.
effects of Then, the
5 levels of VPs and 3RP
AG and of AC
levels mixturesmaximum
of nominal were assessed by determining
aggregate size. A totalthe effects
of 15 AC
of 5 levelswere
mixtures of AG and 3 levels
designed with of
thenominal
Marshallmaximum
method aggregate size. A
and examined totalthe
using of 15 AC mix-
two-wheel
tures weretracking
laboratory designeddevices.
with the Marshall method and examined using the two-wheel labor-
atory tracking devices.
2.3.1. Vibrating Compaction Test of Coarse Aggregates
2.3.1.The
Vibrating
vibratingCompaction
compactionTesttest
of Coarse Aggregates
of coarse aggregates was performed by a vibration
table,The
andvibrating
the vesselcompaction
with a weightteststack
of coarse aggregates
is shown was4.performed
in Figure by a vibration
Firstly, different size coarse ta-
aggregates
ble, and thewere fully
vessel mixed
with by thestack
a weight proportion
is shownaccording
in Figureto the coarse sections
4. Firstly, differentofsize
designed
coarse
gradation
aggregatescurves, and the
were fully mixed
mixed by specimen was obtained.
the proportion according Next, thecoarse
to the mixed sections
specimenofwas de-
placed in a 10 L capacity vessel 3 times. After loading the sample into
signed gradation curves, and the mixed specimen was obtained. Next, the mixed speci- a layer, the vessel
was
menplaced onto ainvibration
was placed table, and
a 10 L capacity the3 compaction
vessel times. After experiment
loading the was conducted
sample (the
into a layer,
vibration
the vesselfrequency
was placed and timea were
onto 50 Hz
vibration and and
table, 90 s,the
respectively).
compactionLastly, when was
experiment the final
con-
layer
ductedwas vibrated,
(the vibrationthefrequency
surface ofand
the time
samples
werewas leveled.
50 Hz and 90 Tos,maintain data accuracy,
respectively). Lastly, when the
experimental
the final layererrors were reduced
was vibrated, and theofnumber
the surface of parallel
the samples was experiments was set todata
leveled. To maintain 3. The
ac-
values of VCA can be calculated using Equation (1).
curacy, the experimental errors were reduced and the number of parallel experiments was
set to 3. The values of VCA can be calculated  using
 Equation (1).
ρ
VCA = 1 −
 ρb ρ ×  100 (1)
VCA =  1 −  × 100 (1)
where ρ is the packing density of the mixed
ρb  aggregates in the vessel; ρ is the
 coarse b
where ρbulk
synthetic density
is the packingof coarse
densityaggregates
of the mixedwithcoarse
different sizes. in the vessel; ρ is the
aggregates b
synthetic bulk density of coarse aggregates with different sizes.
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 13

Materials 2022,15,
Materials2022, 15,4866
x FOR PEER REVIEW 66 of
of1213

Figure 4. Vibrating compaction test device.

Figure4.4.Vibrating
Vibratingcompaction
compactiontest
testdevice.
device.
2.3.2.
Figure Marshall Compaction Test
2.3.2.To
2.3.2. assess Compaction
Marshall
Marshall the effects ofTest
Compaction different AGs on the VPs of AC mixtures, the samples were
Test
fabricated with 75 blows of Marshall Compactor. The asphalt mixture samples were pre-
Toassess
To assessthe
theeffects
effectsofofdifferent
differentAGs
AGson onthe
theVPs
VPsofofAC
ACmixtures,
mixtures,thethesamples
sampleswere were
pared according to the T072-2011 [26]. Four samples were fabricated for each AG. The VMA,
fabricated
fabricated with
with 75 blows
blows of of Marshall
MarshallCompactor.
Compactor.The The asphalt
asphalt mixture
mixture samples
samples were
were pre-
AV and VCAmix of the compacted specimens of various AGs were tested and calculated in
prepared according
pared according to T072-2011
to the the T072-2011 [26]. samples
[26]. Four Four samples were fabricated
were fabricated for The
for each AG. eachVMA,
AG.
terms of the procedures and formulas described in the China Standard Test Methods [26].
The
AVVMA,
and VCAAVmixandof VCA mix of the compacted
the compacted specimens of specimens
various AGsof various AGs were
were tested tested andin
and calculated
calculated in procedures
terms of theand
termsWheel-Tracking
of the procedures and formulas described in the China Standard Test
2.3.3. Test formulas described in the China Standard Test Methods [26].
Methods [26].
2.3.3.To evaluate the high-temperature
Wheel-Tracking Test RP of the AC mixture, the wheel-tracking test was
performed
2.3.3. by utilizing
Wheel-Tracking the wheel-tracking device (Figure 5). Each sample was 50 mm in
Test
To evaluate the high-temperature RP of the AC mixture, the wheel-tracking test was
height and 300 mm
To evaluate × 300 mm in cross-sectional
the high-temperature RP ofdevice
the ACareas. According
mixture, to the China Standard
performed by utilizing the wheel-tracking (Figure 5).the wheel-tracking
Each sample was 50 test
mm wasin
T0719-2011by
performed [26], the wheel-tracking
utilizing the test was
wheel-tracking conducted
device (Figure using
5). the sample
Each 0.7 MPawaswheel50 loadinat
mm
height and 300 mm × 300 mm in cross-sectional areas. According to the China Standard
60 °C temperature under
300 dry
mmconditions. Dynamic stability (DS) is presented byStandard
the num-
height and 300
T0719-2011 mm
[26], the×wheel-tracking
in cross-sectional areas.
test was conducted According
using theto 0.7the China
MPa wheel load at
ber of times
T0719-2011 the wheel
[26], theunder passes the
wheel-tracking sample per
test was rut depth
conducted within
using an interval of 45–60 min,
60 °C◦ temperature dry conditions. Dynamic stability (DS)the 0.7 MPa wheel
is presented load
by the num-
which can be calculated using Equation (2) [26]:
at 60 C temperature under dry conditions. Dynamic stability (DS) is presented by the
ber of times the wheel passes the sample per rut depth within an interval of 45–60 min,
number of times the wheel passes the sample per
which can be calculated using Equation (2) [26]:
which can be calculated using Equation
(
DS(2)= [26]:
)
t2 −rut
t1 ×depth
N within an interval of 45–60 min,
(2)
( t d−2 −t )d×1 N
DS = 2 1
( t2 − t1 ) × N (2)
(45 =
where d1 and d2 are rut depth at t1 DS min) and d 2
t2−(60
d 1
min), respectively; N is the speed(2) of
d − d1
wheel passing over the center of the sample,242 cycles/min.
where d1 and d2 are rut depth at t1 (45 min) and t2 (60 min), respectively; N is the speed of
whereAd1high
andDSd of
arethe
rutAC mixture
depth at t is
(45indicative
min) andof t an(60excellent performance
min), respectively; N of its resistance
is the speed of
wheel passing2 over the center of1the sample, 42 2cycles/min.
to permanent
wheel deformation
passing over at of
the center high
thetemperature.
sample, 42 cycles/min.
A high DS of the AC mixture is indicative of an excellent performance of its resistance
to permanent deformation at high temperature.

Figure5.5.Wheel-tracking
Figure Wheel-trackingtest
testdevice.
device.

Figure 5. Wheel-tracking test device.

Materials 2022, 15, 4866 7 of 12

Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13

A high DS of the AC mixture is indicative of an excellent performance of its resistance
to permanent deformation at high temperature.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
3.1.
3.1. Results
ResultsofofVibrating
Vibrating and
and Marshall
Marshall Compaction
Compaction Tests
Tests
The
The proportions of various coarse aggregatesin
proportions of various coarse aggregates inthe
thethree
threeACACmixes
mixesand
andcorrespond-
correspond-
ing
ing VCA values are shown in Table 5. Vibrating compaction tests were repeated
VCA values are shown in Table 5. Vibrating compaction tests were repeated three
three
times
times for
for each
each AC
AC mixture,
mixture, and
and the
the values
values of
of VCA
VCA areare represent
represent as as means.
means. Based
Based on
on the
the
testing
testing density
density parameters
parameters ofof Marshall
Marshall compacted
compacted samples
samples for
for the
the three
three AC
AC mixtures,
mixtures, the
the
calculated
calculated results
results of
of VMA,
VMA, AVAV and VCAmix mixas
asaa function
function of
ofthe
the PP
PP of
of BS
BS are
are presented
presented in
in
Figures
Figures 6–8.
6–8. The
The average
average values
values of
of the
the four
four duplicates
duplicates are
are obtained.
obtained.

Table
Table 5.
5. Results
Results of
of the
the vibrating
vibrating compaction
compaction test
test of
of coarse
coarse aggregates.
aggregates.
Proportions of Different
ProportionsCoarse Aggregates
of Different Coarse Aggregates
AC Mixes VCA (%)
20–30 mmAC Mixes10–20 mm 10–15 mm 5–10 mm 3–5 mm VCA (%)
20–30 mm 10–20 mm 10–15 mm 5–10 mm 3–5 mm
AC-13 -- -- 29 51 20 36.01
AC-13 – – 29 51 20 36.01
AC-20 -- AC-20 65 – 65-- – 20 20 15 15 35.65
35.65
AC-25 25 AC-25 45 25 45-- – 15 15 15 15 34.12
34.12

(a) (b)

46 43.94
44
42
39.51
VCAmix (%)

40
38 36.1
36
33.57
34
31.29
32
30
28
26
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Percent passing（%）
(c)
Figure
Figure 6.
6. VPs
VPsof
ofAC-13
AC-13 samples
samples versus
versus PP.
PP. (a)
(a) VMA;
VMA; (b)
(b) AV; (c) VCA
AV; (c) VCAmix..
mix
Materials 2022,
Materials 15,15,
2022, 4866
x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13 8 of 12

(a) (b)

46 45.13
44
42
39.72
40
VCAmix (%)

38
35.52
36
34 32.13
32 30.13
30
28
26
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW Percent passing（%） 9 of 13

(c)
Figure 7. VPs of AC-20 samples versus PP. (a) VMA; (b) AV; (c) VCAmix.
Figure 7. VPs of AC-20 samples versus PP. (a) VMA; (b) AV; (c) VCAmix.

(a) (b)

46 45.00

44
42
39.53
VCAmix (%)

40
38
36 34.37
34
31.32
32
30 28.10
28
26
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Percent passing（%）
(c)
Figure 8. VPs of AC-25 samples versus PP. (a) VMA; (b) AV; (c) VCAmix.
Figure 8. VPs of AC-25 samples versus PP. (a) VMA; (b) AV; (c) VCAmix.
As shown in Figures 6–8, the AG has crucial effects on the VPs (i.e., VMA, AV and
VCAmix) of AC mixtures. The values of VMA first decline and then elevate with increasing
percentage passing of the BS, and they exhibit an upward-opening parabola, whereas
those of AV reduce monotonically and appear to be constant with the increasing percent-
age passing of the BS. The values of VCAmix show a linear increase with the increasing
Materials 2022, 15, 4866 9 of 12

As shown in Figures 6–8, the AG has crucial effects on the VPs (i.e., VMA, AV and
VCAmix ) of AC mixtures. The values of VMA first decline and then elevate with increasing
percentage passing of the BS, and they exhibit an upward-opening parabola, whereas those
of AV reduce monotonically and appear to be constant with the increasing percentage pass-
ing of the BS. The values of VCAmix show a linear increase with the increasing percentage
passing of the BS. In addition, the VPs of different AGs of AC-25, AC-20 and AC-13 have
the same rule of change. VMA and AV are close to the smallest value when the PP of BS
is around 25. It is speculated that the aggregate structure of the AC mixture changes as a
function of the PP of the BS. The inner forms of AC mixtures are skeleton-gap structures
when the content of the coarse aggregate is larger (the PP is <25). Meanwhile, the coarse
skeleton structures of AC mixtures are disrupted by excessive fine aggregate when the
content of fine aggregate is larger (the PP is >25). Hence, the aggregate skeleton structure is
in its densest state when the proportion of fine and coarse aggregates is appropriate.

3.2. Results of Wheel-Tracking Tests

Wheel-tracking tests were performed in triplicate for each AC mixture, and the values
of DS for AC-25, AC-20 and AC-13 are displayed in Figure 9 (the error bars indicate
standard deviation). To perform a comparative analysis of the key parameter (VMA) and
RP of the three AC mixtures, the values of VMA are also plotted in Figure 9.
As shown in Figure 9, the values of DS first elevate and then decline with the increasing
percentage passing of the BS, which is opposite to the trend of VMA. The DS of different
AGs of AC-25, AC-20 and AC-13 have the same rule of change. However, the values of
DS are not influenced by the nominal maximum aggregate sizes. In addition, statistical
tests were conducted by employing the analysis of variance (ANOVA) method. One-way
ANOVA is a commonly used technique for determining the effect of gradation types on the
RP of AC mixtures according to the percentage passing of the BS. Table 6 demonstrates the
ANOVA results of the DS of AC mixtures. Based on the F-statistics and F-critical, AG is an
important factor affecting the values of DS of the three AC mixtures with a 95% significance
level (α = 0.05). It also can be seen that the peak values of DS nearly correspond to the
smallest values of VMA (Figure 9). It is speculated that AC mixtures have the best RP when
the coarse skeleton structure is in its densest state, which is desirable for the design of the
AC mixture. That condition indicates that the rutting resistance of the AC mixture mainly
depends on the grading structure of the aggregate. Therefore, it is important to optimize
AG for enhancing the high-temperature RP of AC mixtures.

3.3. Discussion
As we all know, one of the most defining characteristics of an SMA is the concept of a
stone-on-stone skeleton. This is where a large proportion of coarse aggregate particles are
in contact with each other to form a skeleton or framework with relatively large voids. The
sand-sized particles, filler and binder are then accommodated within the voids in the coarse
aggregate skeleton [27]. Supposing that the skeleton of the AC mixture is composed of
aggregates with a particle size larger than 2.36 mm, the skeletal dense structure (i.e., stone-
on-stone skeleton with the densest state) can be formed as in the case of SMA. Referring to
the method for assessing the stone-on-stone aggregate skeleton of SMA, the parameters
of VCA and VCAmix can also be applied to determine the skeletal dense structure of the
AC mixture. Based on the above experimental results (see Table 5 and Figures 6–8), it
can be seen that the values of VCAmix (34.37, 35.52 and 36.1 for AC-25, AC-20 and AC-13,
respectively) are very close to those of VCA (34.12, 35.65 and 36.01 for AC-25, AC-20 and
AC-13, respectively) when the percentage passing of the 2.36 mm sieve is ≈25 for each AC
mixture. Moreover, at this percentage passing, the VMA and AV almost have the minimum
values, which demonstrate that the coarse skeleton structure is in its dense state. Hence,
the skeletal dense structure of the AC mixture can be evaluated by comparing the values of
VCAmix and VCA. Additionally, the reference values of the percentage passing of BS are
presented for guiding the gradation design of the AC mixture.
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 o
Materials 2022, 15, 4866 10 of 12

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 9. The
Figure 9. valuesofofDS
The values DSand
and VMA
VMA of various
of various AC mixtures
AC mixtures versusversus
PP. (a) PP. (a) AC-13;
AC-13; (b) AC-20
(b) AC-20;
AC-25.
(c) AC-25.

As shown in Figure 9, the values of DS first elevate and then decline with the incre
ing percentage passing of the BS, which is opposite to the trend of VMA. The DS of dif
ent AGs of AC-25, AC-20 and AC-13 have the same rule of change. However, the val
of DS are not influenced by the nominal maximum aggregate sizes. In addition, statist
tests were conducted by employing the analysis of variance (ANOVA) method. One-w
ANOVA is a commonly used technique for determining the effect of gradation types
Materials 2022, 15, 4866 11 of 12

Table 6. ANOVA results for the DS of AC mixtures.

Source of Degree of Sum of Mean F- F- p-

Variation Freedom Squares Square Statistics Critical Value
AC-13
Gradation 4 4,885,150 1,221,288 69.83495 3.47805 2.87 × 10−7
Error 10 174,882 17,488.2
Total 14 5,060,032
AC-20
Gradation 4 1,656,796 414,198.9 64.31926 3.47805 4.26 × 10−7
Error 10 64,397.33 6439.733
Total 14 1,721,193
AC-25
Gradation 4 10,371,596 2,592,899 107.8359 3.47805 3.52 × 10−8
Error 10 240,448.7 24,044.87
Total 14 10,612,044

4. Summary and Conclusions

According to the results and analyses on the VPs and RP of AC mixtures with various
AGs, the main findings and conclusions are summarized as follows:
(1) AG has crucial effects on the VPs of AC mixtures. The values of VMA first decline
and then elevate with the increasing percentage passing of the BS; those of AV reduce
monotonically and appear to be constant, while those of VCAmix show a linear increase.
(2) Statistical analysis of the wheel-tracking test data indicates that AG is important
for enhancing the RP of AC mixtures. The values of DS first elevate and then decline with
the increasing percentage passing of the BS, which is opposite to the trend of VMA.
(3) AC mixtures show the best RP when the aggregate skeleton structure is in its
densest state, which corresponds to the smallest values of VMA. Therefore, it is necessary
to optimize AG to enhance the high-temperature RP of AC mixtures.
(4) Based on the experimental results and analyses, the AC mixture can be designed to
be a skeletal dense structure, provided that 2.36 mm is employed as the BS between fine
and coarse aggregates and the percentage passing of the BS is appropriate. In addition, the
skeletal dense structure of the AC mixture can be evaluated by comparing the values of
VCAmix and VCA.
(5) This research is focused on the RP of AC mixtures; the effects of AG on moisture
susceptibility and fatigue performance will be researched next. Further studies with other
asphalt binders are also needed to verify our findings.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, W.C. and S.L. (Shutang Liu); Data curation, J.Z.; For-
mal analysis, W.L.; Funding acquisition, S.L. (Shurong Lou); Investigation, W.C.; Methodology,
W.C. and S.L. (Shutang Liu); Project administration, W.L.; Resources, X.R.; Supervision, X.R.; Vi-
sualization, S.L. (Shurong Lou) and J.Z.; Writing—original draft, W.C.; Writing—review & editing,
S.L. (Shutang Liu). All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported Shandong Hi-Speed Group Transportation Technology Plan
(2019QL08).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the cor-
responding author. The data are not publicly available due to them forming part of an ongoing study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Materials 2022, 15, 4866 12 of 12

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