4.

1 Information as Digital Signals

In a communications system, data are propagated from one point to another by
means of electromagnetic signals. A digital signal is a sequence of voltage pulses
that may be transmitted over a wire medium; for example, a constant positive voltage
level may represent binary 1 and a constant zero voltage level may represent binary
0 as in figure 1.

Figure 1: A digital signal with two levels

A digital signal can have more than two levels. In this case, we can send more than
1 bit for each level In general, if a signal has L levels, each level needs log 2L bits.
For this reason, we can send log24 = 2 bits in figure 2.

Figure 2: A digital signal with four levels

4.2 Transmission of Digital Signals
Digital signal, periodic or nonperiodic, is a composite analog signal with frequencies
between zero and infinity. For the remainder of the discussion, let us consider the
case of a nonperiodic digital signal, like the ones we encounter in data
communications. The fundamental question is, how can we send a digital signal from
point A to point B? We can transmit a digital signal by using one of two different
approaches: baseband transmission or broadband transmission. Both baseband and
broadband describe how data is transmitted between two nodes.
4.2.1 Baseband Transmission
Baseband transmission means sending a digital signal over a channel without
changing the digital signal to an analog signal. Figure 3 shows baseband
transmission.

Figure 3: Baseband transmission

Baseband transmission requires that we have a low-pass channel, a channel with a

bandwidth that starts from zero. This is the case if we have a dedicated medium with
a bandwidth constituting only one channel. For example, the entire bandwidth of a
cable connecting two computers is one single channel. This single channel can be
used for baseband transmission. Baseband technology transmits a single data
signal/stream/channel at a time
4.2.2 Broadband Transmission
Broadband transmission or modulation means changing the digital signal to an
analog signal for transmission. Modulation allows us to use a bandpass channel—a
channel with a bandwidth that does not start from zero. This type of channel is more
available than a low-pass channel. Figure 4 shows a bandpass channel. Note that a
low-pass channel can be considered a bandpass channel with the lower frequency
starting at zero. Broadband technology transmits multiple data
signals/streams/channels simultaneously at the same time.

Figure 4: Bandpass channel for broadband transmission

4.2.3 Differences between Baseband and Broadband Transmissions

Baseband transmission Broadband transmission
Transmit digital signals Transmit analog signals
To boost signal strength, use repeaters To boost signal strength, use amplifiers
Can transmit only a single data stream Can transmit multiple signal waves at a
at a time time
Support bidirectional communication Support unidirectional communication
simultaneously only
Support TDM based multiplexing Support FDM based multiplexing
Use coaxial, twisted-pair, and fiber- Use radio waves, coaxial cables, and
optic cables fiber optic cables
Mainly used in Ethernet LAN networks Cable TV, Wi-Fi, and Power Line
communication are some examples
4.3 Bit Rate
Most digital signals are nonperiodic, and thus period and frequency are not
appropriate characteristics. We can describe digital signals with another term—bit
rate (instead of frequency). Bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s and it is expressed
in bits per second (bps).
Example 1: Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages
per second. What is the required bit rate of the channel?
Solution: A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each line. If we
assume that one character requires 8 bits, the bit rate is 100*24*80*8 = 1536000 bps
= 1.536 Mbps.
Example 2: Assume we need to download a 1.2 GB movie from a channel in a
minute. What is the required bit rate of the channel?
Solution: Here, size of the movie is 1.2 GB = 1.2*109*8 bits = 9.6*109 bits. Allocated
time for downloading is 1 minute = 60 seconds. So, required bit rate of the channel
is (9.6*109/60) bps or 160 Mbps.

4.4 Data Rate

We have seen that there are a variety of impairments that distort or corrupt a signal.
For digital data, the question that then arises is to what extent these impairments
limit the data rate that can be achieved. The maximum rate at which data can be
transmitted over a given communication path, or channel, under given conditions, is
referred to as the channel capacity. There are four concepts here that we are trying
to relate to one another.
• Data rate: The rate, in bits per second (bps), at which data can be communicated
• Bandwidth: The bandwidth of the transmitted signal as constrained by the
transmitter and the nature of the transmission medium, expressed in cycles per
second, or Hertz
• Noise: The average level of noise over the communications path
• Error rate: The rate at which errors occur, where an error is the reception of a 1
when a 0 was transmitted or the reception of a 0 when a 1 was transmitted
The problem we are addressing is this: Communications facilities are expensive and,
in general, the greater the bandwidth of a facility, the greater the cost. Furthermore,
all transmission channels of any practical interest are of limited bandwidth. The
limitations arise from the physical properties of the transmission medium or from
deliberate limitations at the transmitter on the bandwidth to prevent interference
from other sources. Accordingly, we would like to make as efficient use as possible
of a given bandwidth. For digital data, this means that we would like to get as high
a data rate as possible at a particular limit of error rate for a given bandwidth. The
main constraint on achieving this efficiency is noise.
So, data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate: one by Nyquist
for a noiseless channel, another by Shannon for a noisy channel.

4.5 Nyquist Bit Rate

For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical
maximum bit rate
𝐵𝑅 = 2 𝑥 𝐵𝑊 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝐿
Here,
BR = Bit Rate in bps
BW = Bandwidth of the channel in Hz
L = Number of levels representing data
According to the formula, we might think that, given a specific bandwidth, we can
have any bit rate we want by increasing the number of signal levels. Although the
idea is theoretically correct, practically there is a limit. When we increase the number
of signal levels, we impose a burden on the receiver. If the number of levels in a
signal is just 2, the receiver can easily distinguish between a 0 and a 1. If the level
of a signal is 64, the receiver must be very sophisticated to distinguish between 64
different levels. In other words, increasing the levels of a signal reduces the
reliability of the system.
Example 3: Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting
a signal with two signal levels.
Here the maximum bit rate can be calculated as
Bitrate = 2 𝑥 𝐵𝑊 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝐿
= 2 𝑥 3000 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 2 = 6000 bps
Example 4: Consider another noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 6000 Hz
transmitting a signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2 bits).
Here the maximum bit rate can be calculated as
Bitrate = 2 𝑥 𝐵𝑊 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝐿
= 2 𝑥 6000 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 4 = 24000 bps
Example 5: We need to send 600 kbps over a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of
40 kHz. How many signal levels do we need?
Solution: We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:
Bitrate = 2 𝑥 𝐵𝑊 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝐿
600 𝑥 103 = 2 𝑥 40 𝑥 103 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝐿
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝐿 = 7.5
𝐿 = 27.5 = 181.02 ≈ 182 Levels
Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either increase the number of levels
or reduce the bit rate. If we have 128 levels, the bit rate is 560 kbps. If we have 264
levels, the bit rate is 640 kbps.

4.6 Shannon Capacity

We cannot have a noiseless channel really. The channel is always noisy. Theoretical
highest data rate for a noisy channel can be calculated using Shannon capacity
formula:
𝐶 = 𝐵𝑊 𝑥 log 2 (1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅) bps
Here,
C = Capacity in bps
BW = Bandwidth of the channel in Hz
SNR = Signal-to noise ratio
Note that in the Shannon formula does not have any signal level, which means that
no matter how many levels we have, we cannot achieve a data rate higher than the
capacity of the channel. In other words, the formula defines a characteristic of the
channel, not the method of transmission.
Example 6: Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-
to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is
faint. For this channel, the capacity C is calculated as
𝐶 = 𝐵𝑊 𝑥 log 2 (1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅) = 𝐵𝑊 𝑥 log 2 (1 + 0) = 0 bps
This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless of the bandwidth. In
other words, we cannot receive any data through this channel.
Example 7: We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone
line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 to 3300 Hz)
assigned for data communications. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this
channel, the capacity is calculated as
𝐶 = 𝐵𝑊 𝑥 log 2 (1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅) = 3000 𝑥 log 2 (1 + 3162) = 34860 bps
This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is 34.860 kbps. If we want
to send data faster than this, we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or
improve the signal-to-noise ratio.
Example 8: The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels. Assume that SNRdB
is 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. To calculate theoretical channel capacity,
we need to calculate SNR first. We can do that as following
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑆𝑁𝑅 decibels
𝑆𝑁𝑅 = 10𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵/10 = 1036/10 = 3981
The theoretical channel capacity can then be calculated as
𝐶 = 𝐵𝑊 𝑥 log 2 (1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅) bps
= 2𝑥106 𝑥 log 2 (1 + 3981) bps
= 24 Mbps
In practice, we need to use both methods to find the limits and signal levels. Let us
show this with an example.
Example 9: We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this channel
is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate and signal level?
Solution: First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.
𝐶 = 𝐵𝑊 𝑥 log 2 (1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅)
= 106 𝑥 log 2 (1 + 63)
= 106 𝑥 6
= 6 Mbps
The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit. For better performance we
choose something lower, 4 Mbps, for example. Then we use the Nyquist formula to
find the number of signal levels.
Using Nyquist formula, we can find the number of signal levels.
𝐵𝑅 = 2 𝑥 𝐵𝑊 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝐿
4 𝑥106 = 2 𝑥 1 𝑥106 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝐿
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝐿 = 2
𝐿 = 22 = 4 Levels
The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit and the Nyquist formula tells us how
many signal levels we need.
Let us consider an example that relates the Nyquist and Shannon formulations.
Example 10: Suppose that the spectrum of a channel is between 3 MHz and 4 MHz
and SNRdb is 25 dB. What are the appropriate bit rate and signal level?
Solution: Here,
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑆𝑁𝑅 decibels
𝑆𝑁𝑅 = 10𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵/10 = 1025/10 = 316.23
And, Bandwidth = 4-3 MHz = 1 MHz
Maximum bit rate of a channel is its capacity. Using Shannon’s formula
𝐶 = 𝐵𝑊 𝑥 log 2 (1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅)
= 106 𝑥 log 2 (1 + 316.23)
= 106 𝑥 8.31
= 8.31 Mbps
The Shannon formula gives us 8.31 Mbps, the upper limit. For better performance
we choose something lower, 6 Mbps, for example. Then we use the Nyquist formula
to find the number of signal levels.
Using Nyquist formula, we can find the number of signal levels.
𝐵𝑅 = 2 𝑥 𝐵𝑊 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝐿
 6 𝑥106 = 2 𝑥 1 𝑥106 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝐿
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝐿 = 3
𝐿 = 23 = 8 Levels

4.7 Network Performance

The Internet and its underlying local area and wide area networks must include a
QoS capability to provide various levels of service to different types of application
traffic. A QoS capability can deal with priority, delay constraints, delay variability
constraints, and other similar requirements. Some common parameters determining
the quality of network performance are:
 Bandwidth
 Throughput
 Latency or Delay
 Bandwidth-Delay Product

4.7.1 Bandwidth
One characteristic that measures network performance is bandwidth. However, the
term can be used in two different contexts with two different measuring values:
bandwidth in hertz and bandwidth in bits per second.
Bandwidth in Hertz: Bandwidth in hertz is the range of frequencies contained in a
composite signal or the range of frequencies a channel can pass. For example, we
can say the bandwidth of a subscriber telephone line is 4 kHz.
Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds: The term bandwidth can also refer to the number of
bits per second that a channel, a link, or even a network can transmit. For example,
one can say the bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet network (or the links in this network)
is a maximum of 100 Mbps.
Example 11: The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for voice or data. The
bandwidth of this line for data trans- mission can be up to 56,000 bps using a
sophisticated modem to change the digital signal to analog.
Example 12: If the telephone company improves the quality of the line and increases
the bandwidth to 8 kHz, we can send 112,000 bps by using the same technology as
mentioned in Example 11.
4.7.2 Throughput
The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a
network. Although, at first glance, bandwidth in bits per second and throughput seem
the same, they are different. A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only
send T bps through this link with T always less than B. In other words, the bandwidth
is a potential measurement of a link; the throughput is an actual measurement of how
fast we can send data.
Example 13: Imagine a highway designed to transmit 1000 cars per minute from one
point to another. However, if there is congestion on the road, this figure may be
reduced to 100 cars per minute. The bandwidth is 1000 cars per minute; the
throughput is 100 cars per minute.
Example 14: We may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the devices
connected to the end of the link may handle only 200 kbps. This means that we
cannot send more than 200 kbps through this link.
Example 15: A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of
12,000 frames per minute with each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What
is the throughput of this network?
Solution:
12,000 𝑥 10,000
Throughput = = 2 Mbps
60

4.7.3 Latency or Delay

The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely
arrive at the destination from the time the first bit is sent out from the source. We
can say that latency is made of four components: propagation time, transmission
time, queuing time and processing delay.
Latency = propagation time + transmission time + queuing time + processing delay
4.7.4 Bandwidth-Delay Product
Bandwidth and delay are two performance metrics of a link. However, a very
important performance metrics in data communications is the product of the two, the
bandwidth-delay product. We will elaborate on this issue, using two hypothetical
cases as examples.
Case 1:

Figure 5: Filling the link with bits for case 1

Let us assume that we have a link with a bandwidth of 1 bps (unrealistic, but good
for demonstration purposes). We also assume that the delay of the link is 5 s (also
unrealistic). We want to see what the bandwidth-delay product means in this case.
Looking at figure 5, we can say that this product 1 × 5 is the maximum number of
bits that can fill the link. There can be no more than 5 bits at any time on the link.
Case 2:
 Figure 6: Filling the link with bits for case 2

Now assume we have a bandwidth of 5 bps. Figure 6 shows that there can be
maximum 5 × 5 = 25 bits on the line. The reason is that, at each second, there are 5
bits on the line; the duration of each bit is 0.20 s.
The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that can fill the link.

References:
1. Forouzan, B. A. "Data Communication and Networking. Tata McGraw."
(2005).
2. William Stallings, "Data and Computer Communications”, Pearson