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Power Systems
Microgrid
Architectures,
Control and
Protection
Methods
Power Systems
Electrical power has been the technological foundation of industrial societies for
many years. Although the systems designed to provide and apply electrical energy
have reached a high degree of maturity, unforeseen problems are constantly
encountered, necessitating the design of more efficient and reliable systems based
on novel technologies. The book series Power Systems is aimed at providing
detailed, accurate and sound technical information about these new developments in
electrical power engineering. It includes topics on power generation, storage and
transmission as well as electrical machines. The monographs and advanced
textbooks in this series address researchers, lecturers, industrial engineers and
senior students in electrical engineering. ** Power Systems is indexed in Scopus**
Editors
Microgrid Architectures,
Control and Protection
Methods
123
Editors
Naser Mahdavi Tabatabaei Ersan Kabalci
Department of Electrical Engineering Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Seraj Higher Education Institute Department, Faculty of Engineering
Tabriz, Iran and Architecture
Nevsehir Haci Bektas Veli University
Nicu Bizon Nevsehir, Turkey
Faculty of Electronics, Communications
and Computers
University of Pitesti
Pitesti, Arges, Romania
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Dedicated to
all our teachers and colleagues
who enabled us to write this book,
and our family and friends
for supporting us all along
Foreword
There are specific interests for the integration of distributed generation systems and
reliable consuming networks in the microgrid architectures. The microgrid topolo-
gies are designed as the innovative electrical systems, power distribution networks
and also independent small power grids. The nature of microgrid operations includes
ownership, reliability and locality. The microgrid development is mostly dependent
on microprocessors and communication technologies to provide more complicated
inverters and load controllers and also offer adequate bandwidth.
Microgrid control and protection based on different interfaces are also important
concepts in combining power balancing, optimization and smart activating as
grid-connected or islanded modes. The microgrid control and protection include the
regulation of voltage and frequency and managing of real and reactive power for the
generation units and energy storages.
The book generally explains the fundamentals and contemporary materials in
microgrid architectures, control and protection. It will be very efficient for electrical
engineers and researchers to have the book which contains important subjects in
considering modeling, analysis and practice related to microgrids. The book
comprises knowledge, theoretical and practical issues as well as up-to-date contents
in these issues and methods for designing, controlling and protecting of AC–DC
microgrid networks.
Some textbooks and monographs are previously presented for people who want
to learn more on the microgrids. The worth of the present book is that it tries to put
forward some practical ways for microgrid planning and modeling, control, pro-
tection, infrastructure, converters, energy storage systems, efficiencies, assessments
and quality issues which are now more organized. The editors wisely designated the
topics to be preserved, and the chapters written by well-recognized experts in the
field are placed in three parts.
The book introduces the reader to the modeling, analysis, operation, control and
protection of the microgrids. Then, the main subjects related to planning, con-
verters, hybrid energy resources, energy management, adaptive and modified
control and protection are presented and explained. The book also includes infor-
mative case studies and many instances.
vii
viii Foreword
The book can be used in the classroom, to teach microgrid courses to graduate
students, and be suggested as further reading to undergraduate students in engi-
neering sciences. It will also be a valuable information resource for the researchers
and engineers concerned with microgrid issues or involved in the development of
distributed generation applications.
The microgrid researches have been extensively increased and widespread since the
last decade. The enhanced use of distributed generation, distributed energy
resources, renewable energy sources, energy storage technologies and increased
power requirements has promoted microgrid researches. The improvements and
outcomes of microgrid researches facilitate to overcome power system problems
related to resiliency, flexibility, stability, efficiency and capacity limitations.
A crucial component of this new grid type is apparently power electronics devices
interfacing sources and utility grid. This interface is required to provide control and
protection features depending on device topologies and control software.
Moreover, the generated and converted power should meet the grid codes and
should comply with international standards in terms of power quality, efficiency and
sustainability. The purpose of this book is to present a broader view of emerging
microgrid architectures, control and protection methods and communication sys-
tems, approaching the following subjects: (1) presenting detailed surveys for a wide
variety of microgrid architectures and emerging microgrid approaches; (2) concepts
and visualization of microgrid concepts and related power electronics applications
for improved microgrids; (3) providing detailed knowledge on wireless and
emerging communication methods used for control and protection issues in
microgrids; (4) presenting the virtual inertia and energy storage systems that are key
components of microgrid integration to utility grid; (5) contents on relation of smart
grid and microgrid applications along IoT and wireless communication systems;
and (6) discussions on the issues related to deployment and development of control,
protection and communication technologies at future microgrid scope.
Microgrid Architectures, Control and Protection Methods is a book aimed to
highlight the microgrid operation and planning issues using different methods
which include planning and modeling, AC and DC hybrid microgrid, microgrid
infrastructure, power electronic converters in microgrid, energy storage systems in
microgrid, energy management in microgrids, PV microgrids, microgrid control
strategies, intelligent and adaptive control in microgrid, optimal microgrid
ix
x Preface
is a technical, operational and economic concept that is located in the digital part
of the microgrids and provides facilities that allow greater flexibility of the EPS.
The power electronic converters have been detailed in Chaps. 6 and 7 in terms of
AC–DC rectifiers, inverters (DC–AC converters) and DC–DC converters used in
DC and AC microgrids. So, Chap. 6 analyzes the main types, circuit structures and
functions of power electronic converters used in DC microgrid and highlights the
major advantage of DC microgrids compared to AC microgrids. Then, Chap. 7
analyzes the main power electronic converters used in AC microgrid and highlights
the major advantage of AC microgrids compared to DC microgrids. The chapters
review the main performance indicators and standards for DC and AC microgrids,
respectively, and the conclusions are supported by simulation performed for some
topologies.
Chapter 8 explains the important role of the energy storage system (ESS) in
enhancing the stability of grid-connected and islanded microgrid by modeling the
power flow balance on DC or AC buses and including appropriate case studies. The
standards IEC/ISO 62264 and IEEE 2000 related to interconnection of the wind
turbine farms and photovoltaic systems into microgrids have been presented as
well.
Chapter 9 shows the design and experimental investigations of a fuel cell (FC)–
electrolyzer-based energy storage system integrated into a microgrid. The
hydrogen-based ESS based on proton-exchange membrane (PEM) FC system and
solid polymer electrolyzer seem to be the best alternative to store energy due to
their simple structure, high power density, quick start, no moving parts and superior
reliability and durability, low operating temperature and environmental aspects.
Chapter 10 analyzes the requirements for the energy management system
(EMS), which are identified as follows: (1) determining the amount of
produced/consumed energy by the generation units/consumers; (2) ensuring the
generation and consumption balance; (3) ensuring compliance and implementation
of the rules for connecting the microgrid to the upper distribution system; (4) op-
timal utilization of its existing resources; (5) minimizing the overall operational
costs; (6) separating the microgrid from the upper grid in case of emergencies; and
(7) providing convenient control strategy for re-connecting to the upper network
after the islanded operation. The role of subsystems of the energy management
system (such as communication systems and smart meters) is also discussed in the
frame of the main EMSs proposed in the literature, highlighting the pro and cons
of the centralized and decentralized EMSs. The supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA) system can be a solution for decentralized EMSs.
Chapter 11 proposes a technical solution to improve the efficiency of a photo-
voltaic (PV) power plant within an area of seventy hectares through control,
surveillance, metering and monitoring of the system from distance. The SCADA
system offers information in real time for the control system about total and daily
energy delivered (kWh), weather info, alarms, etc. The received information can be
compared with the data stored in the same period of the past years, in order to
establish the productive efficiency of the PV power plant.
xii Preface
protection and control for grid-connected and islanded microgrids, as will be shown
in the next chapters.
Chapter 26 deals with the protection and automation requirements of the
microgrids in the frame of smart grid, including the protection schemes and
developments in the related fields. The chapter concentrates on devolution of power
generation and the conversion of the radial distribution network into a microgrid. It
also discusses on the protection and control requirements of a microgrid, islanding
detection and management scheme.
Chapter 27 presents the fault detection methods and protection devices in
low-voltage DC (LVDC), medium-voltage DC (MVDC) and high-voltage DC
(HVDC) grids. The main protection schemes are presented regarding DC micro-
grids. The fault detection methods are surveyed considering voltage prediction,
disturbance detection, and fault classification and locating methods.
Chapter 28 analyzes the solutions for protecting smart grids using the protocol
IEC 61850 based on intelligent electronic devices (IEDs). Based on case studies,
the chapter presents the remote-controlled reclosed scheme, the adaptive protection
of a distributed system based on the loop automation scheme and the main
advantages for the consumers by implementing the restoration scheme.
Chapter 29 presents the protection techniques based on the IEC 61850 protocol
using case studies for data communication systems between substations. The IEC
61850 is implemented for real-time communication between IEDs based on Generic
Object Oriented Substation Event (GOOSE) messages.
Chapter 30 highlights the main power quality issues in the microgrid, and
solutions to handle these issues and their operating principle are explained. Load
pulses are frequently encountered in microgrid and need to be mitigated using
appropriate control of hybrid energy storage system (ESS) based on different power
storage devices such as the ultracapacitors (UCs) stacks, superconducting magnetic
energy storage (SMES) devices and high-speed flywheel energy systems (FESs).
Chapter 31 approaches the control and protection of the smart microgrids using
the concepts from IoT and highlights the IoT role in creating and developing smart
microgrids, including benefits, challenges and risks, in order to reveal a variety of
mechanisms, methods and procedures built to control and protect smart microgrids.
Thus, microgrids must benefit by large opportunity to implement the IoT mecha-
nisms, because they are composed of equipment that demands sensing, connectivity
and analytics technologies to operate at the highest level.
Therefore, the proposed book tries to clear the aforementioned approaches, by
presenting intuition explanations about principles and application of microgrid
structure and operation. Moreover, the book tries to put forward some practical
ways for microgrid analysis.
Moreover, the book will be helpful for the future research to be done in the field
of electrical engineering and communication engineering. It also explores the recent
progress on several microgrid control and protection technologies and their per-
formance evaluation. The book has the wider coverage ranging the topics from
essentials of microgrids to enhanced communication systems such as wireless and
Internet of things (IoT). It can also help in understanding the role of emerging
Preface xv
xvii
xviii Contents
xxi
xxii Contributors
5G 5th Generation
AAFC Aqueous Alkaline Fuel Cell
AC Alternative Current
ACE Area Correction Error
ACMG Alternating Current Microgrid
ACS Ant Colony System
ADC Analog-to-Digital Converter
ADM Alternating Direction Method
ADN Active Distribution Network
AE Aqua Electrolyzer
AES All-Electric Ship
AFC Alkaline Fuel Cell
AGC Automatic Generation Control
AHC Adaptive Heuristic Critic
AI Artificial Intelligence
AMI Advanced Metering Infrastructure
ANN Artificial Neural Network
ANSI American National Standards Institute
aPESC Asymptotic PESC
aPESCH1 Asymptotic PESC based on FFT
APP Auxiliary Problem Principle
AR Average Reward
ARR Automatic Release of Reserve
AS Ancillary Services
ATS Automatic Transfer Switch
AVR Automatic Voltage Regulator
BCBG Bottom-Contact Bottom Gate
BESS Battery Energy Storage Systems
BOS Balance of System
BPDC Bipolar DC
xxvii
xxviii Abbreviations and Acronyms
«Ya que querés saber algo más del comisario, te contaré algunas
cosas, pocas, porque no tengo tiempo: hay epidemia de tifoidea, y á
cada rato viene gente á la botica.
Ya sabés que Barraba le cobra coima al Rengo, dueño de la casa de
juego del Mirador; pues también le cobra á Laucha, el de la pulpería
de La Polvadera, al del reñidero de gallos, á otro que tiene un billar
de choclón á media cuadra de la plaza, y como si esto no bastara,
¡es socio de la dueña de una casa pública, en la que ha hecho
trabajar de albañiles y peones á vigilantes y presos!
¡Es tan angurriento y tan raspa este animal, que no te podés
imaginar todo lo que hace para juntar plata! Así, Pago Chico es,
gracias á Barraba, el asilo de todos los cuatreros de la provincia que
quieran trabajar con él en completa impunidad. Su compadre,
Romualdo Cejas es el que capitanea la cuadrilla, esconde y negocia
la hacienda robada.
Es un chino santiagueño, bastante alto y grueso, de ojos
atravesados, que cuando cae al pueblo viene de botas de charol, en
un caballo macanudamente aperado, con su rico poncho de vicuña
hasta la rodilla, tapándole el tirador en que trae facón y trabuco, lo
mismo que Juan Moreira.
Tiene el rancho á dos leguas del pueblo, en una isla que rodea un
cañadón siempre lleno de agua y pantanoso. El rancho, ó más bien
los ranchos, porque son varios, están en un albardón y atrás tienen
un corral de palo á pique. Allí vive él y toda su familia, además de
los cuatreros que lo ayudan.
Después se pasa otro bañado hondo y de agua muy cenagosa, que
no se seca nunca, y hay otro albardón, muchísimo más grande,
donde meten la hacienda robada. Nadie sabe por dónde la meten, ni
nadie puede llegar allí, porque el diablo de Cejas hace pisotear bien
toda la orilla, para que no se acierte con el paso.
De allí salen las haciendas y los cueros que se roban, allí se hacen
perdiz los padrillos de raza, los toros finos,—miles de pesos que van
á parar al matadero, como cualquier vaquillona ó cualquier novillo
criollo. Allí se «planchan» las marcas que, como sabés, es la
operación de quemar medio cuarto trasero al pobre animal, ó se
«agrandan» las mismas marcas, desfigurándolas con otros fierros.
En fin, las picardías conocidas.
La mitad de lo que saca Cejas es para Barraba, que si no no lo
dejaría trabajar. Naturalmente, el otro le birla gran parte de la
ganancia, porque para eso es un bribón desorejau, y el que roba á
otro ladrón tiene cien días de perdón. Pero donde no lo puede
estafar, porque el comisario lo fiscaliza, es en una carnicería que han
puesto en las afueras del pueblo para vender la carne robada. ¡Qué
pensás de esto, ché!
Pero, como ya te digo, no se harta, y aunque en la policía se come
qué sé yo cuántos vigilantes, nunca hay un nacional ni para el
rancho de los agentes y los presos, ni nadie le quiere fiar nada para
cosas del servicio.
Ayer mandó buscar una carrada de leña, dándole un vale al sargento
que se anduvo todas las carbonerías una por una, sin que le
quisieran vender sino con la platita en la mano. Cuando lo supo
Barraba, por no soltar sus realitos, hizo que hicieran fuego en la
comisaría con las patas de unos catres.
¡Se come hasta la alfalfa de los pobres patrias! Esto no te lo
explicarás, pero es así: la Intendencia le pasa una mensualidad para
el forraje de los caballos, que sin embargo tienen que contentarse
con el verdín del patio, hasta que se mueren de alegría.
¡Y cómo es de bruto! Figurate que á don Juan Dozo, municipal, le
robaron el otro día unos cuatrocientos pesos. Dozo, hizo su denuncia
á Barraba, y los milicos y los oficiales se echaron á nadar, sin
encontrar naturalmente ni la plata ni el ladrón.
Pues ¿qué te parece que hace Dozo? Se va á consultar á una adivina
que tenemos que llaman misia Dorotea, y ésta probablemente por
alguna venganza, le hace sospechar de uno de sus peones, llamado
Sayús.
Dozo le cuenta la cosa á Barraba y éste, sin más ni más, hace
prender al peón, y allí en un cuarto que hay en el fondo de la
comisaría, comienza á ahorcarlo y descolgarlo, para que confiese...
¿Creés que es mentira? Pues la denuncia ha ido al ministro de
gobierno, que no ha hecho nada, porque Barraba es hombre de la
situación «un perro fiel», como él mismo dice.
Hacé públicas estas cosas. ¡Es preciso! ¡Hacelas públicas, para que
no vuelvan á suceder!
Por las que te cuento al correr de la pluma puedes imaginar las que
sucederán, pues estas fechorías son como la tifoidea que tenemos
actualmente: nunca son casos aislados en pueblos de este corte. Las
que yo sé son tremendas, pero ¡cómo serán las que no sé!
Dejame que te lo repita: Publicá esto para que no se haga más. Yo
no encuentro otro remedio...»
«No todo han de ser políticas. Para que te divirtás un rato, te copio
en seguida un documento que me ha facilitado su autor, seguro de
haber hecho una obra maestra,—como que la manda á La Nación de
Buenos Aires, nada menos, contando con que se la publicará en sitio
preferente (¡agarrá ese trompo en l'uña!). Es la crónica completa de
una fiesta que resultó un verdadero velorio. Pero ya te darás cuenta
por lo que dice el artículo, que es el siguiente con título y todo:
«Correspondencia de Pago Chico
«Señor Administrador de La Nación:—Se celebraron aquí el día de
Corpus-Cristi con gran brillo y concurrencia las legendarias fiestas
del Santo Patrono de este pueblo, San Antonio; y aniversario de su
fundación.
«Han sido tres fiestas en una; la fundación, del día 11, lo mismo que
nuestra gran Metrópoli, el Santo el 13 y Corpus-Cristi el 14.
«Ha sido todo un acontecimiento.
«Desde la víspera, voluminosas bombas atronaban el éter,
demostrando con la variedad de colores, florones y antorchas,
rarísimas visualidades.
«Nuestro Pirotécnico, D. Ludovico Pituelli, demostró como siempre
gran ciencia y mucha perfección en el ramo, lo que le valieron
sendos aplausos.
«La función religiosa ó sea la misa, estuvo solemne, lo mismo que la
procesión de tarde, por la inmensa plaza-alameda que cubría con
sus frondosos árboles todo el ritual, y ofreciendo el panorama más
hermoso que en esta clase de funciones he visto, mereciendo los
mayores elogios las hermanas de la Inmaculada Concepción.
«El Reverendo padre Papagna como buen orador sagrado, tomó á su
cargo el panegírico y el sermón resultó notable. Amenizaba el acto la
armoniosa banda de música dirigida por el maestro Castellone y que
lo más que impresiona al público es: que está tocada por siete
legítimos hermanos; quizás será la única en el mundo; dicha banda
amenizó la fiesta con perfección; se debe su presencia á la buena
voluntad del diputado Sr. Cisneros, quien la pagó de su bolsillo. La
policía muy correcta, lo mismo que el comisario Barraba y el pueblo
entusiasmado con los recreos populares, que terminaron con el
manto nocturno y el tronar de las bombas.
«Por la noche grandes bailes en la casa de los Srs. Gancedo
Tortorano y Bermúdez, en donde bellas niñas lucieron las gracias de
Tersícore, concluyendo armoniosamente con el crepúsculo matutino.
Saluda al Sr. administrador Cirilo Gómez.»
«¡Á este Dr. Carbonero no hay con qué darle! El otro día, en la
cancha, el matón Camacho, traído por Ferreiro, y de que hasta ahora
no nos hemos podido librar, le dió tal garrotazo á Lobera que por
poco lo desnuca. Ahí no más quedó tieso más de media hora,
tendido en el suelo de la cancha.
Lobera está malamente herido, y quién sabe si no espicha, pero para
que Barraba y el juez Machado puedan poner en libertad al otro, el
doctor Carbonero ha extendido un certificado diciendo que no tiene
nada.
Y lo más lindo es que mientras Moraira, ó sea Camacho, anda suelto
y compadreando como de costumbre, á Lobera me lo tienen preso
en un cuarto del hospital, en cama y con centinela de vista, sólo
porque tuvo la infelicidad de pelar el revólver cuando el otro lo
volteó del garrotazo.
Se le está haciendo sumario por desorden, uso de armas y no sé
qué otros crímenes. Y el pueblo entre tanto, calladito como en misa.
El único que protesta es el pobre Viera. Pero ¿á qué santo si nadie le
lleva el apunte?
Fuera de que los carneros le están haciendo una guerra tremenda, y
á este paso, pronto no tendrá ni con qué comer. Yo le dije que meta
violín en bolsa, pero él no quiere si no morir en su ley...»