Course Name:- Information Technology and Application

Course Code- BC103

Information Technology
and
Application
BCA-Ist Semester

Table of Contents

1|Page By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
UNIT- I

 Introduction to Computers
 Introduction
 Characteristics of computers
 Evolution of computers
 Generation of Computers
 Classification of Computers
 The Computer System
 Applications of Computers

 Input / Output devices and Memory

 Introduction,
 Keyboard,
 Pointing Devices,
 Speech Recognition,
 Digital Camera,
 Scanners,
 Optical Scanners.
 Classification of Output,
 Printers,
 Plotters,
 Computer Output Microfilm (COM),
 Monitors,
 Audio Output,
 Projectors.
 Random Access Memory (RAM),
 Read Only Memory (ROM),
 Types of ROM.
 Classification of Secondary Storage Devices,
 Magnetic Tape,
 Magnetic Disk,
 Optical Disk,
 Magneto Optical disk.
 Software Concepts
 Introduction to Software,
 Relationship between Software and Hardware,
 System Software

2|Page By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
 Application Software Algorithm,
 Flowchart,
 Program,
 Pseudocode (P-Code).
 Features of a Good Programming Language.
 Operating Systems: History & Evolution
 Functions of an Operating System,
 A Brief History of MS-DOS,
 Linux,
 Windows System.
 Database Management System
 Data Communication And Computer Network
 Introduction,
 Data Communication,
 Transmission Media,
 Multiplexing,
 Switching,
 Computer Network,
 Network Topologies,
 Communication Protocols,
 Network devices.
 World Wide Web,
 Hypertext,
 Uniform Resource Locator,
 Web Browsers,
 IP Address,
 Domain Name,
 Internet Services Providers,
 Internet Security,
 Internet Requirements,
 Web Search Engine,
 Net Surfing,
 Internet Services,
 Case Study,
 Intranet.
MS-Office - MS-Word, MS-Excel, Ms-Power Point.

Text Books:
l. V. Rajaraman, Fundamentals Of Computers, 3rd Edition , PHI Publications
2. Nasib S. Gill, Essentials of Computer & Network Technology, Khanna Publications.
3. Deepak Bharihoke, Fundamentals of Information Technology, Excel Books.

3|Page By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
The Role of Computers in Modern Life
Computers have greatly impacted human lives and it's hard to imagine life without them. They make
our lives easier and more comfortable, offering opportunities for communication with billions of
people across the world. This is the significant role played by computers in modern life.
History of Computers
The idea of a computer was developed in the 19th century, and the first electronic computer was
developed in the 1940s
In the early 1820s, Charles Babbage created the Difference Engine. It was a mechanical computer
that could do basic computations. A steam-powered calculating machine solved numerical tables such
as logarithmic tables. Charles Babbage (born December 26, 1791, London, England)—was an
English mathematician and inventor who is credited with having conceived the first automatic digital
computer.

4|Page By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
UNIT – I

Introduction of Computers:
What is a Computer?

“A computer is an electronic device that processes data and performs tasks according to a set
of instructions, known as a program. It can store, retrieve, and manipulate data to produce
meaningful information. Now a days Computers have become essential tools in various
fields, such as education, business, healthcare, science, and entertainment.”

“A computer system is a basic and functional computer that includes all the hardware and
software that are required to make it functional for the user.”
CPU which stands for Central Processing Unit is the brain of the computer. It is an
electronic circuit within a computer that executes instructions that make up a computer
program. Various blocks of CPU are-

 It carries out the operations of arithmetic and logical expressions.

 The timing and Control Unit controls the entire operation being performed on the computer
system.
 The register is a very small amount of very fast memory that is built into the CPU to store
the current data and instructions that are being performed by the CPU.
 unit is the storage unit of the computer system which is used to store the program
statement and data.
 Input and Output unit sends and receives data to display it to the user.

Key Components of a Computer:

1. Hardware: The physical components of a computer, including:
- Central Processing Unit (CPU): The brain of the computer, responsible for executing
instructions.
- Memory (RAM): Temporary storage that holds data and programs while they are in use.
- Storage Devices: Like hard drives or SSDs, used to store data permanently.
- Input Devices: Devices like keyboards and mice, which allow the user to input data.
- Output Devices: Devices like monitors and printers, which display or output information
from the computer.

2. Software: The programs and applications that run on the hardware, including:
- Operating System (OS): The system software that manages computer hardware and
software resources (e.g., Windows, macOS, Linux).
- Application Software: Programs designed for specific tasks, such as word processing, web
browsing, or gaming.

5|Page By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
 Characteristics of Computers:
Computer, there are various characteristics of computer systems depending on their size,
capacity, and specifications. But, the major characteristics of the computer can be classified
into Speed, Accuracy, Diligence, Versatility, Reliability, Consistency, Memory, Storage
Capacity, Remembrance Power, and Automation.

1. Speed
Executing mathematical calculation, a computer works faster and more accurately than
human. Computers have the ability to process so many millions of instructions per second.
Computer operations are performed in micro and nano seconds. A computer is a time-saving
device. It performs several calculations and tasks in a few seconds that we take hours to solve.
The speed of a computer is measured in terms of Gigahertz and Megahertz.

2. Diligence
A human cannot work for several hours without resting, yet a computer never tires. A
computer can conduct millions of calculations per second with complete precision without
stopping. A computer can consistently and accurately do millions of jobs or calculations.
There is no weariness or lack of concentration. Its memory ability also places it ahead of
humans.

3. Reliability
A computer is reliable. The output results never differ unless the input varies. the output
depends on the input. when an input is the same the output will also be the same. A computer
produces consistent results for similar sets of data, if we provide the same set of input at any
time we will get the same result.

4. Automation
The world is quickly moving toward AI (Artificial Intelligence)-based technology. A computer
may conduct tasks automatically after instructions are programmed. By executing jobs
automatically, this computer feature replaces thousands of workers. Automation in computing
is often achieved by the use of a program, a script, or batch processing.

5. Versatility
Versatility refers to the capacity of a computer. Computer perform different types of tasks
with the same accuracy and efficiency. A computer can perform multiple tasks at the same
time this is known as versatility. For example, while listening to music, we may develop our
project using PowerPoint and Wordpad, or we can design a website.

6. Memory
A computer can store millions of records. these records may be accessed with complete
precision. Computer memory storage capacity is measured in Bytes, Kilobytes (KB),
Megabytes (MB), Gigabytes (GB), and Terabytes (TB). A computer has built-in memory
known as primary memory.
6|Page By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)
Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103

7. Accuracy
When a computer performs a computation or operation, the chances of errors occurring are
low. Errors in a computer are caused by human’s submitting incorrect data. A computer can
do a variety of operations and calculations fast and accurately.

Types of Computers:

1. Personal Computers (PCs): Used for general purposes like internet browsing, document
creation, and gaming.
2. Laptops: Portable computers with similar functionality to PCs.
3. Supercomputers: Extremely powerful machines used for complex simulations, scientific
calculations, and research.
4. Mainframe Computers: Used by large organizations for bulk data processing, such as
census or financial transaction processing.

Uses of Computers:

Computers are used in almost every aspect of modern life, including:

- Education: Online learning platforms, digital textbooks, research tools.
- Business: Data management, financial systems, communication, and productivity tools.
- Healthcare: Patient record management, diagnostic tools, and research.
- Science and Engineering: Complex simulations, data analysis, and innovation development.

Characteristics of Computer – FAQs

1. What do you mean by virtualization?

Ans- It is the technique of creating a virtual replica of a computer or operating system to run
on another hardware.

2. What is multitasking ability of a computer?

Ans-Computers can perform multiple tasks at the same time, allowing the user to work on
multiple programs at the same time is called multitasking ability. This characteristic of
computer is useful for applications such as data analysis, video editing, and so on.

3. What do you mean by data storage capacity of a computer?

Ans- data storage capacity means holding data in a memory. Computer data storage capacity
is increasing all the time, despite the fact that they can store multiple amounts of data. Modern
computers may store data in Terabytes, where a byte is a storage capacity word.

7|Page By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Evolution of Computers

Introduction

We all use computers in our daily lives for a variety of reasons. Computers are now portable
and affordable, but once, there was a time when a computer used to take up an entire room’s
space, and only a few of them existed in this world.
The evolution of computers marked by ground breaking innovations and the relentless pursuit
of technological advancement.

Abacus (c. 2700 BC)

When you were kids, you must have owned an abacus on which you learned basic
mathematical skills. Abacus originated in ancient Mesopotamia and is one of the earliest
known computing devices. It consisted of beads on rods and was used for basic arithmetic
calculations.

As we know that computers work through an interaction of hardware and software. The whole
transformation and advancement of the computer goes back decades. However, there are five
apparent generations of computers.

Each generation is defined by a paramount technological development that changed how

computers operate.

8|Page By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Generations of Computers
Generations of Computer: The modern computer took its shape with the arrival of your time. It
had been around the 16th century when the evolution of the computer started. The initial
computer faced many changes, obviously for the betterment. It continuously improved itself in
terms of speed, accuracy, size, and price to urge the form of the fashionable day computer.

The basic terms related to generations of computers are listed below.

1. Vacuum Tube: Vacuum tubes have the functionality of controlling the flow of electronics in
a vacuum. Generally, it is used in switches, amplifiers, radios, televisions, etc.
2. Transistor: A transistor helps in controlling the flow of electricity in devices, it works as an
amplifier or a switch.
3. Integrated Circuit (IC): Integrated circuits are silicon chips that contain their circuit
elements like transistors, resistors, etc.
4. Microprocessors: Microprocessors are the components that contain the CPU and its circuits
and are present in the Integrated Circuit.
5. Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is called the brain of the computer. CPU performs
processing and operations work.
6. Magnetic Drum: Magnetic Drum is like a cylinder that stores data and cylinder.
7. Magnetic Core: Magnetic cores are used to store information. These are arrays of small rings.
8. Machine Language: Machine Language is the language that a computer accepts (in the form
of binary digits). It is also called low-level programming language.
9. Memory: Memory stores data, information, and program in a computer.
10. Artificial Intelligence: Artificial Intelligence deals with creating intelligent machines and
behaviors.

 Phases of Computer Generations

This long period is often conveniently divided into the subsequent phases called computer
generations.

 First Generation Computers (1940-1956)

 Second Generation Computers (1956-1963)
 Third Generation Computers (1964-1971
 Fourth Generation Computers (1971-1980)
 Fifth Generation Computers (1981- Present)

9|Page By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103

Generations of Computer Time-Period Evolving Hardware

First Generation 1940s – 1956s Vacuum Tube Based

Second Generation 1956s – 1963s Transistor Based

Third Generation 1964s – 1970s Integrated Circuit Based

Fourth Generation 1971s – 1980 Microprocessor Based

Fifth Generation 1981-Present Artificial Intelligence Based

Before the generation of computers, we used calculators, spreadsheets, and computer algebra
systems, mathematicians and inventors searched for solutions to ease the burden of calculation.
Below are the 8 Mechanical Calculators before modern computers were invented.
1. Abacus (ca. 2700 BC)
2. Pascal’s Calculator (1652)
3. Stepped Reckoner (1694)
4. Arithmometer (1820)
5. Comptometer (1887) and Comptograph (1889)
6. The Difference Engine (1822)
7. Analytical Engine (1834)
8. The Millionaire (1893)
(1) First Generation Computers
The technology behind the primary generation computers was a fragile glass device called a
vacuum tube. These computers were very heavy and large. These weren’t very reliable and
programming on them was tedious as they used low-level programming language and no OS.
First-generation computers were used for calculation, storage, and control purposes. They were
too bulky and large that they needed a full room and consumed a lot of electricity. Punch cards
were used to improve the information for external storage. Magnetic card used. Machine and
assembly language is developed.
Examples of some main first-generation computers are mentioned below.
 ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, built by J. Presper Eckert and John
V. Mauchly was a general-purpose computer. It had been cumbersome, and large, and
contained 18,000 vacuum tubes.

 EDVAC: Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer was designed by von Neumann.
It could store data also as instruction and thus the speed was enhanced.

 UNIVAC: Universal Automatic Computer was developed in 1952 by Eckert and Mauchly.

10 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103

Vacuum Tube

Characteristics of First-Generation Computers

Characteristics Components

Main electronic component Vacuum tube.

Programming language Machine language.

Main memory Magnetic tapes and magnetic drums.

Input/output devices Paper tape and punched cards.

Very slow and very large (often taking up an

Speed and size
entire room).

Examples of the first generation IBM 650, IBM 701, ENIAC, UNIVAC1, etc.

(2) Second Generation Computers

Second-generation computers used the technology of transistors rather than bulky vacuum tubes.
A transistor may be a device composed of semiconductor material that amplifies a sign or opens
or closes a circuit. Transistors were invented in Bell Labs. The use of transistors made it possible
to perform powerfully and with due speed. It reduced the dimensions and price and thankfully the
warmth too, which was generated by vacuum tubes. Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory,
programming language, and input, and output units also came into the force within the second
generation.
The programming language was shifted from high level to programming language and made
programming comparatively a simple task for programmers. Languages used for programming
during this era were FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL (1958), and COBOL (1959).

11 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103

Transistor

Characteristics of Second-Generation Computers

Characteristics Components

Main electronic component Transistor.

Programming language Machine language and assembly language.

Memory Magnetic core and magnetic tape/disk.

Input/output devices Magnetic tape and punched cards.

Smaller in size, had low power consumption, and

Power and size generated less heat (in comparison with the first-
generation computers).

PDP-8, IBM1400 series, IBM 7090 and 7094,

Examples of the second generation
UNIVAC 1107, CDC 3600, etc.

3. Third Generation Computers

During the third generation, technology envisaged a shift from huge transistors to integrated
circuits, also referred to as IC. Here a variety of transistors were placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors. The most important feature of this era’s computer was speed and reliability. IC
was made from silicon also called silicon chips.
The computer programs were designed to make the machine work. An operating system is a
program designed to handle a machine completely. Because of the operating system machine
could execute multiple jobs simultaneously. Integrated circuits were used to replace many
transistors used in the second generation. A single IC has many transistors, registers, and
capacitors built on one thin slice of silicon. The value size was reduced and memory space and
12 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)
Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
dealing efficiency were increased during this generation. Programming was now wiped-out
Higher-level languages like BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code).
Minicomputers find their shape during this era.

Integrated Circuit

Characteristics of Third-Generation Computers

Characteristics Components

Main electronic component Integrated circuits (ICs).

Programming language High-level language.

Memory Large magnetic core, magnetic tape/disk.

Input/output devices Magnetic tape, monitor, keyboard, printer, etc.

IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP-11, NCR 395, B6500,

Examples of the third generation
UNIVAC 1108, etc.

(4) Fourth Generation Computers

In 1971 First microprocessors were used, the large-scale of integration LSI circuits built on one
chip called microprocessors. The advantage of this technology is that one microprocessor can
contain all the circuits required to perform arithmetic, logic, and control functions on one chip.
LSI placed thousands of transistors onto a single chip.
The computers using microchips were called microcomputers. This generation provided even
smaller size of computers, with larger capacities Very Large-scale Scale Integrated (VLSI)
circuits replaced LSI circuits. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components
of the PC from the central processing unit and memory to input/ output controls on one chip and
allowed the dimensions to reduce drastically. VLSI placed several hundred thousand transistors
on a single silicon chip. This silicon chip is known as the microprocessor. Technologies like
multiprocessing, multiprogramming, time-sharing, operating speed, and virtual memory made it a
more user-friendly and customary device. The concept of private computers and computer
networks came into being within the fourth generation.

13 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103

Microprocessor

Characteristics of Fourth-Generation Computers

Characteristics Components

Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) and the microprocessor

Main electronic component
(VLSI has thousands of transistors on a single microchip).

Memory Semiconductor memory (such as RAM, ROM, etc.).

pointing devices, optical scanning, keyboard, monitor,

Input/output devices
printer, etc.

Examples of the fourth- IBM PC, STAR 1000, APPLE II, Apple Macintosh, Alter
generation 8800, etc.

(5) Fifth Generation Computers

The technology behind the fifth generation of computers is AI. It allows computers to behave like
humans. It is often seen in programs like voice recognition, area of medicine, and entertainment.
Within the field of game playing also it’s shown remarkable performance where computers are
capable of beating human competitors.
The speed is the highest, size is the smallest and area of use has remarkably increased within the
fifth-generation computers. Though not a hundred percent AI has been achieved to date keeping
in sight the present developments, it is often said that this dream will soon become a reality.
To summarize the features of varied generations of computers, it is often said that a big
improvement has been seen so far because of the speed and accuracy of functioning care, but if
we mention the dimensions, it’s been small over the years. The value is additionally diminishing
and reliability is increasing.

14 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Characteristics of Fifth-Generation Computers
Characteristics Components

Based on artificial intelligence, uses the Ultra Large-Scale

Integration (ULSI) technology and parallel processing method
Main electronic component (ULSI has millions of transistors on a single microchip and the
Parallel processing method uses two or more microprocessors
to run tasks simultaneously).

Language Understand natural language (human language).

Size Portable and small in size.

Trackpad (or touchpad), touchscreen, pen, speech input

Input/output device (recognize voice/speech), light scanner, printer, keyboard,
monitor, mouse, etc.

An example of the fifth-

Desktops, laptops, tablets, smartphones, etc.
generation

Important Question:-
1. What are the 5 types of generation of computer?
2. What is Artificial Intelligence?
3. What was the First Computer?
4. Who is known as the Father of Computers?

15 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Classification of Computers
A computer is a device that transforms unusable data into information. According to the set of
instructions the user gives it, it processes the input and generates the desired outcome.
Modern digital computers are classified based on their size and capacity. The size and data
handling capabilities of the various types of computers may be used to categorize them into
two groups. There are two bases on which we can define the types of computers. First is the
basis of size and second is a data handling capability.

 The computer systems can be classified on the following basis:

1. based on size.
2. based on functionality.
3. based on data handling.

Types of computers.
 Super Computer
 Mainframe computer
 Mini Computer
 Micro Computer
 Workstation Computer
 Personal Computer (PC)
 Server Computer
 Analog Computer
 Digital Computer
 Hybrid Computer
 Tablets and Smartphones

 Classification based on size

Super Computer
Super Computer are most efficient computers in terms of processing data and performance.
These computers are used for research and exploratory purposes. Supercomputers are
exceedingly large and highly expensive. The supercomputers are the most high-performing &
high level of performance compared to a general-purpose computer system. It can only fit in
large, air-conditioned spaces. Super computers are used for a range of tasks, such as space
exploration, earthquakes research, the testing of nuclear weapons, quantum mechanics, weather
forecasting, climate research, oil and gas exploration, molecular modeling, and physical
simulations.
All the world’s fastest 500 supercomputers run Linux-based operating systems. Supercomputers
play an important role in the field of computation and are used for intensive computation tasks
in various fields, CDC 6600 (1964) is considered the first supercomputer. It was designed by
Seymour Cray – often considered the father of supercomputing – while he was working at the
Control Data Corporation (CDC) eg: PARAM, jaguar, roadrunner.

16 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Note:- India's first supercomputer was the PARAM 8000, developed in 1991 by the Centre for
Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) in Pune. The PARAM series of supercomputers was
led by Vijay P. Bhatkar, who is known as the "architect of India's initiative in supercomputing

Characteristics of Supercomputer Computers:-

 They make use of AI (Artificial intelligence)
 They are the fastest and strongest;
 They are very costly.
 They are Big in size.
 They are employed by companies that manufacture goods.
 They process information at a rapid rate.
 They use in exploring the solar system, satellites, etc.

Mainframe computer
Mainframe Computer are efficient than supercomputers and also not extremely expensive.
These are commonly called as big iron, Large corporations and governmental organizations
frequently use mainframe computers to run everyday operations. They can store and analyze
a lot of data. To maintain information on their customers, students, and insurance
policyholders, banks, colleges, and insurance companies utilize them.
They may also act as a server in a network environment. Hundreds of users may be managed
simultaneously by them. for bulk data processing such as statistics, census data processing,
transaction processing and are widely used as the servers as these systems has a higher
processing capability as compared to the other classes of computers.
Mainframe architectures were established in 1960s, the research and development worked
continuously over the years and the mainframes of today are far more better than the earlier
ones, in size, capacity and efficiency. Eg: IBM z Series, System z9 and System z10 servers.
Note:- The first mainframe computer was the Harvard Mark 1, also known as the IBM
Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC), which was developed in the 1930s by
Harvard researcher Howard Aiken. Aiken's idea was to build a large calculator to solve non-
linear equations. IBM completed the device in 1943

17 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Characteristics of Mainframe Computers
 They have enormous amounts of memory.
 They can run several different operating systems.
 They have a significant number of CPUs with powerful processing speeds.
 Tightly Coupled Clustering Technology is employed.

Minicomputer
Minicomputers are used by small businesses and industries. They go by the term "Midrange
Computers." These minicomputers frequently have several users, just as mainframe
computers. They are a bit slower than mainframe computers.
These computers came into the market in the mid-1960s and were sold at a much cheaper
price than the mainframes, they were designed for control, instrumentation, human
interaction, and communication switching as distinct from calculation and record keeping,
later they became very popular for personal uses with evolution. In the 60s to describe the
smaller computers that became possible with the use of transistors and core memory
technologies, minimal instruction sets, and less expensive peripherals.
They usually took up one or a few inch rack cabinets, compared with the large mainframes
that could fill a room, there was a new term “MINICOMPUTERS” coined for Personal
Laptop, PC etc.
For example, the manufacturing department may employ minicomputers to keep an eye on
specific production processes. PDP-1 was the world's first minicomputer and it was
introduced in 1958. (Gordon Bell)

Characteristics of Minicomputer
 It is smaller than mainframes or supercomputers in terms of size.

 In comparison to a mainframe or supercomputer, it is less costly.

 It can perform many jobs at once.
 It may be utilized by several users simultaneously.
 It is utilized by small businesses.
Micro computers:
A microcomputer, sometimes referred to as a personal computer (PC), is a type of computer
that runs on a smaller scale than traditional computers (Personal Computer). A component that
is commonly referred to as a motherboard houses the central processing unit (CPU), a
microprocessor, memory in the form of ROM (Read Only Memory), RAM (Random Access
Memory), I/O ports, and a bus system of connecting wires.
They are the most affordable. The previous to computers, mainframes, and minicomputers,
were comparatively much larger, hard to maintain, and more expensive. They formed the
foundation for present-day microcomputers and smart gadgets that we use in day-to-day
life. Eg: Tablets, Smartwatches.

18 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Note:-The first microcomputer was the Altair 8800, which was developed by Micro
Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS) in 1974.
Features of Microcomputers:
 They are extensively employed for personal usage.
 They are smaller and comparably less expensive.
 Multi-user functionality is not supported.
 It has a limited computational capacity.
 They are quite simple to use.

Difference Between Micro Computer and Mini Computer

Micro Computer Mini Computer

It is a personal computer introduced in 1970 and It is a small computer introduced in 1960 and used for
used for general purposes. operating business and scientific applications.

People use these computers for education and Companies use these computers for manufacturing
entertainment. control of processes.

It is composed of single-processing It is composed of double-processing and

optimization. optimization.

It uses single microprocessor for single-

processing purposes slow, processes CPU that It uses Multiple processors.
performs all logic and arithmetic operations.

Storage capacity is in terms of Gigabyte (GB). Storage capacity is in terms of Terabyte (TB).

They are primarily used for word processing, They are primarily used for process control,
managing databases or spreadsheets, graphics performing financial and administrative tasks, such as
and general office applications. word processing and accounting.

It is more cost effective and easy to use as It is more costly and difficult to use as compared to
compared to a a minicomputer. microcomputers.

It is very slower in speed and performance as It is faster in speed and performance as compared to
compared to mini computers. microcomputers because it contains multiprocessing
system that is capable of handling different users

19 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Micro Computer Mini Computer

simultaneously.

It uses tapes and disks as storage devices. It uses magnetic disks or tapes for secondary storage.

It is less powerful as compared to mini

It is more powerful as compared to microcomputers.
computers.

Designed for larger-scale computing tasks that require

Typically designed for personal and small-scale
high-performance computing and processing
computing tasks.
capabilities.

Generally less expensive and more widely More expensive than micro computers, but often more
available than mini computers. cost-effective for large-scale computing tasks.

Examples include personal computers (PCs), Examples include mid-range servers, mainframe
laptops, tablets, and smartphones. computers, and high-performance computing clusters.

Generally have less processing power and Typically have more processing power and memory
memory than mini computers. than micro computers.

Often used for personal and small business Often used for scientific and engineering applications,
applications, such as web browsing, email, and large-scale data processing, network servers, and
word processing. telecommunications.

Typically run on a single processor, with limited

Often have multiple processors and are designed for
capabilities for multi-tasking and parallel
multi-tasking and parallel processing.
processing.

Typically require specialized knowledge to set up and

Easy to set up and use, with a wide range of
use, with custom software and applications developed
software and applications available.
for specific tasks.

Limited scalability, with less room for Highly scalable, with the ability to expand and
expansion and customization. customize the system to meet specific needs.

20 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
 Classification based on functionality
1. Servers: Servers are nothing but dedicated computers which are set up to offer some
services to the clients. They are named depending on the type of service they offer. Eg:
security server, database server.

2. Workstation: Those are the computers designed primarily to be used by a single user at a
time. They run multi-user operating systems. They are the ones which we use for our day-to-
day personal / commercial work.

Characteristics of Workstation Computer

 It is expensive or high in cost.
 They are exclusively made for complex work purposes.
 It provides large storage capacity, better graphics, and a more powerful CPU when compared to
a PC.
 It is also used to handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation, and editing.

3. Information Appliances : They are the portable devices that are designed to perform a
limited set of tasks like basic calculations, playing multimedia, browsing the internet etc.
They are generally referred as the mobile devices. They have very limited memory and
flexibility and generally run on “as-is” basis.

4. Embedded computers : They are computing devices that are used in other machines to
serve limited set of requirements. They follow instructions from the non-volatile memory
and they are not required to execute reboot or reset. The processing units used in such
devices work to those basic requirements only and are different from the ones that are used
in personal computers- better known as workstations.

Classification on the basis of data handling

1. Analog : An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously-changeable

aspects of physical fact such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the
problem being solved. Any thing that is variable with respect to time and continuous can be
claimed as analog just like an analog clock measures time by means of the distance traveled
for the spokes of the clock around the circular dial.
2. Digital : A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities
represented as digits, usually in the binary number system of “0” and “1”, “Computer
capable of solving problems by processing information expressed in discrete form. from
manipulation of the combinations of the binary digits, it can perform mathematical
calculations, organize and analyze data, control industrial and other processes, and simulate
dynamic systems such as global weather patterns.
3. Hybrid : A computer that processes both analog and digital data, Hybrid computer is a
digital computer that accepts analog signals, converts them to digital and processes them in
digital form.

21 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
 Personal Computer (PC)
Personal Computers is also known as a microcomputer. It is basically a general-purpose computer
designed for individual use. It consists of a microprocessor as a central processing unit (CPU),
memory, input unit, and output unit. This kind of computer is suitable for personal work such as
making an assignment, watching a movie, or at the office for office work, etc. For example, Laptops
and desktop computers.
Note:-The first personal computer is Altair 8800
Characteristics of Personal Computer (PC)
 In this limited number of software can be used.
 It is the smallest in size.
 It is designed for personal use.
 It is easy to use.
 Analog Computer
Analog Computers are particularly designed to process analog data. Continuous data that changes
continuously and cannot have discrete values are called analog data. So, an analog computer is used
where we don’t need exact values or need approximate values such as speed, temperature, pressure,
etc. It can directly accept the data from the measuring device without first converting it into numbers
and codes. It measures the continuous changes in physical quantity. It gives output as a reading on a
dial or scale. For example speedometer, mercury thermometer, etc.
 Tablet and Smartphones
Tablets and Smartphones are the types of computers that are pocket-friendly and easy to carry is
these are handy. This is one of the best uses of modern technology. These devices have better
hardware capabilities, extensive operating systems, and better multimedia functionality. Smartphones
and tablets contain several sensors and are also able to provide wireless communication protocols.
We generally classify computers based on size, functionality, and data-handling capabilities.

 Important Questions:

1. What is Computer? Explain its functional unit?

2. Types of Computer.
3. What is server Computer?
4. What is Super Computer? Characteristics of Super Computer.
5. What is Sever Computer? Characteristics of Server Computer.

22 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
 The Computer System
COMPUTER SYSTEM
Definition: Computer is a collection of entities (hardware, software and liveware) that are designed
to receive, process, manage and present information in a meaningful format.
COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

 Computer hardware - These are physical parts/ intangible parts of a computer. eg Input
devices, output devices, central processing unit and storage devices
 Computer software - also known as programs or applications. They are classified into two
classes namely - system software and application software
 Liveware - is the computer user. Also kwon as the humanware. The user commands the
computer system to execute on instructions.

a) COMPUTER HARDWARE
Hardware refers to the physical, computer equipment and devices, which provide support for major
functions such as input, processing , output, secondary storage (for data and programs), and
communication.

23 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
HARDWARE CATEGORIES (Functional Parts)
A computer system is a set of integrated devices that input, output, process, and store data and
information. Computer systems are currently built around at least one digital processing device.
There are five main hardware components in a computer system:
Input, Processing, Storage, Output and Communication devices.

1. INPUT DEVICES

These devices are used for entering data or instructions into the central processing unit. classified
according to the method they use to enter data.

a) KEYING DEVICES
These devices are used to enter data into the computer using a set of Keys eg Keyboard, key-to-
storage and keypad.

i) The keyboard
A keyboard (similar to a typewriter) is the main input device of a computer . It contains three types of
keys-- alphanumeric keys, special keys and function keys. Alphanumeric keys are used to type all
alphabets, numbers and special symbols like $, %, @, A etc. Special keys such as <Shift>, <Ctrl>,
<Alt>, <Home>, <Scroll Lock> etc. are used for special functions. Function keys such as <Fl>,
<F2>, <F3> etc. are used to give special commands depending upon the software used e.g. F5 reloads
a page of an internet browser. The function of each key can be well understood only after working on
a PC. When any key is pressed, an electronic signal is produced. This signal is detected by a
keyboard encoder that sends a binary code corresponding to the key pressed to the CPU.
There are many types of keyboards but 101 keys keyboard is the most popular one.

The keys on your keyboard can be divided into several groups based on function:

 Typing (alphanumeric) keys. These keys include the same letter, number, punctuation, and
symbol keys on a traditional typewriter.
 Special (Control) keys. These keys are used alone or in combination with other keys to
perform certain actions. The most frequently used control keys are CTRL, ALT,
the Windows key, and ESC.
 Function keys. The function keys are used to perform specific tasks. They are labeled as F1,
F2, F3, and so on, up to F12. The functionality of these keys differs from program to program.
 Cursor Movement (Navigation) keys. These keys are used for moving around in documents
or WebPages and editing text. They include the arrow keys, HOME, END, PAGE UP, PAGE
DOWN, DELETE, and INSERT and ARROW KEYS.
 Numeric keypad. The numeric keypad is handy for entering numbers quickly. The keys are

B. POINTING DEVICES
Are devices that enter data and instructions into the computer using a pointer that appears on the
screen. The items to be entered are selected by either pointing to or clicking on them.e.g mice,
joystick, touch sensitive screen, trackballs

24 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
i) THE MOUSE
A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer screen. Although
mouse come in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit like an actual mouse. It's small,
oblong, and connected to the system unit by a long wire that resembles a tail and the connector which
can either be PS/2 or USB. Some newer mouse are wireless.
A mouse usually has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a secondary button.
Many mice also have a wheel between the two buttons, which allows you to scroll smoothly through
screens of information.
There are several types of mouse: Mechanical mouse, optical mouse, optical-mechanical mouse
and laser mouse.
Basic parts
A mouse typically has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a secondary
button (usually the right button). The primary button is the one you will use most often. Most mice
also include a scroll wheel between the buttons to help you scroll through documents and Webpages
more easily. On some mice, the scroll wheel can be pressed to act as a third button. Advanced mice
might have additional buttons that can perform other functions.

Holding and moving the mouse

Most mouse actions combine pointing with pressing one of the mouse buttons. There are four basic
ways to use your mouse buttons: clicking, double-clicking, right-clicking, and dragging.
Clicking (single-clicking)

To click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then press and release the primary button
(usually the left button)

Double-clicking
To double-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then click twice quickly. If the two
clicks are spaced too far apart, they might be interpreted as two individual clicks rather than as one
double-click. Double-clicking is most often used to open items on your desktop. For example, you
can start a program or open a folder by double-clicking its icon on the desktop.
Right-clicking
To right-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then press and release the secondary
button (usually the right button). Right-clicking an item usually displays a list of things you can do
with the item. For example, when you right-click the Recycle Bin on your
desktop, Windows displays a menu allowing you to open it, empty it, delete it, or see its properties. If
you are unsure of what to do with something, right-click it.

C) SCANNING DEVICES
Are devices that capture an object or a document directly from the source. They are classifie
according to the technology used to capture data e.g. Scanners and Document readers.
i) Scanners
Used to capture a source document and converts it into an electronic form.
Example are - FlatBed and HandHeld scanners.

25 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103

ii) Document readers

Are documents that reads data directly from source document and convey them as input in the form
of electronic signal. e
Types of Document Readers

i) Optical Mar Reader (OMR)

ii) Barcode readers
iii) Optical Character Readers

b) Magnetic Readers
Reads data using magnetic ink.t uses principle of magnetism to sense data which have been written
using magnetised ink.

THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT ( C P U)

CPU is the brain or the heart of a computer. Is also known as processor and consist of three units
namely -
i) Control Unit ( C U)
ii) Arithmetic logic Unit ( A L U)
iii) Main Memory unit ( M M U)
The system unit is the core of a computer system. Inside this box are many electronic components
that process data. The most important of these components is the central processing unit (CPU),
or microprocessor, which acts as the "brain" of your computer. Another component is random access
memory (RAM), which temporarily stores information that the CPU uses while the computer is on.
The information stored in RAM is erased when the computer is turned off.

26 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Hardware that is not part of the system unit is sometimes called a peripheral device. Peripheral
devices can be external such as a mouse, keyboard, printer, monitor, external Zip
drive or scanner or internal, such as a CD-ROM drive, CD-R drive or internal modem.

Desktop System Unit

A motherboard (mainboard, system board, planar board or logic board) is the main printed
circuit board found in computers and other expandable systems. It holds many of the crucial
electronic components of the system, such as the central processing unit (CPU), memory, and
provides connectors for other peripherals.

TYPES OF PROCESSORS
I) Comples Instruction Set Computers (CISC)
ii) Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC)

FUNCTIONS OF CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

- Process data
- Control sequence of operaions within the computers
- It gives command to all parts of a computer
- It control the use of the main memory in storing of data and instructions
- it provides temporary storage (RAM) and permanent storage(ROM) of data

27 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Components of Computer
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data, performs operations, displays results, and stores
the data or results as needed. It is a combination of hardware and software resources that integrate
and provide various functionalities to the user. Hardware is the physical components of a computer,
such as a processor, memory devices, monitor, keyboard, etc., while software is a set of programs or
instructions that are required by the hardware resources to function properly.

Components of a Computer
There are basically three important components of a computer:
1. Input Unit
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
3. Output Unit

1. Input Unit:
The input unit consists of input devices that are attached to the computer. These devices take input
and convert it into binary language that the computer understands. Some of the common input
devices are keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner etc.
 The Input Unit is formed by attaching one or more input devices to a computer.
 A user input data and instructions through input devices such as a keyboard, mouse, etc.
 The input unit is used to provide data to the processor for further processing.

2. Central Processing Unit:

Once the information is entered into the computer by the input device, the processor processes it. The
CPU is called the brain of the computer because it is the control centre of the computer. It first
fetches instructions from memory and then interprets them so as to know what is to be done.
Thereafter CPU executes or performs the required computation, and then either stores the output or
displays it on the output device. The CPU has three main components, which are responsible for
different functions: Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and Memory registers

A. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU):

The ALU performs mathematical calculations and makes logical decisions. Arithmetic calculations
include addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Logical decisions involve the comparison
of two data items to see which one is larger smaller or equal.
 The Arithmetic Logical Unit is the main component of the CPU
 It is the fundamental building block of the CPU.
 Arithmetic and Logical Unit is a digital circuit that is used to perform arithmetic and logical
operations.
B. Control Unit:
The Control unit coordinates and controls the data flow in and out of the CPU, and also controls all
the operations of ALU, memory registers and also input/output units. It is also responsible for
carrying out all the instructions stored in the program. It decodes the fetched instruction, interprets it
and sends control signals to input/output devices until the required operation is done properly by
ALU and memory.
 The Control Unit is a component of the central processing unit of a computer that directs the
operation of the processor.

28 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
 It instructs the computer’s memory, arithmetic and logic unit, and input and output devices on
how to respond to the processor’s instructions.
 To execute the instructions, the components of a computer receive signals from the control unit.
 It is also called the central nervous system or brain of the computer.

C. Memory Registers:
A register is a temporary unit of memory in the CPU. These are used to store the data, which is
directly used by the processor. Registers can be of different sizes (16-bit, 32-bit, 64 bit and so on) and
each register inside the CPU has a specific function, like storing data, storing an instruction, storing
the address of a location in memory etc.
The internal memory is also called the Primary memory or Main memory. This memory is also called
RAM, i.e., Random Access Memory. The time of access of data is independent of its location in
memory, therefore, this memory is also called Random Access memory (RAM).
 Memory Unit is the primary storage of the computer.
 It stores both data and instructions.
 Data and instructions are stored permanently in this unit so that they are available whenever
required.

3. Output Unit :
The output unit consists of output devices that are attached to the computer. It converts the binary
data coming from the CPU to human understandable form. The common output devices monitors,
printer, plotter, etc.
 The output unit displays or prints the processed data in a user-friendly format.
 The output unit is formed by attaching the output devices of a computer.
 The output unit accepts the information from the CPU and displays it in a user-readable form.

29 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
 Applications of Computers
The term computer was taken from the Greek word compute means calculation. we will learn what
exactly a computer is, how it affects our lives, and the applications of computers in our life.
What is a computer?
A computer is a machine used to manipulate data or information and perform mathematical and
logical operations. Using a computer we can create/modify documents, send/receive emails, browse
information on the internet, and play video games
Components of the Computer System
The various components of the computer system are classified into two groups.
 Hardware
 Software
1. Hardware
Hardware is the physical component of the computer system. This type of component is
touchable. CPU, Mouse, and Keyboard are examples of hardware components. So, the hardware of
the computer system is:
 Input Device: Input devices allow the user to enter data/information in the CPU (Central
Processing Unit). Mouse, Keyboard, scanner, and barcode reader are general examples of input
devices.
 Output Device: Output devices input the processed data/information into human-readable form.
Monitor, speaker, projector, and printer are general examples of output devices.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is referred to as the brain of a computer system. It is
used to process data/information and provides output to output devices. The CU (control unit),
ALU (arithmetic and logical unit), and registers are components of the CPU.
 Storage: In a computer, storage devices are used to store the data or information that is entered
into the computer system and the output comes from processing the information or data.

2. Software:
Software is a collection of programs (set of instructions), data, and protocols. It is not in material
form so we cannot touch such types of components. The execution of software programs is
performed by hardware. Firmware, operating systems, and applications are examples of software.
Basic Applications of Computers
Computers are used in every field of life, such as homes, businesses, educational institutions,
research organizations, the medical field, government offices, entertainment, etc. Today we cannot
imagine growing our technology without computers. The various field where the computer is very
essential are:
 Science
Today computer is the primary work tool in the field of science. It is the best-suited machine for
collecting, analyzing, classifying, and storing data. It becomes the most essential medium to spread
knowledge internally and internationally. It allows scientists from different locations to work
together and share ideas on the same project.

30 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
 Defence System
A computer performs a vital to control defense system. Computers are used to track airplanes,
missiles, tanks, and different kinds of weapons. Once the radar system tracks a missile and artificial
intelligence is programmed to target a missile and destroy it before it comes on the surface. It is
also used for GPS tracking, controlling defense vehicles, and records of all members of the
military.
 Medical
The computer plays a very important role in medical science such as recording patients’
information and monitoring heart rate, oxygen level, and blood pressure. Research is also spread
with the help of computers in the health sector.
 Education
Today learning becomes easy because of computers. Anyone employed or student can learn any
stage of life with the help of a computer. Computers are very crucial for online classes, and
downloading study material on the internet. Computers are also used to track student attendance
and learning strategies. Coaching and institutes increased their areas by audio-visual aids using
computers.
 Banking
A computer performs a crucial role in banking sectors, by storing several account holder details on
a bank server. All transactions such as deposits and withdrawals perform by a computer. A banking
company can easily monitor all ATMs and passbook printing machines.
 Government Sectors
The government can easily monitor government sectors such as road services, railways,
development, and other rising funds. The information of every citizen is stored on the server
through the computer.
 Entertainment
Today most people are so busy that they do not easily get time to fresh their minds. We can play
various interesting video games using a computer. We can watch movies, TV shows, and reality
shows on the computer. A computer is also used to create sarcastic memes and make us happy.

Important Question with answer

Q.1: What is a computer program?
Q.2: Write three components of computer hardware?

31 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
 COMPUTER HARDWARE
Hardware refers to the physical, computer equipment and devices, which provide support for major
functions such as input, processing (internal storage, computation, and control), output, secondary
storage (for data and programs), and communication.
 Hardware Functional Parts
A computer system is a set of integrated devices that input, output, process, and store data and
information. Computer systems are currently built around at least one digital processing device.
There are five main hardware components in a computer system: Input, Processing, Storage,
Output, and Communication devices.
1. CPU (Central Processing Unit)
The CPU is also known as the heart of the computer. It consists of three units, generally known as the
control unit, the Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU), and the memory unit.

In this diagram input is given to the CPU through input devices. This input goes to memory and the
control unit gets instructions from memory. The control unit now decides what to do with the input or
instructions and transfers it to ALU. Now, ALU performs various operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, logical operations, etc. After that, the final result gets stored in
memory and finally passed to output devices to give the output. So, this is how the CPU works.
CPU utilization is a basic metric of operating system efficiency. It measures how well the operating
system manages the processor resources.
2. Motherboard
The motherboard is the main circuit board inside a computer and it contains most of the electronic
components together. All the components of the computer are directly or indirectly connected to the
motherboard. It includes RAM slots, controllers, system chipsets, CPU, memory, storage, ROM BIOS,
Southbridge and Northbridge chipsets, cooling fans, peripheral connector slots, connectors for
peripheral devices, battery backup, and the power connector. It also controls how data transfers and
what type of monitor or screen device to use etc.
Computer Motherboard with Functions
i. Chipsets
A chipset is a set of semiconductor chips or circuits on the motherboard that provides interfaces for
memory, expansion cards, and other peripheral devices. It is the foundation of the motherboard and is
made up of one or several integrated circuit chips.
ii. Northbridge
A Northbridge is a chipset that establishes the communication among high-speed peripherals, such as
memory, PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) bus, AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) bus, and
the Level 2 processor cache (L2 Cache memory).

32 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
iii. Southbridge
Southbridge is a single semiconductor chipset that is responsible for controlling all onboard Input
/Output functions of a computer such as USB, BIOS (FireWire), PS/2, Parallel, Series, wire-less LAN
ports, IDE, audio, and so on.
iv Processor Slots
The central processing unit (CPU), or simply a processor, is the brain of the computer. This electrical
component performs all the mathematical calculations and 90 percent of all the functions of a
computer. ex-LGA1200 socket is the latest socket created by Intel to install 10th generation and 11th
generation Intel® Desktop Processors. However, 9th, 8th, 7th, 6th Generation Intel® Desktop
Processors use LGA1151 socket.
v. Memory Slots and External Cache
The main memory of a computer is random access memory (RAM), which temporarily stores data
during the normal operation of the computer. A memory slot is a physical connector on a
motherboard of the computer that holds the main memory chip. Now a days, most of the computer’s
motherboard come with DIMM (Dual In-line Memory Module) slots. Variance of DIMMs support
DDR, DDR2, DDR3, DDR4 and DDR5 RAM.
vi. Expansion Slots
Expansion slots are the most visible components of any motherboard. We can easily identify them on
the motherboard, as they are generally located close to each other and near the rare end of the case.
We can install sound cards, graphics cards, network cards, etc. on these slots.
vii. PCI Expansion Slots
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) slots are found on the motherboard of a computer. They are
used to connect various compatible expansion cards or peripheral devices to the computer system.
Some common devices that we can connect to PCI slots :
Graphics cards, Sound cards, Network Interface Cards (NIC), Storage controllers, TV tuner cards
Wireless cards, Modems, USB expansion cards

33 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
viii. AGP Expansion Slots
AGP stands for Accelerated Graphics Port or Advanced Graphics Port. It is a high-speed point-to-
point channel for adding a 3D graphics card or video card to a computer’s motherboard. It allows the
video card to communicate directly with the CPU processor and memory.
ix. PCIe Expansion Slots
Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCIe) is a high-speed serial bus interface that we use to
add various expansion cards to a motherboard of the computer system. It is available on new
computer motherboards. This slot is designed to replace AGP and PCI slots, but most computer
motherboards have still PCI as well as AGP slots. We can use these slots to install graphics cards,
network adapters, storage expansion, sound cards, video capture cards, etc.
x. BIOS Chip
The Basic Input /Output System (BIOS) or firmware is the most important semiconductor chip on the
motherboard, aside from the processor. It is a non-volatile memory chip containing BIOS software
that stores firmware instructions and data essential for the initial startup of a computer.
It basically tells the CPU processor how to interact with the rest of the hardware components of the
computer. BIOS memory chip is activated as soon as the computer is powered on. These instructions
perform several essential tasks, such as testing hardware components, initializing system settings, and
loading the operating system into memory. This process is called booting up.
xi. CMOS Chip
Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) is a type of memory chip that stores certain
computer settings, such as date and time, even when the computer is powered off. It gets its power
from the small cylindrical battery, called CMOS battery, installed on the computer motherboard .
xii. Cooling Systems
As we know electronic components produce heat. It is caused by the flow of electric current within
the components. The components of a computer work better when kept cool. If heat is not removed,
then it may run slower. The computer components may damage if too much heat generated .
xiii. Power Supply Connectors
Power connectors play a significant role in distributing the necessary electrical power to various
components within a computer system. There is only one main power supply connector on the
computer motherboard. It also contains a small 4-pin connector for CPU fan.
The main function of power supply is to convert 110-volt or 220-volt AC voltage into DC voltage for
different components of the computer. These DC voltages supply 3.3 volts, +5 volts, and -5 volts,
+12 volts and -12 volts. The rating of power supply unit is watts that is a measure of power.
There are many different types of power supply connectors used on the motherboard and peripherals.

 24-pin ATX power connector

 4/8-pin CPU power connector
 PCIe power connector
 SATA power connector
 Molex power connector
 Fan power connector

UNIT- II

34 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
 Input / Output devices and Memory
An input/output device is hardware that allows a human operator to interface with a computer.
As the name shows, input/output devices can deliver data (output) and receive data from a
computer (input). An input/output (I/O) device is a hardware part that can take, output, or
process data. It receives data as input and provides it to a computer, as well as sends computer
data to storage media as a storage output.
Input Devices
Input devices are the devices that are used to send signals to the computer for performing tasks.
The receiver CPU (Central Processing Unit) works to send signals to the output devices.
Some of the classifications of Input devices are:
 Keyboard Devices
 Pointing Devices
 Composite Devices
 Game Controller
 Visual Devices
 Audio Input Devices

Some of the input devices are described below.

(1) Keyboard
The keyboard is the most frequent input device for entering data into a computer. Although
there are additional keys for performing other operations, the keyboard layout resembles a
typical typewriter.
keyboards come in two sizes: 84 keys or 101/102 keys but currently keyboards with 104 keys or
108 keys are also available for Windows and the Internet.

35 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103

Types of Keys
 Numeric Keys: It is used to enter numeric data or move the cursor. It usually consists of a set
of 17 keys.
 Typing Keys: The letter keys (A-Z) and number keys (09) are among these keys.
 Control Keys: These keys control the pointer and the screen. There are four directional
arrow keys on it. Home, End, Insert, Alternate (Alt), Delete, Control (Ctrl) and Escape are
all control keys (Esc).
 Special Keys: Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Tab and Print Screen are among the
special function keys on the keyboard.
 Function Keys: The 12 keys from F1 to F12 are on the topmost row of the keyboard.

(2) Pointing Devices

 Mouse (1960s)
The most common pointing device is the mouse. It is used to move a little cursor across the
screen while clicking and dragging. a hand-held pointing device that detects two-
dimensional motion relative to a surface. A mouse is an input device that lets you move the
mouse on a flat surface to control the coordinates and movement of the on-screen
cursor/pointer. The left mouse button can be used to select or move items, while the right
mouse button when clicked displays extra menus.

36 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Different Types of Computer Mouse
1. Wired Mouse
A wired mouse is among the main types of computer mouse that have a cord and link to a computer
via it. It can be either of the two types: USB or PS/2.
2. Wireless Mouse
A Bluetooth mouse is a particular type of computer mouse that does not use a physical connection
but works on wireless data transmission using radio frequency (RF), Bluetooth, or infrared
technology. These mouse, either battery-powered or rechargeable and connected to the computer.
3. Gaming Mouse
This is a specialized type of mouse computer invented for gamers, totally suited to meet the
requirements of the players, such as tailored features for performance, precision, and
personalization.
4. Optical Mouse
An optical mouse, is a popular type of computer mouse that consists of optical sensors for tracking
movements. Unlike old mechanical mouse, which rely on rotating ball rollers, optical mice
apply LEDs (light-emitting diodes) or lasers, which provide the surface below with light and
instantly record the images of the surface..
5. Mechanical Mouse
A mechanical mouse is defined as a hardware device used with computer system for providing the
input. A mechanical mouse consists of a metal ball or rubber ball at its underside.
6. Touchpad
Touchpad, known as a trackpad, a regular input device usually used on laptops and some desktop
keyboards. It can be utilized just like a conventional mouse that is connected to a computer and
helps users move the cursor and interact with digital platforms and interfaces using touch-actuated
gestures
 Joystick
A joystick is a pointing device that is used to move the cursor on a computer screen. A spherical
ball is attached to both the bottom and top ends of the stick. In a socket, the lower spherical ball
slides. You can move the joystick in all four directions.

The joystick’s function is comparable to that of a mouse. It is primarily used in CAD

(Computer-Aided Design) and playing video games on the computer.
 Track Ball
Track Ball is an accessory for notebooks and laptops, which works on behalf of a mouse. It has
a similar structure to a mouse. Its structure is like a half-inserted ball and we use fingers for
cursor movement. Different shapes are used for this like balls, buttons, or squares.

37 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

 Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
 Light Pen
A light pen is a type of pointing device that looks like a pen. It can be used to select a menu
item or to draw on the monitor screen. A photocell and an optical system are enclosed in a tiny
tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved across a monitor screen while the pen button is
pushed, the photocell sensor element identifies the screen location and provides a signal to the
CPU.

3. Speech Recognition
Speech recognition is the process of converting sound signals to text transcriptions. Steps
involved in the conversion of a sound wave to text transcription in a speech recognition system
are: Recording: Audio is recorded using a voice recorder
Key Features of Speech Recognition
 Accuracy and Speed: They can process speech in real-time or near real-time, providing quick
responses to user inputs.
 Natural Language Understanding (NLU): NLU enables systems to handle complex
commands and queries, making technology more intuitive and user-friendly .
 Multi-Language Support: Support for multiple languages and dialects, allowing users from
different linguistic backgrounds to interact with technology in their native language.
 Background Noise Handling: This feature is crucial for voice-activated systems used in public or
outdoor settings.
4. Digital Camera:-
A digital camera is a device that captures and stores images and videos digitally and can be used
as an input or output device for a computer. it is a use of computer algorithms, in order to get
enhanced image either to extract some useful information. Most digital cameras have a USB
port that can be used to connect to a computer.
 Input device: A digital camera can capture images and send them to a computer.
 Output device: A digital camera can send pictures to a computer.
 Digital cameras have many advantages over film cameras, including:
 Digital storage: Digital cameras store images electronically on a memory card, instead of
using light-sensitive film.
 Quick processing: Digital cameras can take, process, and transmit images quickly.
 Instant viewing: Images can be viewed immediately after being taken.
 Editing and sharing: Images can be edited and shared on various digital platforms
(5) Scanner
A scanner is an input device that functions similarly to a photocopier. It’s employed when
there’s information on paper that needs to be transferred to the computer’s hard disc for
subsequent manipulation. The scanner collects images from the source and converts them to a
digital format that may be saved on a disc. Before they are printed, these images can be
modified.

38 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103

(6) Optical Scanner

 Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
An Optical Mark Reader is a device that is generally used in educational institutions to check the
answers to objective exams. It recognizes the marks present by pencil and pen.

 Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR stands for optical character recognition, and it is a device that reads printed text. OCR
optically scans the text, character by character turns it into a machine-readable code, and saves
it to the system memory.

 Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

It is a device that is generally used in banks to deal with the cheques given to the bank by the
customer. It helps in reading the magnetic ink present in the code number and cheque number.
This process is very fast compared to any other process.

 Bar Code Reader

A bar code reader is a device that reads data that is bar-coded (data that is represented by light
and dark lines). Bar-coded data is commonly used to mark things, number books, and so on. It
could be a handheld scanner or part of a stationary scanner. A bar code reader scans a bar code
image, converts it to an alphanumeric value, and then sends it to the computer to which it is
connected.

39 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
 Web Camera
Web camera records a video image of the scene in front of it, a webcam is an input device. It is
either built inside the computer (for example, a laptop) or attached through a USB connection.
A webcam is a computer-connected tiny digital video camera. It’s also known as a web camera
because it can take images and record video.
 Microphone
The microphone works as an input device that receives input voice signals and also has the
responsibility of converting it also to digital form. It is a very common device that is present in
every device which is related to music.
(1) Classification of Output Devices
Output Devices are the devices that show us the result after giving the input to a computer
system. Output can be of many different forms like image, graphic audio, video, etc. Some of
the output devices are described below.

 Printer
Printers are output devices that allow you to print information on paper. There are certain types
of printers which are described below.
 Impact Printers
 Character Printers
 Line Printers
 Non-Impact Printers
 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers

 Impact Printer
Characters are printed on the ribbon, which is subsequently crushed against the paper, in impact
printers.
The following are the characteristics of impact printers:
 Exceptionally low consumable cost.
 Quite noisy
 Because of its low cost, it is ideal for large-scale printing.
 To create an image, there is physical contact with the paper.

Examples of Impact Printer are Daisy-Wheel Printers, Dot -Matrix Printers, Line Printers, etc.
1. Daisy-Wheel Printers: Daisy wheel printing is a mechanical impact printing technology. It
is called daisy-wheel because its printing mechanism looks like a daisy. Its speed is usually 25-
50 characters per second.

40 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
2. Dot-Matrix Printers: The Dot-Matrix printers uses 9 to 24 pin print heads depending upon
the quality print required. 24 pin printers produce more clarity that 9 pins dot-matrix printer.
More number of pins results in more clarity. Usually inexpensive and speed ranges between 100
and 550 characters per second.

3. Line Printers: Line Printers (also called line-at-a-time printers), as the name suggests it can
print whole line at once. Speed ranges somewhere between 1,000 to 6,000 lines per minute.

 Non-Impact Printers
Characters are printed without the need for a ribbon in non-impact printers. Because these
printers print a full page at a time, they’re also known as Page Printers. The following are the
Characteristics of non-impact printers:
 Faster
 They don’t make a lot of noise.
 Excellent quality
 Supports a variety of typefaces and character sizes

Examples of non-impact printer are Inkjet printers, Laser Printers and etc.
1. Inkjet Printers: The inkjet printers are the most common and widely used printers in both
professional and domestic settings. It is popular due to its numerous advantages and very few
drawbacks.
Advantages of Inkjet printers
 Capable of printing highly detailed and photo elastic prints.
 Small footprints
 Environment friendly
 Compact Design
 Versatile
 Best Picture and Image quality
Disadvantages of Inkjet Printers
 Higher cost per page than laser printers
 Less Reliable
 Slow print speed

41 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
2. Laser Printers: Laser Printers were developed by Xerox in 1960s. Most laser printers use
light, photoreceptor belts, and photosensitive drums. During print, the laser will scan page line
by line. The most accepted writing method is black and white lasers, which print content in
black text.
Advantages of Laser Printers
 Cost-effective than inkjet printers.
 High print speed.
 Expandable with paper trays, finishes, etc.
 High paper capacity.
Disadvantages of Laser Printers
 Large footprints.
 High voltage usage.

3. LED Printers: LED Printers are quite like Laser Printers, but it uses LED instead of laser to
create pictures/images. LED printers are considered are more efficient and reliable than laser
printers.
Advantages of LED Printers
 Efficient
 Reliable
 Cheaper than laser printers.

Difference between Impact and Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printer Non-Impact Printer

Produces characters and graphics on a piece of paper A type of printer that produces characters and
by striking it is called impact printer. graphics on a piece of paper without striking.

It prints by hammering a set of metal pin or character Printing is done by depositing ink in any form.
set. Have banging noise of needle on paper Works silently

Electromechanical devices are used No electromechanical device is used.

Faster speeds around 250 words per second. Slower speeds around 1 page per 30 seconds.

Dot-matrix printer, Daisy wheel printers, line printer Inkjet printers, photo printers, laser printers are
are examples. examples.

It generally cost less. It cost more than impact printers.

They are not suited for printing photograph or any They are best suited for printing photograph or
high quality media. any high quality media.

42 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
 Plotter
Plotter is a device that helps in making graphics or other images to give a real view. A graphic
card is mandatorily required to use these devices. These are the pen-like devices that help in
generating exact designs on the computer.

 Computer output microfilm (COM)

Computer output microfilm (COM) is a process for copying data from a computer onto microfilm,
bypassing the need for paper printouts. COM uses a high-speed recorder and laser technology to
transfer data onto microfilm, and then a processor develops the microfilm after it's exposed to
light. COM can be used to produce microfiche or 16mm-roll microfilm.
Computer output microfilm (COM) has several advantages, including:
 Reduced costs: COM can reduce the costs of handling, mailing, and storing data.
 Faster retrieval: Data can be retrieved from microfilm much faster than from paper.
 Takes up less space: COM produces information that takes up less space than paper.
COM can operate in two ways:
1. Online
Connected directly to a computer, local or wide-area network, minicomputer, or mainframe
computer
2. Offline
Operates independently as a stand-alone device that reads data from formatted magnetic media,
such as tape
 Monitor
Monitors, also known as Visual Display Units (VDU), monitor are a computer’s primary
output device. It creates images by arranging small dots, known as pixels, in a rectangular
pattern. The amount of pixels determines the image’s sharpness.
The two kinds of viewing screens used for monitors are described below.
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor: Pixels are minuscule visual elements that make up
a CRT display. The higher the image quality or resolution, the smaller the pixels.

43 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
 Flat-Panel Display Monitor: In comparison to the CRT, a flat-panel display is a type of video
display with less volume, weight, and power consumption. They can be hung on the wall
or worn on the wrist. Ex- LCD, LED.
Flat-panel displays are currently used in calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computers,
and graphical displays.

Television
Television is one of the common output devices which is present in every house. It portrays
video and audio files on the screen as the user handles the television. Nowadays, we are using
plasma displays as compared to CRT screens which we used earlier.
Braille Reader
Braille Reader is a very important device that is used by blind users. It helps people with low
vision or no vision to recognize the data by running their fingers over the device to understand
easily.

 Audio output
Audio output, also known as audio out, is the process of sending an audio signal from one
device to another. Audio output devices, such as speakers, headphones, or monitors, convert
sound wave data from a computer into usable sound signals.

44 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103

Here are some ways to change your audio output:

 Windows 10

Click the sound icon in the taskbar, select the drop-down list of available audio devices, and
then select your preferred device.
 Web page
Use the Media Devices. Select Audio Output method to select an audio output device from
those allowed by the speaker-selection directive.
Speakers
Speakers are devices that produce sound after getting a command from a computer. Nowadays,
speakers come with wireless technology also like Bluetooth speakers.

 Projector
Projectors are optical devices that have the work to show visuals on both types of screens,
stationary and moving both. It helps in displaying images on a big screen. Projectors are
generally used in theatres, auditoriums, etc.

45 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Compare Input & Output Devices.
Input Device Output Device

Data is accepted by the user of the device It shows the data after processing to the user

It accepts the user’s data and transmits it to the

It receives the data from the processor and returns it
processor for saving in the secondary memory
to the user
or processing.

More complex designing Less complex designing

These devices are used to accept the data These devices are used to display or show the data

Example: Keyboard, mouse, etc Example: Monitor, Printer, etc

 Memory
Computer Memory
Computer memory is just like the human brain. It is used to store data/information
and instructions. It is a data storage unit or a data storage device where data is to be
processed and instructions required for processing are stored. It can store both the input and
output can be stored here.

46 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Volatile Memory and Non-Volatile Memory
Memory is one of the most fundamental components in computing systems. Broadly, computer
memory can be divided into two type’s namely volatile memory and Non-volatile memory.
 Volatile Memory
Volatile memory is temporary memory and loses its contents/data when a computer is
turned off. Volatile memory is used to store data and process that the CPU needs in real
time. Volatile memory need electricity to work. Ex- RAM and Cache memory.
 Non-Volatile Memory
Non- volatile memory is Permanent Memory and retains its contents even when a computer is
turned off. Ex- ROM, Flash memory, HDD and optical devices.
Types of Computer Memory
Computer memory is of three types:
 Primary memory
 Secondary memory
 Cache memory

1. Primary Memory
It is also known as the main memory of the computer system. It is used to store data
and programs or instructions during computer operations. It uses semiconductor technology
and hence is commonly called semiconductor memory.
Characteristics
 volatile: Data is lost upon power loss.
 High-speed access.
 Limited capacity relative to secondary storage.
 Examples: Random Access Memory (RAM), Read-Only Memory, Cache memory.
Advantages
 High-speed access: Data can be retrieved and stored very quickly.
 Directly accessible by CPU: No intermediate steps are required for data transfer.
Disadvantages
 Volatile: Data is lost when power is turned off.
 Limited storage capacity: compared to secondary storage, primary memory is relatively
small.
 Expensive: Cost per unit is higher than secondary storage.
Applications
 Temporary storage
 Multitasking
 Buffering
 Caching
Primary memory is of two types:
 RAM (Random Access Memory)
RAM is also known as Temporary or volatile memory. It holds the program and data, which are
currently in process or processing. All the data is erased when the computer is turned off or in case of
a power failure. Data stored in this memory can be changed. There are two types of RAM:-

47 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
1. SRAM (Static RAM): SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory, which is a type of
random access memory (RAM) that stores data as long as power is supplied. SRAM is volatile
memory, meaning that data is lost when the power is turned off. SRAM consists of a flip-flop
using a Transistor or Mosfet (MOS). It is fast and has less access time. In this refreshing
circuits are not required. But it is costly and requires more space. E.g. cache memory.

2. DRAM (Dynamic RAM): DRAM (dynamic random access memory) is a type of

semiconductor memory that is typically used for the data or program code needed by a
computer processor to function. It requires refreshing circuits, as leakage of current in the
capacitor can occur, so they need to be refreshed to the data. It is slower and has a higher
access time. It is cheaper in comparison with SRAM. E.g. Main memory.

 Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. It is a non-volatile memory that is used to store
important data used to run the system. Since its name refers to read-only memory, we can only read
the programs and data stored in it. It is also the primary memory device of a computer system. It
contains several electronic fuses that can be programmed for specific information. Data is stored in
ROM memory in binary format. This is also known as non-volatile memory.
 Types of Read-Only Memory (ROM)

1. MROM (Masked Read Memory): ROM is as old as semiconductor technology. MROM was the
first ROM that consisted of a network of word lines and bit lines interconnected by transistor
switches.
2. PROM (Programmable Read Memory): PROM is a form of digital memory. In this type of
ROM, each bit is locked by a fuse or protective fuse. The data stored in it is permanently stored and
cannot be changed or deleted.
3. EPROM (Removable Programmable Read Only Memory): EPROM, also called EROM, is a
type of PROM, but it can be reprogrammed. Data stored in EPROM can be erased and reprogrammed
with ultraviolet light.
4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Memory): As the name suggests, it can
be programmed and electrically erased. The data and program in this ROM can be erased and
programmed about ten thousand times.
2. Secondary Memory
It is also known as auxiliary memory and backup memory. It is a non-volatile memory and
used to store a large amount of data or information. The data or information stored in secondary
memory is permanent, and it is slower than primary memory. A CPU cannot access secondary
memory directly. The data/information from the auxiliary memory is first transferred to the
main memory, and then the CPU can access it.
 Classification of secondary storage devices
Secondary memory is a type of computer memory that is used for long-term storage of data
and programs. It is also known as auxiliary memory or external memory and is distinct from

48 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
primary memory, which is used for short-term storage of data and instructions that are
currently being processed by the CPU.
Characteristics
 Non-volatile: Data persists even when the system is powered off.
 slower access speeds compared to primary memory.
 High storage capacity.
 Examples: Hard Disk Drives (HDD), Solid-State Drives(SSD), Optical drives(CD, DVD,
Blu-ray).
Advantages
 Non-volatile: Data persists even when the power is turned off.
 Large storage capacity: can store vast amounts of data.
 Relatively Inexpensive: cost-effective for storing large volumes of data.
Disadvantages
 Slower access time: Data retrieval is slower compared to primary memory.
 Requires input/output operations: Data transfer involves additional steps.
Applications
 Long-term storage
 Operating system installation
 Software installation
 Data backup
Media storage
Secondary storage devices are classified into three main types:
 Magnetic storage devices
These include hard disk drives and floppy disks, which use magnetic fields to write data to a
spinning metal disk.
 Optical storage devices
These include CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs. They are portable and durable but have lower
storage capacities and slower read and write speeds than other types of storage.
 Solid state storage devices
These include solid-state drives (SSDs) and USB memory, which use solid-state memory and have
no moving parts. They offer better data access rates than other types of storage
Five secondary storage devices
1. Hard drives (magnetic storage)
2. Magnetic tape (magnetic storage)
3. CD, DVD, and Blu-ray disks (Optical storage)
4. USB/flash drive (solid state storage)
5. Memory chip/SSD card (solid-state storage)
 Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape is one of the oldest technologies for electronic data storage. While tape has largely
been displaced as a primary and backup storage medium, it remains well suited for archiving
because of its high capacity, low cost and long durability. In magnetic tape, only one side of the
ribbon is used for storing data. The width of the ribbon varies from 4mm to 1 Inch and it has a
storage capacity of 100 MB to 200 GB.

49 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Advantages:
1. These are inexpensive, i.e., low-cost memories.
2. It provides backup or archival storage.
3. It can be used for large files.
4. It can be used for copying from disk files.
5. It is a reusable memory.
6. It is compact and easy to store on racks.
Disadvantages:
1. Sequential access is the disadvantage, which means it does not allow access randomly or directly.
2. It requires caring to store, i.e., vulnerable humidity, dust-free, and suitable environment.
3. It stored data cannot be easily updated or modified, i.e., difficult to make updates on data.
 Magnetic Disk
A magnetic disk is a storage device that uses a magnetization process to read, write, rewrite,
and access data. The magnetic disk is made of a set of circular platters. It is covered with a
magnetic coating and stores data in the form of tracks, spots, and sectors. Hard disks and
floppy disks
Features of Magnetic Disk
 Magnetic disks can store a huge amount of data.
 Magnetic disks are transportable and budget-friendly.
 Magnetic disks are reliable storage devices.

 Optical Disk
An optical disk is any computer disk that uses optical storage techniques and technology to read
and write data. It is a storage device for optical (light) energy
Features of Magnetic Disk
 Optical disks rely on a red or blue laser to record and read data.
 Most of optical disks are flat, circular and 12-14 cm in diameter these days
 Magneto-optical discs
A magneto-optical (MO) disk is a rewritable optical disk that uses both magnetic and optical
technologies to store and retrieve data. a low-power laser beam reflects off the disk, and the
polarization of the reflected light depends on the direction of magnetization of each spot. It can
read and write data to magneto-optical disks. The technology was made at the end of the 1980s.
The disks look like CD-ROMs, but they are protected with a plastic cover. The Minidiscs is a
Magneto-optical disk.

 Flash Memory
Flash Memory is a kind of Semiconductor based Non-volatile, Rewritable computer memory it is just
like a RAM. Due to its higher speed, durability and Low Power Consumption, Flash memory is ideal
for many applications. Ex- Digital Camera, Mobile Phone, Printer and MP3 Players etc.

3. Cache Memory
It is a type of high-speed semiconductor memory that can help the CPU run faster. Between the
CPU and the main memory, it serves as a buffer (memory used to temporarily hold data while
it is being moved from one place to another). It is used to store the data and programs that the
CPU uses the most frequently.

50 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Advantages of Cache Memory
 It is faster than the main memory.
 When compared to the main memory, it takes less time to access it.
 It keeps the programs that can be run in a short amount of time.
 It stores data in temporary use.
Disadvantages of Cache Memory
 Because of the semiconductors used, it is very expensive.
 The size of the cache (amount of data it can store) is usually small.

Functions of Memory Unit

The memory unit of a computer has several functions:
 Stores Data and Instructions: The memory unit stores data and instructions needed by
the CPU to perform tasks efficiently. This includes data related to operations to be performed
and data related to the program.
 Tracks Interim Results: The memory unit keeps track of the interim results of processing.
 Saves Final Results: The memory unit saves the final processing results before sending them
to an output device.
 Receives And Transmits Inputs And Outputs: The memory unit receives and transmits all
inputs and outputs.
The size of the memory unit affects its speed, power, and capabilities. without a memory unit, the
processor would have to wait longer for data retrieval.

Conversions of Units
Name Equal To

Bit 1 Bit

Nibble 4 Bits

Byte 8 Bits

Kilobyte 1024 Bytes

Megabyte 1024 Kilobytes

Gigabyte 1024 Megabytes

51 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Name Equal To

Terabyte 1024 Gigabytes

Petabyte 1024 Terabytes

Exabyte 1024 Petabytes

Zettabyte 1024 Exabytes

Yottabyte 1024 Zettabytes

Conclusion
Memory is the vital component of a computer system that stores data and instructions for
processing. It is divided into various types, each with its specific characteristics and purpose.

Difference between RAM and ROM

RAM ROM

RAM stands for Random Access Memory. ROM stands for Read Only Memory.

Data in ROM cannot modified or erased, you

You can modify, edit or erase data in RAM.
can only read data of ROM.

RAM is a volatile memory that stores data as long ROM is a non-volatile memory that retain data
as power supply is given. even after the power is turned off.

Speed of RAM is more than speed of ROM. ROM is slower then RAM.

RAM is costly as compared to ROM. ROM is cheap as compared to RAM.

A RAM chip can store only a few gigabytes (GB) A ROM chip can store multiple megabytes (MB)
of data. of data.

CPU can easily access data stored in RAM. CPU cannot easily access data stored in ROM.

RAM is used for the temporary storage of data ROM is used to store firmware, BIOS, and other
currently being processed by the CPU. data that needs to be retained.

52 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Difference Between Magnetic Disk and Optical Disk
MAGNETIC DISK OPTICAL DISK

The media type used is Multiple fixed disk The media type used is a Single removable disk

Intermediate signal-to-noise Excellent signal-to-noise ratio

Only one disk can be used at a time Mass replication is possible

Tracks in the magnetic disk are generally

In optical disk the tracks are constructed spirally.
circular

The data in the magnetic disk is randomly

In the optical disk, the data is sequentially accessed.
accessed.

In the magnetic disk, only one disk is accessed

An optical disk allows mass replication.
at a time.

The storing and accessing of data take place at a

The copying of data takes more time in
much faster rate using laser beams than a magnetic
magnetic disk compared to optical disk.
disk.

The storage capacity is high in magnetic disk The storage capacity of optical disk is comparatively
i.e. up to several Gigabytes, Terabytes. low i.e. up to 27GB in the case of Blue-ray.

Magnetic disks are a crucial part of computers. Optical disk is optional component in computers.

Magnetic disks are mainly used to hold data, Optical disks are portable and generally used to store
instructions, software applications, music, videos, and movies.

 Hard Disk, Floppy Disk, Magnetic Tape.  CD, DVD , Blue-ray

1. What are the types of flat panel displays?

2. Explain the output device: Scanner.
3. Compare Impact & Non-Impact Printers.
4. Difference between RAM and ROM.

***

53 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
UNIT-II
Software Concepts
Introduction:
Software is a collection of instructions, data, or computer programs that are used to run machines
and carry out activities. It is the opposite of hardware, which refers to a computer’s external
components. A device’s running programs, scripts, and applications are collectively referred to as
“software”.
Software is to the set of instructions fed into programs to govern the computer system and process
the hardware components. For example:
 The antivirus that we use to protect our computer system is a type of Software.
 The media players that we use to play multimedia files such as movies, music, etc. are Software.
 The Microsoft Office we use to edit the documents is a Software.

 Need of software
Software is needed for a variety of reasons, including:
1. Automation: Software can automate repetitive and mundane tasks, allowing users to focus on
more complex and strategic work.
2. Efficiency: Software can increase efficiency by streamlining workflows, reducing errors, and
improving accuracy.
3. Scalability: Software can be designed to handle large volumes of data and users, making it
easier to scale as a business grows.
4. Innovation: Software can enable new products and services that were previously impossible or
difficult to achieve.
5. Communication: Software can facilitate communication and collaboration among team members
and with customers, partners, and suppliers.
6. Decision-making: Software can provide data insights and analytics to support informed
decision-making.
Depending on its use and area of implementation, Software’s can be divided into 3 major types:
1. System Software
2. Application Software
3. Utility Software

54 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
 System Software
These are the software that directly allows the user to interact with the hardware components of
a computer system. As the humans and machines follow different languages, there has to be an
interface that will allow the users to interact with the core system, this interface is provided by
the software.
This System Software can be divided into several types:
1. Operating System – It is the main program that governs and maintains the inter-
cooperation of the components of a computer system. For eg Microsoft Windows, Linux,
Mac OS etc.
2. Language Processor – The hardware components present in the computer system does not
understand human language. There are three types of languages involved in the world of
human-machine interaction:
 Machine-Level Language: The machines only understand the digital signals or the
binary codes or the binary language which consist of strings of 0’s and 1’s. These are
totally machine dependent language.
 Assembly-Level Language: These are the Low-Level Language (LLL), that forms a
correspondence between machine level instruction and general assembly level statements.
Assembly language uses a mnemonics to represent each low-level machine instruction or
operation-code also called the op-codes. For eg., ADD instruction is used to add two
entities, the HALT instruction is used to stop a process etc. It is a machine dependent
language and varies from processor to processor.
 High-Level Language: These are the simple English statements, that humans use to
program and code as it is easy to read and understand to the human world. For eg., Java,
C, C++, Python etc.
 Assembler: This language processor is used to convert the assembly language into
machine level language.
 Compiler: This language processor is used to convert High-Level Language into
machine level language in one go, thus execution time is fast. The error detection is
difficult in a compiler. Programming Languages like C, C++ and Scala use compiler.
 Interpreter: This language processor is also used to convert High-Level Language into
machine level language line-by-line, thus execution time is slow. Error-detection is easier
in an interpreter as it reports as soon as a bug is caught and restarts the process. This
consumes unnecessary memory. Programming Languages like Python, Ruby and Java
uses an interpreter.
3. Device Drivers – The device drivers and the device programs or the system software that
acts as an interface between the various Input-Output device and the users or the operating
system. For eg., the Printers, Web cameras come with a driver disk that is needed to be
installed into the system to make the device run in the system.
4. BIOS – It stands for Basic Input Output System and is a small firmware that controls the
peripheral or the input-output devices attached to the system. This software is also
responsible for starting the OS or initiating the booting process.
5. Algorithms: An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem. It is a set of
instructions that a computer can follow to solve a problem or perform a task.

55 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
6. Data structures: Data structures are ways of organizing and storing data in a computer.
Examples include arrays, linked lists, stacks, and queues.
7. Integrated development environments (IDEs): IDEs are software applications that provide
a comprehensive environment for software development. They typically include code
editors, debugging tools, and project management features.
8. Version control: Version control is the management of changes to documents, computer
programs, large web sites, and other collections of information. Examples of version control
systems include Git and SVN.
9. Software testing: Software testing is the process of verifying that a software application
meets its requirements and works as expected. It includes various techniques such as unit
testing, integration testing, and system testing.
 Application Software
The term “application software” refers to software that performs specific functions for a user. When
a user interacts directly with a piece of software, it is called application software. The sole purpose
of application software is to assist the user in doing specified tasks. Microsoft Word and Excel, as
well as popular web browsers like Firefox, Google Chrome, Global Positioning System
(GPS), Graphics, multimedia, presentation software, and desktop publishing software are
examples of application software.These are divided into two types:
1. General Purpose Application Software: These are the types of application software that
comes in-built and ready to use, manufactured by some company or someone.
 Microsoft Excel – Used to prepare excel sheets.
 VLC Media Player – Used to play audio/video files.
 Adobe Photoshop – Used for designing and animation and many more.

2. Specific Purpose Application Software: These are the type of software that is
customizable and mostly used in real-time or business environment.
 Ticket Reservation System
 Healthcare Management System
 Hotel Management System
 Payroll Management System

Functions of Application Software

Application software programs are created to help with a wide range of tasks. Here are a few
examples:
 Information and data management
 Management of documents (document exchange systems)
 Development of visuals and video
 Emails, text messaging, audio, and video conferencing, and cooperation are all options.
 Management of accounting, finance, and payroll
 Management of resources (ERP and CRM systems)
 Management of a project
 Management of business processes
 Software for education (LMS and e-learning systems)
 Software for healthcare applications

56 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103

Types of Application Software

Application software can also be categorized based on its charge ability and accessibility. Here is
some application software:
 Freeware: It is offered for free, as the name implies. You can utilize freeware application
software that you can obtain from the Internet. This software, on the other hand, does not allow
you to change it or charge a fee for sharing it. Examples include Adobe PDF, Mozilla Firefox,
and Google Chrome.
 Shareware: This is given away to users for free as a trial, usually with a limited-time offer. If
consumers want to keep using this application software, they will have to pay. WinZip, Anti-
virus, and Adobe Reader are instances of shareware.
 Open-source: This type of application software comes with the source code, allowing you to
edit and even add features to it. These could be offered for free or for a fee. Open-source
application software includes Moodle and Apache Web Server.
 Closed source: This category includes the majority of the application software programs used
nowadays. These are normally charged, and the source code is usually protected by intellectual
property rights or patents. It usually comes with a set of restrictions. Microsoft Windows,
Adobe Flash Player, WinRAR, macOS, and other operating systems are examples.
 Word Processing Software: Word Processing Software can be explained as software that has
the functionalities of editing, saving, and creating documents with Word Processor Software
like Microsoft Word.
 Spreadsheet Software: Spreadsheet Software is a kind of software that deals with the
worksheet where it works on some automated version to perform numeric functions. For
Example, Microsoft Excel.
 Presentation Software: It is a type of application software that is used to present some
applications like newly launched functions, products, etc. For Example, Microsoft PowerPoint.
 Multimedia Software: Multimedia refers to the mixture of audio, video, image, text, etc., and
can be displayed or used with the help of multimedia software. There are so many media players
that do this kind of work.
 Web Browsers: Web Browser is one of the most used applications worldwide, it takes you to
the internet. You can use your desktop, mobile, etc for using this.
 Educational Software: Due to the enhancement of the Internet, there are so many educational
software runs in the market. It consists of Language learning Software, Classroom Management
Software, etc.
 Graphics Software: Graphics Software is also used in large amounts. There are so many
applications where it is used. Some of the applications include Canva, Adobe, PhotoShop, etc.
 Simulation Software: Simulation Software is a kind of Software that is used to compare two
different kinds of products and also it helps in evaluating them.

57 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103

 Utility Software
These are the most basic type of software which provides high utility to the user and the system.
These perform the basic but daily need tasks.
 Antivirus Software’s: These provide protection to the computer system from unwanted
malware and viruses. Ex- Quick Heal, McAfee etc.
 Disk Defragmenter Tools: These help the users to analyses the bad sectors of the disk and
rearrange the files in a proper order.
 Text-editors: These help the users to take regular notes and create basic text files. Ex-
Notepad, etc.
Advantages of software:
There are several advantages of software, including:
1. Increased efficiency: Software can automate repetitive tasks, reduce errors, and streamline
workflows, leading to increased productivity and efficiency.
2. Improved accuracy: Software can perform complex calculations and data processing with
high accuracy and consistency, reducing the risk of human error.
3. Scalability: Software can be designed to handle large volumes of data and users, making it
easier to scale as a business grows.
4. Cost-effectiveness: Software can reduce costs by eliminating the need for manual processes,
reducing errors and waste, and improving resource allocation.
5. Innovation: Software can enable the development of new products and services, driving
innovation and competitiveness.
6. Better communication and collaboration: Software can facilitate communication and
collaboration among team members and with customers, partners, and suppliers, leading to
better outcomes and stronger relationships.
7. Data analysis: Software can provide data insights and analytics to support informed
decision-making and drive business growth.
Dis-advantages of software :
There are also some potential disadvantages to consider, including:
1. Cost: Software development can be expensive, especially for complex or customized
applications.
2. Security vulnerabilities: Software can be vulnerable to security threats such as hacking,
viruses, and malware, which can compromise data and systems.
3. Compatibility issues: Software may not be compatible with all hardware or operating
systems, which can limit its usefulness and require additional investments.
4. Maintenance and updates: Software requires ongoing maintenance and updates to ensure
optimal performance and security, which can be time-consuming and costly.
5. Learning curve: New software may require significant training and time to learn, which can
impact productivity and require additional resources.
6. Dependence on technology: Over-reliance on software can create a dependence on
technology, which can limit flexibility and creativity and increase the risk of disruptions.

58 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Difference Between System Software and Application Software
System Software Application Software

It is designed to manage the resources of the

It is designed to fulfill the requirements of the
computer system, like memory and process
user for performing specific tasks.
management, etc.

Written in a low-level language. Written in a high-level language.

Less interactive for the users. More interactive for the users.

System software plays vital role for the effective Application software is not so important for the
functioning of a system. functioning of the system, as it is task specific.

It is independent of the application software to run. It needs system software to run.

Relationship between Hardware and Software

 Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both must work together to make a
computer produce a useful output.
 The software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
 Hardware without a set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.
 To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into the hardware.
 Hardware is a one-time expense.
 Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
 Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
 A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
 If the hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then the software is its 'soul'. Both are
complementary to each other. Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-
defined function. A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular proble m.

 Hardware refers to the tangible or physical components of a computer system.

 Software, on the other hand, represents the collection of programs that instruct
hardware to perform tasks.
 An intimate relationship exists between hardware and software as neither can work
without the other.

Role of Hardware
 Hardware is designed to carry out computations and tasks, but it cannot do so without
 Loved by gamers, Graphics Processing Units (GPUs) need software (games
themselves and drivers) to utilise their raw computing power.
 Central Processing Units (CPUs) need a compatible operating system and applicable
software to perform calculations and process information.

59 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
 Peripheral devices, such as printers or scanners, require appropriate software drivers to
function properly with a computer system.
Role of Software
 System software coordinates and controls hardware functionality. The operating
system (OS) is an essential part of system software that manages computer hardware
and software resources.
 Application software, often just called applications, refers to programs designed for
end users. Such programs use an operating system (OS) and hardware to deliver their
function.
 For instance, a word processing app heavily relies on the capabilities of the OS, CPU
(processing), memory (storing document as you work), hard drive (long term storage),
display (visualization) and input devices (keyboard and mouse for interface).

Dependencey

 Hardware and software are highly interdependent. Without software, hardware is

meaningless and without hardware, software has nothing to run on. They must
cooperate to execute tasks.
 For example, when a user requests to open an application, the OS (software) harnesses
the CPU (hardware) to launch it.

Evolution

 With advances in technology, the relationship between hardware and software has
become more cooperative rather than strictly hierarchical. New hardware often inspires
new software development, and vice versa.
 Hardware upgrades often require corresponding software updates. This is evident in
new generations of CPUs often necessitating updates to the OS.
 Virtualization is blurring the lines between hardware and software as software is used
to emulate hardware setups leading to greater flexibility.

Importance of Understanding Relationship

 As aspiring computer scientists, understanding the symbiotic relationship between

hardware and software lets you diagnose and rectify system failures, design efficient
systems, and predict future trends in technology.

Conclusion

 In summary, hardware provides the raw power and structure for the system while
software tells the hardware what, when and how to accomplish tasks. A mutual
understanding and communication exist that makes the functioning of a computer
system possible.

60 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Flowchart and its Types?
A flowchart is a diagram that depicts a process, system, or computer algorithm. It is widely used in
multiple fields to document, study, plan, improve, and communicate often complex processes in
clear, easy-to-understand diagrams. Flowcharts use rectangles, ovals, diamonds, and potentially
numerous other shapes to define the type of step, along with connecting arrows to define flow and
sequence. They can range from simple, hand-drawn charts to comprehensive computer-drawn
diagrams depicting multiple steps and routes.
Flowchart symbols
Different types of boxes are used to make flowchart Symbols. Arrow lines connect all the
different kinds of boxes. Arrow lines are used to display the flow of control.

Symbol Name Symbol Representation

Terminal/Terminator

Process

Decision

Document

Data or Input/Output

Stored Data

Flow Arrow

Comment or Annotation

61 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103

Symbol Name Symbol Representation

Predefined process

On-page connector/reference

Off-page connector/reference

Uses of Flowcharts in Computer Programming/Algorithms

The following are the uses of a flowchart:
It is a pictorial representation of an algorithm that increases the program's readability.
 Complex programs can be drawn in a simple way using a flowchart.
 It helps team members get an insight into the process and use this knowledge to collect
data, detect problems, develop software, etc.
 A flowchart is a basic step for designing a new process or adding extra features.
 Communication with other people becomes easy by drawing flowcharts and sharing them.
When to Use Flowchart?
Flowcharts are mainly used in the below scenarios:
 It is most importantly used when programmers make projects. As a flowchart is a basic step to
make the design of projects pictorially, it is preferred by many.
 When the flowcharts of a process are drawn, the programmer understands the non-useful parts
of the process. So flowcharts are used to separate sound logic from the unwanted parts.
 Since the rules and procedures of drawing a flowchart are universal, a flowchart serves as a
communication channel to the people who are working on the same project for better
understanding.
 Optimizing a process becomes easier with flowcharts. The efficiency of the code is improved
with the flowchart drawing.
Types of Flowcharts
Three types of flowcharts are listed below:
1. Process flowchart: This type of flowchart shows all the activities that are involved in making
a product. It provides a pathway to analyze the product to be built. A process flowchart is most
commonly used in process engineering to illustrate the relation between the major as well as
minor components present in the product. It is used in business product modeling to help
understand employees about the project requirements and gain some insight into the project.

62 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
2. Data flowchart: As the name suggests, the data flowchart is used to analyze the data,
specifically it helps in analyzing the structural details related to the project. Using this
flowchart, one can easily understand the data inflow and outflow from the system. It is most
commonly used to manage data or to analyze information to and fro from the system.
3. Business Process Modeling Diagram: Using this flowchart or diagram, one can analytically
represent the business process and help simplify the concepts needed to understand business
activities and the flow of information. This flowchart illustrates the business process and
models graphically which paves the way for process improvement.
Types of boxes used to make a flowchart
Different types of boxes are used to make flowcharts. Arrow lines connect all the different kinds
of boxes. Arrow lines are used to display the flow of control.
1. Terminal

This box is of an oval shape which is used to indicate the start or end of the program. Every
flowchart diagram has an oval shape that depicts the start of an algorithm and another oval shape
that depicts the end of an algorithm. For example:

2. Data

This is a parallelogram-shaped box inside which the inputs or outputs are written. This basically
depicts the information that is entering the system or algorithm and the information that is leaving
the system or algorithm. For example: if the user wants to input a from the user and display it, the
flowchart for this would be:

63 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
3. Process

This is a rectangular box inside which a programmer writes the main course of action of the
algorithm or the main logic of the program. This is the crux of the flowchart as the main
processing codes is written inside this box. For example: if the programmer wants to add 1 to the
input given by the user, he/she would make the following flowchart:

4. Decision

This is a rhombus-shaped box, control statements like if, condition like a > 0, are written inside
this box. There are 2 paths from this one which is “yes” and the other one is“no”. Every decision
has either yes or no as an option, similarly, this box has these as options. For example: if the user
wants to add 1 to an even number and subtract 1 if the number is odd, the flowchart would be:

64 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103

5. Flow

This arrow line represents the flow of the algorithm or process. It represents the direction of the
process flow. in all the previous examples, we included arrows in every step to display the flow of
the program. Arrow increases the readability of the program.
6. on-Page Reference

This circular figure is used to depict that the flowchart is in continuation with the further steps.
This figure comes into use when the space is less and the flowchart is long. Any numerical
symbol is present inside this circle and that same numerical symbol will be depicted before the
continuation to make the user understand the continuation. Below is a simple example depicting
the use of On-Page Reference?

Benefits of flowchart:
 A flowchart is used for problem-solving operations using some Pictorial representation.
 It always has a starting and ending.
 It improves the communication because it is easy to understand the process in a step by step
manner.
 It also provide documentation of a process.
 It provides an effective analysis by understanding the problem.
 Flowchart makes the logic clear and helps in easy solving problems.
 It provides an easy understanding and effective analysis of logic.
 It is useful in coding and enable proper testing and debugging.
 In flowchart, parallelogram is used for input and output.
 In flow chart, processes are shown by rectangle.

65 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Advantages of Flowchart
 It is the most efficient way of communicating the logic of the system.
 It acts as a guide for a blueprint during the program design.
 It also helps in the debugging process.
 Using flowcharts we can easily analyze the programs.
 Flowcharts are good for documentation.

Disadvantages of Flowchart
 Flowcharts are challenging to draw for large and complex programs.
 It does not contain the proper amount of details.
 Flowcharts are very difficult to reproduce.
 Flowcharts are very difficult to modify.
Flowcharts have several limitations, including:
 Time-consuming: Flowcharts can be time-consuming to create, especially for complex
processes.
 Complexity: Flowcharts can become difficult to understand and follow for complex
processes.
 Limited detail: Flowcharts may not provide enough detail to fully understand a process.
 Alterations: Redrawing a flowchart can be time-consuming and expensive if new steps are
discovered.
 Reproduction: Flowcharts can't be typed, so they need to be drawn using software, which
can be time-consuming.
 Oversimplification: Flowcharts can oversimplify a process and leave out key details.
 Static representation: Flowcharts are typically static representations, making them less
suitable for real-time or dynamic processes.
 Subjective design: The design of a flowchart can be subjective, leading to inconsistencies.

66 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103

PseudoCode ( P-Code)
A Pseudocode is defined as a step-by-step description of an algorithm. Pseudocode does not use
any programming language in its representation instead it uses the simple English language text
as it is intended for human understanding rather than machine reading.
Pseudocode is the intermediate state between an idea and its implementation (code) in a high-
level language.

Need for Pseudocode

Pseudocode is an important part of designing an algorithm, it helps the programmer in planning
the solution to the problem as well as the reader in understanding the approach to the problem.
Pseudocode is an intermediate state between the algorithm and the program that supports the
transition of the algorithm into the program.

Pseudocode is an intermediate state between algorithm and program

How to write Pseudocode?

Before writing the pseudocode of any algorithm the following points must be kept in mind.
 Organize the sequence of tasks and write the pseudocode accordingly.
 At first, establishes the main goal or the aim.
 Use standard programming structures such as if-else, for, while, and cases the way we use
them in programming. Indent the statements if-else, for, while loops as they are indented in a
program, it helps to comprehend the decision control and execution mechanism. It also
improves readability to a great extent.
Example:
IF “1”
print response
“I AM CASE 1”
IF “2”
print response
“I AM CASE 2”
 Use appropriate naming conventions. The human tendency follows the approach of following
what we see. If a programmer goes through a pseudo code, his approach will be the same as
per that, so the naming must be simple and distinct.
 Reserved commands or keywords must be represented in capital letters.

67 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Example: if you are writing IF…ELSE statements then make sure IF and ELSE be in capital
letters.
 Check whether all the sections of a pseudo code are complete, finite, and clear to understand
and comprehend. Also, explain everything that is going to happen in the actual code.
 Don’t write the pseudocode in a programming language. It is necessary that the pseudocode is
simple and easy to understand even for a layman or client, minimizing the use of technical
terms.
Good vs Bad ways of writing Pseudocode:

Good Vs Bad way of writing Pseudocode

Difference between Algorithm and Pseudocode

Algorithm Pseudocode

An Algorithm is used to provide a solution to a A Pseudocode is a step-by-step description of an

particular problem in form of a well-defined step- algorithm in code-like structure using plain
based form. English text.

Pseudocode also uses reserved keywords like if-

An algorithm only uses simple English words
else, for, while, etc.

These are fake codes as the word pseudo means

These are a sequence of steps of a solution to a
fake, using code like structure and plain English
problem
text

68 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103

Algorithm Pseudocode

There are no rules to writing algorithms There are certain rules for writing pseudocode

Algorithms can be considered pseudocode Pseudocode cannot be considered an algorithm

It is difficult to understand and interpret It is easy to understand and interpret

Difference between Flowchart and Pseudocode

Flowchart Pseudocode

A Pseudocode is a step-by-step description of an

A Flowchart is pictorial representation of flow of an algorithm in code like structure using plain
algorithm. English text.

A Flowchart uses standard symbols for input, output

Pseudocode uses reserved keywords like if-else,
decisions and start stop statements. Only uses
for, while, etc.
different shapes like box, circle and arrow.

This is a way of visually representing data, these are These are fake codes as the word pseudo means
nothing but the graphical representation of the fake, using code like structure but plain English
algorithm for a better understanding of the code text instead of programming language

Pseudocode is better suited for the purpose of

Flowcharts are good for documentation
understanding

Types of PseudoCode Questions

1) What are the 5 Rules of pseudocode?
Five important rules for writing pseudocode are:
1. Write one statement per line.
2. Initial keywords should be represented in capital case (READ, WRITE, IF, WHILE, UNTIL).
3. Indentation of pseudocode should be similar to the actual program to show hierarchy.
4. Ending the multiline structure is necessary.
5. Keep statements in simple language (English).
Conclusion:
In the above discussion, we understood the importance of pseudocode in understanding an
algorithm. Pseudocode is a lot simpler to construct and debug as compared to an algorithm.

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Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Introduction to Programming Languages
Introduction:
A programming language is a set of instructions and syntax used to create software programs. Some
of the key features of programming languages include:
1. Syntax: The specific rules and structure used to write code in a programming language.
2. Data Types: The type of values that can be stored in a program, such as numbers, strings, and
booleans.
3. Variables: Named memory locations that can store values.
4. Operators: Symbols used to perform operations on values, such as addition, subtraction, and
comparison.
5. Control Structures: Statements used to control the flow of a program, such as if-else
statements, loops, and function calls.
6. Libraries and Frameworks: Collections of pre-written code that can be used to perform
common tasks and speed up development.
7. Paradigms: The programming style or philosophy used in the language, such as procedural,
object-oriented, or functional.
Examples of popular programming languages include Python, Java, C++, JavaScript, and Ruby. Each
language has its own strengths and weaknesses and is suited for different types of projects.
A programming language is a formal language that specifies a set of instructions for a computer to
perform specific tasks. It’s used to write software programs and applications and to control and
manipulate computer systems. There are many different programming languages, each with its own
syntax, structure, and set of commands. Some of the most used programming languages include Java,
Python, and C++, JavaScript, and C #.
A computer is a device that can accept human instruction, processes it, and responds to it or a
computer is a computational device that is used to process the data under the control of a computer
program. Program is a sequence of instruction along with data.
The basic components of a computer are:
1. Input unit
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
3. Output unit
The CPU is further divided into three parts-
 Memory unit
 Control unit
 Arithmetic Logic unit
CPU is called the brain of our computer because it accepts data, provides temporary memory space to
it until it is stored (saved) on the hard disk, performs logical operations on it and hence processes
(here also means converts) data into information. We all know that a computer consists of hardware
and software. Software is a set of programs that performs multiple tasks together. An operating
system is also software (system software) that helps humans to interact with the computer system.
A program is a set of instructions given to a computer to perform a specific operation. or computer is
a computational device that is used to process the data under the control of a computer program.
While executing the program, raw data is processed into the desired output format. These computer
programs are written in a programming language which are high-level languages. High level
languages are nearly human languages that are more complex than the computer understandable
language which are called machine language, or low level language. The computer only understands
binary language (the language of 0’s and 1’s) also called machine-understandable language or low-
level language but the programs we are going to write are in a high-level language The piece of code

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Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
given below performs a basic task of printing “hello world! I am learning programming” on the
console screen. We must know that keyboard, scanner, mouse, microphone, etc are various examples
of input devices, and monitor (console screen), and printer, speaker, etc are examples of output
devices.
main()
{
clrscr();
printf(“hello world! I am learning to program");
getch();
}
Most Popular Programming Languages –
 C
 Python
 C++
 Java
 SCALA
 C#
 R
 Ruby
 Go
 Swift
 JavaScript
Characteristics of a programming Language –
 A programming language must be simple, easy to learn and use, have good readability, and be
human recognizable.
 Abstraction is a must-have Characteristics for a programming language in which the ability to
define the complex structure and then its degree of usability comes.
 A portable programming language is always preferred.
 Programming language’s efficiency must be high so that it can be easily converted into a
machine code and its execution consumes little space in memory.
 A programming language should be well structured and documented so that it is suitable for
application development.
 Necessary tools for the development, debugging, testing, and maintenance of a program must
be provided by a programming language.
 A programming language should provide a single environment known as Integrated
Development Environment (IDE).
 A programming language must be consistent in terms of syntax and semantics.
Basic Terminologies in Programming Languages:
 Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task.
 Variable: A named storage location in memory that holds a value or data.
 Data Type: A classification that specifies what type of data a variable can hold, such as
integer, string, or Boolean.
 Function: A self-contained block of code that performs a specific task and can be called from
other parts of the program.
 Control Flow: The order in which statements are executed in a program, including loops and
conditional statements.
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Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
 Syntax: The set of rules that govern the structure and format of a programming language.
 Comment: A piece of text in a program that is ignored by the compiler or interpreter, used to
add notes or explanations to the code.
 Debugging: The process of finding and fixing errors or bugs in a program.
 IDE: Integrated Development Environment, a software application that provides a
comprehensive development environment for coding, debugging, and testing.
 Operator: A symbol or keyword that represents an action or operation to be performed on one
or more values or variables, such as + (addition), – (subtraction), * (multiplication), and /
(division).
 Statement: A single line or instruction in a program that performs a specific action or
operation.


// C++ program for sum of 2 numbers

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int a, b, sum;
a = 10;
b = 15;
sum = a + b;
cout << "Sum of " << a << " and " << b
<< " is: " << sum; // perform addition operation
return 0;
}
Output
Sum of 10 and 15 is: 25
Advantages of programming languages:
1. Increased Productivity: Programming languages provide a set of abstractions that allow
developers to write code more quickly and efficiently.
2. Portability: Programs written in a high-level programming language can run on many different
operating systems and platforms.
3. Readability: Well-designed programming languages can make code more readable and easier
to understand for both the original author and other developers.
4. Large Community: Many programming languages have large communities of users and
developers, which can provide support, libraries, and tools.
Disadvantages of programming languages:
1. Complexity: Some programming languages can be complex and difficult to learn, especially
for beginners.
2. Performance: Programs written in high-level programming languages can run slower than
programs written in lower-level languages.
3. Limited Functionality: Some programming languages may not have built-in support for certain
types of tasks or may require additional libraries to perform certain functions.
4. Fragmentation: There are many different programming languages, which can lead to
fragmentation and make it difficult to share code and collaborate with other developers.

72 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
FEATURES OF GOOD PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
Programming languages serve as the bedrock of software development, allowing developers to
communicate instructions to computers effectively. The choice of a programming language
significantly influences a software project’s efficiency, maintainability, and scalability. This blog
post will explore the List of Characteristics of Good Programming Language, paving the way for
developers to create robust, high-performance applications.

List of Characteristics of Good Programming Language

Readability and Simplicity
One of the fundamental characteristics of a suitable programming language is readability. Code is
not just for machines; it’s also for humans who need to understand, maintain, and modify it. A
language that promotes readability and simplicity enhances collaboration among developers and
facilitates a smooth transfer of knowledge. Languages like Python are renowned for their clear
and concise syntax, making it more accessible for programmers to write and comprehend code.
Expressiveness and Conciseness
An excellent programming language should allow developers to express complex ideas with
minimal code. Expressive languages enable concise and precise representation of algorithms and
concepts, reducing the likelihood of errors and enhancing code maintainability. Languages like
Ruby and Scala are praised for their expressiveness, enabling developers to achieve more with
fewer lines of code.
Portability
Portability refers to the capability of a programming language to run on different platforms
without modification. A good programming language should be platform-independent, allowing
developers to write code on time and deploy it across various operating systems and architectures.
With its “write once, run anywhere” philosophy, Java is a prime example of a portable
programming language.
Performance
While readability and simplicity are crucial, a good programming language must also deliver high
performance. The efficiency of code execution directly impacts the user experience, especially in
resource-intensive applications. Languages like C and C++ are known for their high performance,
making them suitable for tasks where speed is critical, such as system-level programming and
game development.
Community Support
A thriving and active community strongly indicates a good programming language. A robust
community provides developers access to many resources, including libraries, frameworks, and
documentation. Open-source languages like JavaScript and Python boast large and engaged
communities, fostering collaboration and continuously improving language features.
Extensibility
A good programming language should allow developers to extend its capabilities by integrating
external libraries or modules. Extensibility promotes code reuse, accelerates development, and
ensures developers can leverage existing solutions rather than reinventing the wheel. The Python
programming language, for instance, has a rich ecosystem of third-party libraries that cover a
wide range of functionalities.
Flexibility
Flexibility is another crucial characteristic of a suitable programming language. Developers
should be free to choose between different programming paradigms, such as procedural, object-
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oriented, or functional programming, depending on their project's requirements. A language like
Scala, which combines object-oriented and functional programming features, offers flexibility in
designing scalable and maintainable code.
Security
Security is most important in the digital age, and a good programming language should provide
mechanisms to mitigate common security vulnerabilities. Features like type safety, memory
safety, and secure coding practices contribute to the overall security of a language. Rust, for
example, is gaining popularity for its emphasis on memory safety without sacrificing
performance.
Scalability
Scalability is a critical consideration for software that needs to handle increasing workloads. A
good programming language should support the development of scalable applications, allowing
them to grow seamlessly as demand increases. Languages like Go (Golang) are designed with
scalability in mind, making them suitable for building efficient and scalable distributed systems.
Tooling and Ecosystem
The availability of robust development tools and a thriving ecosystem further enhances the appeal
of a programming language. A good language should have comprehensive tools, including
integrated development environments (IDEs), debuggers, and profiling tools. Additionally, a rich
ecosystem of frameworks and libraries simplifies the development process and accelerates project
delivery. The JavaScript ecosystem, with tools like Node.js and many libraries, exemplifies a
thriving programming environment.
Conclusion
Choosing the correct programming language is a crucial decision that significantly affects the
success of a software project. A good programming language exhibits a balance of readability,
expressiveness, portability, performance, community support, extensibility, flexibility, security,
scalability, and a robust tooling ecosystem. By considering these characteristics, developers can
make informed decisions that align with the goals and requirements of their projects, laying the
foundation for efficient, maintainable, and scalable code. As the landscape of programming
languages evolves, staying mindful of these characteristics will continue to guide developers
toward building successful and impactful software solutions.

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Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
 Operating System : History & Evolution
An Operating System acts as a communication bridge (interface) between the user and computer
hardware. The purpose of an operating system is to provide a platform on which a user can
execute programs conveniently and efficiently.
An operating system is a piece of software that manages the allocation of Computer Hardware.
The coordination of the hardware must be appropriate to ensure the correct working of the
computer system and to prevent user programs from interfering with the proper working of the
system.

The main goal of the Operating System is to make the computer environment more convenient to
use and the Secondary goal is to use the resources most efficiently.

What is an Operating System?

The operating system also includes programs to manage these resources, such as a traffic
controller, a scheduler, a memory management module, I/O programs, and a file system. The
operating system simply provides an environment within which other programs can do useful
work.

Used of Operating Systems

Operating System is used as a communication channel between the Computer hardware and the
user. It works as an intermediate between System Hardware and End-User. Operating System
handles the following responsibilities:

 It controls all the computer resources.

 It provides valuable services to user programs.
 It coordinates the execution of user programs.
 It provides resources for user programs.
 It provides an interface (virtual machine) to the user.
 It hides the complexity of software.
 It supports multiple execution modes.
 It monitors the execution of user programs to prevent errors.
Functions of an Operating System
Memory Management
The operating system manages the Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory is made up
of a large array of bytes or words where each byte or word is assigned a certain address. Main
memory is fast storage and it can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to be executed,
it should be first loaded in the main memory. An operating system manages the allocation and
deallocation of memory to various processes and ensures that the other process does not consume
the memory allocated to one process. An Operating System performs the following activities
for Memory Management:
 It keeps track of primary memory, i.e., which bytes of memory are used by which user
program. The memory addresses that have already been allocated and the memory
addresses of the memory that has not yet been used.

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 In multiprogramming, the OS decides the order in which processes are granted memory
access, and for how long.
 It Allocates the memory to a process when the process requests it and deallocates the
memory when the process has terminated or is performing an I/O operation.

Processor Management
In a multi-programming environment, the OS decides the order in which processes have access to
the processor, and how much processing time each process has. This function of OS is
called Process Scheduling. An Operating System performs the following activities for Processor
Management.
Device Management
An OS manages device communication via its respective drivers. It performs the following
activities for device management.
 Keeps track of all devices connected to the system. Designates a program responsible for
every device known as the Input/Output controller.
 Decide which process gets access to a certain device and for how long.
 Allocates devices effectively and efficiently. Deallocates devices when they are no longer
required.
 There are various input and output devices. An OS controls the working of these input-
output devices.
 It receives the requests from these devices, performs a specific task, and communicates
back to the requesting process.

File Management

A file system is organized into directories for efficient or easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain other directories and other files. An Operating System carries out the
following file management activities. It keeps track of where information is stored, user access
settings, the status of every file, and more.

User Interface or Command Interpreter

The user interacts with the computer system through the operating system. Hence OS acts as an
interface between the user and the computer hardware. This user interface is offered through a set
of commands or a graphical user interface (GUI). Through this interface, the user makes interacts
with the applications and the machine hardware.
Booting the Computer
The process of starting or restarting the computer is known as booting. If the computer is
switched off completely and if turned on then it is called cold booting. Warm booting is a process
of using the operating system to restart the computer.

Security

The operating system uses password protection to protect user data and similar other techniques.
it also prevents unauthorized access to programs and user data. The operating system provides
various techniques which assure the integrity and confidentiality of user data. The following
security measures are used to protect user data:
76 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)
Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
 Protection against unauthorized access through login.
 Protection against intrusion by keeping the firewall active.
 Protecting the system memory against malicious access.
 Displaying messages related to system vulnerabilities.

Control Over System Performance

Operating systems play a pivotal role in controlling and optimizing system performance. They act
as intermediaries between hardware and software, ensuring that computing resources are
efficiently utilized. One fundamental aspect is resource allocation, where the OS allocates CPU
time, memory, and I/O devices to different processes, striving to provide fair and optimal
resource utilization.

Job Accounting

The operating system Keeps track of time and resources used by various tasks and users, this
information can be used to track resource usage for a particular user or group of users. In a
multitasking OS where multiple programs run simultaneously.

Error-Detecting Aids

The operating system constantly monitors the system to detect errors and avoid malfunctioning
computer systems. From time to time, the operating system checks the system for any external
threat or malicious software activity.

Coordination between Other Software and Users

Operating systems also coordinate and assign interpreters, compilers, assemblers, and other
software to the various users of the computer systems. the operating system as the traffic cop of
your computer. It directs and manages how different software programs can share your
computer’s resources without causing. It ensures that when you want to use a program, it runs
smoothly without crashing or causing problems for others.

Performs Basic Computer Tasks

The management of various peripheral devices such as the mouse, keyboard, and printer is carried
out by the operating system. Today most operating systems are plug-and-play. These operating
systems automatically recognize and configure the devices with no user interference.

Network Management

 Network Communication: Think of them as traffic cops for your internet traffic. Operating
systems help computers talk to each other and the internet. They manage how data is
packaged and sent over the network, making sure it arrives safely and in the right order.

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Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
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 Settings and Monitoring: Think of them as the settings and security guard for your internet
connection. They also let you set up your network connections, like Wi-Fi or Ethernet, and
keep an eye on how your network is doing. They make sure your computer is using the
network efficiently and securely, like adjusting the speed of your internet or protecting
your computer from online threats.

Services Provided by an Operating System

The Operating System provides certain services to the users which can be listed in the following
manner:

 User Interface: Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI). This interface can
take several forms. One is a command-line interface (CLI), which uses text commands and
a method for entering them (a keyboard for typing in commands in a specific format with
specific options). Most commonly, a graphical user interface (GUI) is used. the interface is
a window system with a pointing device to direct I/O, choose from menus, and make
selections and a keyboard to enter text.

 Program Execution: The Operating System is responsible for the execution of all types of
programs whether it be user programs or system programs. The Operating System utilizes
various resources available for the efficient running of all types of functionalities.

 Handling Input/Output Operations: The Operating System is responsible for handling all
sorts of inputs, i.e., from the keyboard, mouse, desktop, etc. The Operating System does all
interfacing most appropriately regarding all kinds of Inputs and Outputs.
For example, there is a difference between all types of peripheral devices such as mice or
keyboards, the Operating System is responsible for handling data between them.

 Manipulation of File System: The Operating System is responsible for making decisions
regarding the storage of all types of data or files, i.e., floppy disk/hard disk/pen drive, etc.
The Operating System decides how the data should be manipulated and stored.

 Resource Allocation: The Operating System ensures the proper use of all the resources
available by deciding which resource to be used by whom for how much time. All the
decisions are taken by the Operating System.

 Accounting: The Operating System tracks an account of all the functionalities taking place
in the computer system at a time. All the details such as the types of errors that occurred
are recorded by the Operating System.

 Information and Resource Protection: The Operating System is responsible for using all the
information and resources available on the machine in the most protected way. The
Operating System must foil an attempt from any external resource to hamper any sort of
data or information.

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 Communication: The operating system implements communication between one process
to another process to exchange information. Such communication may occur between
processes that are executing on the same computer or between processes that are executing
on different computer systems tied together by a computer network.

 System Services: The operating system provides various system services, such as printing,
time and date management, and event logging.

 Error Detection: The operating system needs to be detecting and correcting errors
constantly. Errors may occur in the CPU and memory hardware ( for eg. a memory error
or a power failure), in I/O devices (such as a parity error on disk, a connection failure on a
network, or a lack of paper in the printer), and in the user program ( an arithmetic
overflow. All different kinds of Operating Systems more or less provide the same services.

Characteristics of Operating System

 Virtualization: Operating systems can provide Virtualization capabilities, allowing multiple

operating systems or instances of an operating system to run on a single physical machine.
This can improve resource utilization and provide isolation between different operating
systems or applications.

 Networking: Operating systems provide networking capabilities, allowing the computer

system to connect to other systems and devices over a network. This can include features
such as network protocols, network interfaces, and network security.

 Scheduling: Operating systems provide scheduling algorithms that determine the order in
which tasks are executed on the system. These algorithms prioritize tasks based on their
resource requirements and other factors to optimize system performance.

 Interprocess Communication: Operating systems provide mechanisms for applications to

communicate with each other, allowing them to share data and coordinate their activities.

 Performance Monitoring: Operating systems provide tools for monitoring system

performance, including CPU usage, memory usage, disk usage, and network activity. This
can help identify performance bottlenecks and optimize system performance.

 Backup and Recovery: Operating systems provide backup and recovery mechanisms to
protect data in the event of system failure or data loss.

 Debugging: Operating systems provide debugging tools that allow developers to identify
and fix software bugs and other issues in the system.

Conclusion

In simple terms, the operating system performs essential functions like managing computer
hardware, running applications, handling file systems, and providing a user interface.

79 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)

Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Operating System: History & Evolution
An operating system is a type of software that acts as an interface between the user and the
hardware. It is responsible for handling various critical functions of the computer and utilizing
resources very efficiently so the operating system is also known as a resource manager. The
operating system also acts like a government because just as the government has authority
over everything, similarly the operating system has authority over all resources. Various tasks
that are handled by OS are file management, task management, garbage management,
memory management, process management, disk management, I/O management, peripherals
management, etc.
Function of Operating System
 Memory management
 Process management
 File management
 Device Management
 Deadlock Prevention
 Input/Output device management
 Act as a resource manager
 Time Management

Generation of Operating System

Below are four generations of operating systems.
 The First Generation
 The Second Generation
 The Third Generation
 The Fourth Generation
1. The First Generation (1940 to early 1950s)
In 1940, an operating system was not included in the creation of the first electrical computer.
Early computer users had complete control over the device and wrote programs in
pure machine language for every task. During the computer generation, a programmer can
merely execute and solve basic mathematical calculations. an operating system is not needed
for these computations.
2. The Second Generation (1955 – 1965)
GMOSIS, the first operating system (OS) was developed in the early 1950s. For the IBM
Computer, General Motors has created the operating system. Because it gathers all related
jobs into groups or batches and then submits them to the operating system using a punch
card to finish all of them, the second-generation operating system was built on a single-stream
batch processing system.
3. The Third Generation (1965 – 1980)
Because it gathers all similar jobs into groups or batches and then submits them to the second
generation operating system using a punch card to finish all jobs in a machine, the second-
generation operating system was based on a single stream batch processing system. Control is
transferred to the operating system upon each job’s completion, whether it be routinely or

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Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
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unexpectedly. The operating system cleans up after each work is finished before reading and
starting the subsequent job on a punch card. Large, professionally operated machines known
as mainframes were introduced after that. Operating system designers were able to create a
new operating system in the late 1960s that was capable of multiprogramming—the
simultaneous execution of several tasks in a single computer program.
In order to create operating systems that enable a CPU to be active at all times by carrying out
multiple jobs on a computer at once, multiprogramming has to be introduced. With the release
of the DEC PDP-1 in 1961, the third generation of minicomputers saw a new phase of growth
and development.
4. The Fourth Generation (1980 – Present Day)
The fourth generation of personal computers is the result of these PDPs. The Generation IV
(1980–Present) The evolution of the personal computer is linked to the fourth generation of
operating systems. Nonetheless, the third-generation minicomputers and the personal
computer have many similarities. At that time, minicomputers were only slightly more
expensive than personal computers, which were highly expensive.
The development of Microsoft and the Windows operating system was a significant influence
in the creation of personal computers. In 1975, Microsoft developed the first Windows
operating system. Bill Gates and Paul Allen had the idea to advance personal computers after
releasing the Microsoft Windows OS. As a result, the MS-DOS was released in 1981, but
users found it extremely challenging to decipher its complex commands. Windows is now the
most widely used and well-liked operating system available. Following then, Windows
released a number of operating systems, including Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows XP,
and Windows 7, the most recent operating system. The majority of Windows users are
currently running Windows 10. Apple is another well-known operating system in addition to
Windows.

Types of Operating System

Operating Systems have evolved in past years. It went through several changes before getting
its original form. These changes in the operating system are known as the evolution of
operating systems. OS improve itself with the invention of new technology. Basically , OS
added the feature of new technology and making itself more powerful. Let us see the
evolution of operating system year-wise in detail:
 No OS – (0s to 1940s)
 Batch Processing Systems -(1940s to 1950s)
 Multiprogramming Systems -(1950s to 1960s)
 Time-Sharing Systems -(1960s to 1970s)
 Introduction of GUI -(1970s to 1980s)
 Networked Systems – (1980s to 1990s)
 Mobile Operating Systems – (Late 1990s to Early 2000s)
 AI Integration – (2010s to ongoing)

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Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
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1. No OS – (0s to 1940s)
As we know that before 1940s, there was no use of OS. Earlier, people are lacking OS in their
computer system so they had to manually type instructions for each tasks in machine language
(0-1 based language). And at that time, it was very hard for users to implement even a simple
task. And it was very time consuming and also not user-friendly.
2. Batch Processing Systems -(1940s to 1950s)
With the growth of time, batch processing system came into the market .Now Users had
facility to write their programs on punch cards and load it to the computer operator. And then
operator make different batches of similar types of jobs and then serve the different
batch(group of jobs) one by one to the CPU .
<

3. Multiprogramming Systems -(1950s to 1960s)

Multiprogramming was the first operating system where actual revolution began. It provide
user facility to load the multiple program into the memory and provide a specific portion of
memory to each program. When one program is waiting for any I/O operations (which take
much time) at that time the OS give permission to CPU to switch from previous program to
other program(which is first in ready queue) for continuous execution of program
with interrupt.
4. Time-Sharing Systems -(1960s to 1970s)
Time-sharing systems is extended version of multiprogramming system. Here one extra
feature was added to avoid the use of CPU for long time by any single program and give
access of CPU to every program after a certain interval of time. Basically OS switches from
one program to another program after a certain interval of time so that every program can get
access of CPU and complete their work.
5. Introduction of GUI -(1970s to 1980s)
With the growth of time, Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs) came. First time OS became more
user-friendly and changed the way of people to interact with computer. GUI provides
computer system visual elements which made user’s interaction with computer more
comfortable and user-friendly. User can just click on visual elements rather than typing
commands. Here are some feature of GUI in Microsoft’s windows icons, menus and windows.
6. Networked Systems – (1980s to 1990s)
At 1980s, the craze of computer networks at its peak .A special type of Operating Systems
needed to manage the network communication. The OS like Novell NetWare and Windows
NT were developed to manage network communication which provide users facility to work
in collaborative environment and made file sharing and remote access very easy.
7. Mobile Operating Systems – (Late 1990s to Early 2000s)
Invention of smartphones create a big revolution in software industry, to handle the operation
of smartphones, a special type of operating systems were developed. Some of them are: iOS
and Android etc. These operating systems were optimized with the time and became more
powerful.

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Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
8. AI Integration – (2010s to ongoing)
With the growth of time, Artificial intelligence came into picture. Operating system integrates
features of AI technology like Siri, Google Assistant, and Alexa and became more powerful
and efficient in many way. These AI features with operating system create a entire new
feature like voice commands, predictive text, and personalized recommendations.
Note: The above mentioned OS basically tells how the OS evolved with the time by adding
new features but it doesn’t mean that only new generation OS are in use and previously OS
system are not in use, according to the need, all these OS are still used in software industry.

Advantages of Operating System

 Operating System manages external and internal devices for example, printers, scanners,
and other.
 Operating System provides interfaces and drivers for proper communication between
system and hardware devices.
 Allows multiple applications to run simultaneously.
 Manages the execution of processes, ensuring that the system remains responsive.
 Organizes and manages files on storage devices.
 Operating system allocates resources to various applications and ensures their efficient
utilization.
Disadvantages of Operating System
 If an error occurred in your system, then there may be a chance that your data can be
deleted therefore always have a backup of your data.
 Threats and viruses can attack our operating system at any time, making it challenging for
the OS to keep the system protected from these dangers.
 For learning about new operating system can be a time-consuming and challenging,
Specially for those who using particular Operating system for example switching from
Windows OS to Linux is difficult.
 Keeping an operating system up-to-date requires regular maintenance, which can be time-
consuming.
 Operating systems consume system resources, including CPU, memory, and storage, which
can affect the performance of other applications.
Questions on History of Operating System – FAQs
How has the development of computer hardware been impacted by the evolution of operating
systems?
The design and advancement of computer hardware have been significantly influenced by the
development of operating systems. By time by time hardware producers added new features
and capabilities to their products as operating systems improved in order to better support the
functionality offered by the operating systems after a long variation of time. Like for instance,
basically the development of memory management units (MMUs) in hardware to handle
memory addressing and protection followed the introduction of virtual memory in operating
systems. Similarly, the demand for operating system multitasking and multiprocessing support
prompted the creation of more potent and effective processors and other hardware
components.

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Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
How has the development of distributed systems impacted how operating systems have
changed over time?
Operating systems have been significantly impacted by the rise of distributed systems, such as
client-server architectures and cloud computing. To support network communication,
distributed file systems, and resource sharing across multiple machines, operating systems had
to develop. Distributed operating systems also developed to offer scalability, fault tolerance,
and coordination in distributed environments. These modifications improved the ability to
manage resources across interconnected systems by advancing networking protocols, remote
procedure calls, and distributed file systems.
What are the example of operating system?
There are many popular operating system for example Apple macOs, Microsoft windows,
Google Android OS, Linux Operating System, and apple ios.

What Is Deadlock In Operating System?

Deadlock is a situation in operating system where a set of processes are blocked because each
process is holding one resource and waiting for another resource for complete execution but
this resource is allocated to other process this situation is known as Deadlock. Or any event
that is not happened is a Deadlock.
What is the mother of operating system?
UNIX is the mother of operating System. Unix is an Operating System that is truly the base of all
Operating Systems like Ubuntu, Solaris, POSIX, e

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Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
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A Brief History of MS-DOS (Operating System)
IBM that his company Microsoft could deliver the new software for IBM’s personal computer.
Bill Gates then bought an existing OS called 86-DOS also known as QDOS for Quick and Dirty
Operating System. He then adapted QDOS to run on the new IBM computers and called the
particular product as “Microsoft Disk Operating System”.

What is MS-DOS Operating System?

MS-DOS Operating System also called the Disk Operating system was Developed by Microsoft
for x86 personal computers. It works on the phenomenon of doing less and getting more. It is a
16-bit operating system. A closed-source model was initially released on August 12, 1981, and
the final release on September 14, 2000.

Why is MS-DOS Operating System Used?

It is used for many purposes:
 Education and research: It is used in the Education and research field to know how simple
MS-DOS is and how it works. The source code is available from Microsoft in two
versions.
 Legacy systems: Some organizations prefer using MS-DOS because it has been used
reliably over decades whereas others don’t have the budget to upgrade the application since
this process is costly.
 Embedded systems: Embedded systems are dependent on MS-DOS especially new devices
with x86 processor architecture. It is also used on legacy Embedded systems which have
been used for decades.
 Classic Computer Games: There are still some games that were developed on MS-DOS
and still support only MS-DOS.


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Features of MS-DOS Operating System
 It is a minimalist OS which means it can boot a computer and run programs.
 Still usable for simple tasks like word processing and playing games.
 The mouse cannot be used to give inputs instead it uses basic system commands to perform
the task.
 It is a 16-bit, free operating system.
 It is a single-user operating system.
 It is very lightweight due to fewer features available and no multitasking.

Working of MS-DOS
MS-DOS input and output occur at the command line in the form of issued commands and system
results of those commands. When booted, MS-DOS systems display a command prompt. MS-
DOS commands are then entered using a keyboard. Commands are either one of the standard
DOS commands, implemented as part of the OS, or they are the file name of an executable
program.
Limitations of MS DOS Operating System
 It is not a multitasking operating system that is we cannot run too many applications in the
background.
 Files on the system can be easily deleted or the system can also be easily destroyed.
 It does not provide any warning message before you delete or perform any unwanted task
like in windows or Linux.
 It is text-based and it does not have any graphical user interface.
 Not secure to be used in any kind of public network.
 Encryption is not supported.
 Difficulty in memory access.
 Mouse cannot be used to give inputs.
Types of MS-DOS Commands
There are mainly two types of MS-DOS commands:
1. Internal Commands
Internal commands are those commands that are loaded automatically in the memory when DOS
is loaded into memory during the booting process. These commands are easier to learn and use.
They require no external files for their storage as in the case of external commands. These are for
performing a basic operation on files and in directories. They do not need any external file
support. These commands are used for common jobs such as copying and erasing files.
2. External Commands
These external commands are for performing advanced tasks and they do not need some external
file support as they are not stored in COMMAND.com. The external commands are used less
frequently and are stored in some external files which are stored in some secondary storage
devices. Whenever an external command is to be executed then the external file in which that
particular command is stored is transferred from the secondary storage disk to the main
memory(RAM).

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How to open MS-DOS in windows?
 Step 1: Click on Windows.
 Step 2: Search for ‘Run’ or directly use (Windows key+R) to open.
 Step 3: Type ‘cmd’ in run and press ‘Enter’.
 Step 4: MS-DOS will open in many cases with default command prompt i.e. c:\>
Basic MS-DOS Commands

Command Description Type

mem Display memory on the system. External

mkdir Command to create a new directory. Internal

mklink Creates a symbolic link. Internal

md Command to create a new directory. Internal

chdir Changes directories. Internal

chkdsk Check the hard drive running FAT for errors. External

chkntfs Check the hard drive running NTFS for errors. External

Specify a listing of multiple options within a

choice External
batch file.

It Causes MS-DOS to look in other directories

append External
when editing a file or running a command.

Displays, adds and removes arp information

arp External
from network devices.

assign Assign a drive letter to an alternate letter. External

assoc View the file associations. Internal

Schedule a time to execute commands or

at External
programs.

Recovery console command that executes Recovery

batch
several commands in a file. Console

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Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
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Command Description Type

bcdedit Modify the boot configuration data store. External

Recovery console command that allows a user

bootcfg Recovery Console
to view, modify, and rebuild the boot.ini file.

break Enable and disable the Ctrl+C feature. Internal

del Deletes one or more files. Internal

delete Recovery console command that deletes a file. Internal

deltree Deletes one or more files or directories. External

Recovery console command that disables

disable Recovery Console
Windows system services or drivers.

lock Lock the hard drive. Internal

MS-DOS File and Filetypes

A computer file created by an application running under the DOS operating system. is called an
MS-DOS file. There are three main files of DOS. During the Booting process, the computer loads
the operating system into its memory. DOS booting involves reading the following files into
memory namely
 IO. SYS: A hidden executable binary file that processes instructions that tell the operating
system (OS) how the computer is set up when it is booted or started. It contains the default
MS-DOS device drivers (hardware interfacing routines) and the DOS initialization
program.
 MSDOS. SYS: The MSDOS.SYS file is a hidden, system, read-only file created on the
root of the boot drive. There are several configurations that can be changed using this file.
Most values in the MSDOS.SYS are either 0 or 1, which is off or on.
 COMMAND.COM: COMMAND.COM is the default command-line interpreter for MS-
DOS. It is the default user interface as well.COMMAND.COM is the command shell on
MS-DOS and PC-DOS, as well as versions of Windows that depend on DOS. Gives users a
command line interface to DOS as well as a way to run scripts called “batch files” with the
.BAT file extension.
Conclusion
MS-DOS allows the user to navigate, open, and otherwise manipulate files on their computer
from a command line instead of a GUI like Windows. Although it is not widely used nowadays,
however, the command shell, also known as the Windows command line, is still used by many
users. Legacy systems, specifically older IBM PC-compatible computers, are still in use.

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Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
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Linux Operating System
The Linux Operating System is a type of operating system that is similar to Unix, and it is built
upon the Linux Kernel.
Linus Torvalds designed the free and open-source Linux operating system kernel in 1991.
Torvalds set out to develop a free and flexible system for personal computers, drawing ideas from
the UNIX operating system and the MINIX operating system. Teamwork in development was
encouraged with the initial release of the Linux kernel, which attracted developers and enthusiasts
globally quickly. Various open-source software packages integrated with the Linux kernel created
fully operational operating systems, occasionally referred to as Linux distributions. Over the
years, Linux has become known as a key component of modern computing, powering everything
from servers and personal computers to supercomputers and smartphones. Due to its flexibility,
durability, and strong community support, developers, businesses, and educational institutions
frequently opt for it.
What is a “distribution?”
Linux distribution is an operating system that is made up of a collection of software based on
Linux kernel or you can say distribution contains the Linux kernel and supporting libraries and
software. Around 600 + Linux Distributions are available and some of the popular Linux
distributions are:
 MX Linux
 Manjaro
 Linux Mint
 elementary
 Ubuntu
 Debian
 Solus
 Fedora
 openSUSE
 Deepin

Why use Linux?

Because it is free, open-source, and extremely flexible, Linux is widely utilized. For servers and
developers, it is the ideal option because it offers strong security, stability, and performance.
Generally interoperable hardware, a broad software library, and a vibrant community that offers
support and regular updates are the many benefits of Linux. Due to its adaptability, users can
customize the operating system according to their own needs, whether they become for personal
or large enterprise use.
Architecture of Linux
Linux architecture has the following components:
1. Kernel: Kernel is the core of the Linux based operating system. It virtualizes the common
hardware resources of the computer to provide each process with its virtual resources. This
makes the process seem as if it is the sole process running on the machine. The kernel is
also responsible for preventing and mitigating conflicts between different processes.
Different types of the kernel are:
 Monolithic Kernel
 Hybrid kernels

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Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Exo kernels
 Micro kernels
2. System Library: Linux uses system libraries, also known as shared libraries, to implement
various functionalities of the operating system. These libraries contain pre-written code
that applications can use to perform specific tasks. By using these libraries, developers can
save time and effort, as they don’t need to write the same code repeatedly. System libraries
act as an interface between applications and the kernel, providing a standardized and
efficient way for applications to interact with the underlying system.
3. Shell: The shell is the user interface of the Linux Operating System. It allows users to
interact with the system by entering commands, which the shell interprets and executes.
The shell serves as a bridge between the user and the kernel, forwarding the user’s requests
to the kernel for processing. It provides a convenient way for users to perform various
tasks, such as running programs, managing files, and configuring the system.
4. Hardware Layer: The hardware layer encompasses all the physical components of the
computer, such as RAM (Random Access Memory), HDD (Hard Disk Drive), CPU
(Central Processing Unit), and input/output devices. This layer is responsible for
interacting with the Linux Operating System and providing the necessary resources for the
system and applications to function properly. The Linux kernel and system libraries enable
communication and control over these hardware components, ensuring that they work
harmoniously together.
5. System Utility: System utilities are essential tools and programs provided by the Linux
Operating System to manage and configure various aspects of the system. These utilities
perform tasks such as installing software, configuring network settings, monitoring system
performance, managing users and permissions, and much more. System utilities simplify
system administration tasks, making it easier for users to maintain their Linux systems
efficiently.
Choosing the right Linux distribution depends on your needs and experience level:
 For Beginners: Because of its simple user interface and strong community support, Ubuntu
is a wonderful choice for initially Linux users. On the opposite hand, Linux Mint make it
straightforward for novices to transition to Linux by offering an experience comparable to
Windows out of the box.
 For Advanced Users: Advanced users who appreciate customization and direct control
might opt for Arch Linux, it is known for its simplistic style and ability to create highly
unique systems from the ground up. Another choice is Gentoo, that provides total control
of the system but requires manual setup and a lengthy learning process.
 For Developers: Fedora was a popular choice among developers due to its focus upon
modern technology and software, making it a perfect platform for software testing and
development. On the other hand, Debian is well known for its reliability and extensive
package repository, which implies it may be used in both production and development
environments.
 For Servers: For server environments, CentOS is a powerful, community-maintained
distribution that matches Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) quite somewhat. As an
alternative, Ubuntu Server offers an extensive list of server applications in addition to
strong community support and ease of use.

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 For Lightweight Systems: Lubuntu is frequently picked by users either like lightweight
operating systems or have outdated equipment due to its ability to utilize system resources
efficiently while maintaining functionality. Another slim option is Puppy Linux, that is
made to run well on outdated hardware while maintaining the essential functions and
applications.
Installing software on Linux
On Linux, installing software is simple. For Debian-based systems (like Ubuntu), use package
managers like apt and sudo apt install package_name; for Fedora, use dnf and sudo dnf install
package_name.
Advantages of Linux
 The main advantage of Linux is it is an open-source operating system. This means the
source code is easily available for everyone and you are allowed to contribute, modify and
distribute the code to anyone without any permissions.
 In terms of security, Linux is more secure than any other operating system. It does not
mean that Linux is 100 percent secure, it has some malware for it but is less vulnerable
than any other operating system. So, it does not require any anti-virus software.
 The software updates in Linux are easy and frequent.
 Various Linux distributions are available so that you can use them according to your
requirements or according to your taste.
 Linux is freely available to use on the internet.
 It has large community support.
 It provides high stability. It rarely slows down or freezes and there is no need to reboot it
after a short time.
 It maintains the privacy of the user.
 The performance of the Linux system is much higher than other operating systems. It
allows many people to work at the same time and it handles them efficiently.
 It is network friendly.
 The flexibility of Linux is high. There is no need to install a complete Linux suite; you are
allowed to install only the required components.
 Linux is compatible with many file formats.
 It is fast and easy to install from the web. It can also install it on any hardware even on
your old computer system.
 It performs all tasks properly even if it has limited space on the hard disk.
Disadvantages of Linux
 It is not very user-friendly. So, it may be confusing for beginners.
 It has small peripheral hardware drivers as compared to windows.
Linux Commands
Basic tools for utilizing the command line interface (CLI) to communicate with the operating
system are Linux commands. Commonly used commands include ls to list contents of directories,
cd to modify directories, and pwd to show the path of the current directory. With commands
like cp (copy), mv (move), and rm (delete), someone can manage file activities.
Conclusion
We discussed Linux Operating System which is a powerful and flexible open-source operating
system based on the Linux Kernel. With a collaborative global community, it offers security,
frequent updates, and diverse distributions tailored to user needs.

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Windows System
Microsoft Windows, these OS are manufactured and developed by the tech-giant Microsoft and
are the most used OS for personal computers and to some extent in mobile phones or the
Windows phone. Microsoft Windows is a collection of many graphics-oriented operating
systems, first developed and launched in 1985 by the name Windows 1.0. When it started it had
the aim to provide a graphical shell to the then-famous MS-DOS which had a character user
interface, but it didn’t gain much popularity then. Slowly with the implementation of innovative
features, the OS gained popularity and soon dominated the market of the Computer Industry,
owing to its freedom of use and user-friendly environment. Let’s look at the advantages and
disadvantages of using Microsoft Windows.
Advantages of Windows
1. Hardware compatibility: Almost every computer hardware manufacturing industry
supports Microsoft Windows. This makes the users buy any random computer
manufacturing brand and get the latest version of pre-loaded Microsoft Windows 11 in it.
2. Pre-loaded and available Software: Windows comes with much more user-friendly
software to make everyday task easier and if the software is not available then one can
easily get it from the Internet and run it.
3. Ease of Use: Microsoft Windows has developed by far the most user-friendly OS in the
market, keeping in mind that it serves the purpose of most types of markets in the world.
It’s the most preferred OS for personal computers.
4. Game Runner: Windows supports a plethora of games manufactured till date and comes
with all the supporting base software to drive the game engine. So it’s the most popular OS
among the game lovers.
Disadvantages of Windows
 Expensive: Microsoft is a closed-source OS and the license cost is really high. It’s not
possible for every class of society to buy a new license every time one is expired. The
latest Windows 11 costs around 8000 to 12000 INR.
 Poor Security: Windows is much more prone to viruses and malware in comparison to
other OS like Linux or Mac in the market (Microsoft defender antivirus is also
introduced in the new version).
 Not reliable: Windows starts to lag with time and eventually needs booting every time
and now to get back the initial speed.
There are many versions of Windows that have been developed since 1985, but few that
revolutionized the industry of Operating Systems are:
1. Windows 95
2. Windows 98
3. Windows NT
4. Windows XP
5. Windows Vista
6. Windows 7
7. Windows 8
8. Windows 8.1
9. Windows 10
10.Windows 11(latest version)
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1. Microsoft Windows: This is the most widely used operating system for personal
computers. Windows is known for its user-friendly interface and compatibility with a wide
range of hardware and software.
2. MacOS: This operating system is used exclusively on Apple’s Macintosh computers. It is
known for its sleek design and integration with other Apple products, such as the iPhone
and iPad.
3. Linux: Linux is an open-source operating system that is popular among programmers and
developers. It is highly customizable and can be used on a wide range of devices, from
smartphones to supercomputers.
4. Android: This operating system is designed specifically for mobile devices such as
smartphones and tablets. It is based on the Linux kernel and is open source, which means
that it can be modified and customized by anyone.
5. IOS: This is the operating system that runs on Apple’s iPhone, iPad, and iPod touch
devices. It is known for its security and ease of use.
6. Chrome OS: This is an operating system developed by Google and is designed to be used
with the company’s Chromebook laptops. It is based on the Linux kernel and is optimized
for web browsing and cloud computing.
These are just a few examples of commonly used operating systems, and there are many others
available as well. Overall, the choice of the operating system depends on the specific needs and
preferences of the user, as well as the device being used.
Features of OS
These are a few of the OS’s features:
1. Memory Control
It is the control of the primary or main memory. Furthermore, the main memory must contain the
program that is being run. Consequently, more than one program may be active at once.
Consequently, managing memory is necessary. Operating system memory is allocated and
released.
2. Management and Scheduling of Processors
When a system has multiple processes running, the OS determines how and when each process
will use the CPU. So, CPU Scheduling is another name for it.
3. File Management
The files on a system are stored in different directories. The OS:
1. Keeps records of the status and locations of files.
2. Responsible for the Allocation and deallocation of resources.

93 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)