IT Notes
IT Notes
Information Technology
and
Application
BCA-Ist Semester
Table of Contents
Introduction to Computers
Introduction
Characteristics of computers
Evolution of computers
Generation of Computers
Classification of Computers
The Computer System
Applications of Computers
Text Books:
l. V. Rajaraman, Fundamentals Of Computers, 3rd Edition , PHI Publications
2. Nasib S. Gill, Essentials of Computer & Network Technology, Khanna Publications.
3. Deepak Bharihoke, Fundamentals of Information Technology, Excel Books.
Introduction of Computers:
What is a Computer?
“A computer is an electronic device that processes data and performs tasks according to a set
of instructions, known as a program. It can store, retrieve, and manipulate data to produce
meaningful information. Now a days Computers have become essential tools in various
fields, such as education, business, healthcare, science, and entertainment.”
“A computer system is a basic and functional computer that includes all the hardware and
software that are required to make it functional for the user.”
CPU which stands for Central Processing Unit is the brain of the computer. It is an
electronic circuit within a computer that executes instructions that make up a computer
program. Various blocks of CPU are-
2. Software: The programs and applications that run on the hardware, including:
- Operating System (OS): The system software that manages computer hardware and
software resources (e.g., Windows, macOS, Linux).
- Application Software: Programs designed for specific tasks, such as word processing, web
browsing, or gaming.
1. Speed
Executing mathematical calculation, a computer works faster and more accurately than
human. Computers have the ability to process so many millions of instructions per second.
Computer operations are performed in micro and nano seconds. A computer is a time-saving
device. It performs several calculations and tasks in a few seconds that we take hours to solve.
The speed of a computer is measured in terms of Gigahertz and Megahertz.
2. Diligence
A human cannot work for several hours without resting, yet a computer never tires. A
computer can conduct millions of calculations per second with complete precision without
stopping. A computer can consistently and accurately do millions of jobs or calculations.
There is no weariness or lack of concentration. Its memory ability also places it ahead of
humans.
3. Reliability
A computer is reliable. The output results never differ unless the input varies. the output
depends on the input. when an input is the same the output will also be the same. A computer
produces consistent results for similar sets of data, if we provide the same set of input at any
time we will get the same result.
4. Automation
The world is quickly moving toward AI (Artificial Intelligence)-based technology. A computer
may conduct tasks automatically after instructions are programmed. By executing jobs
automatically, this computer feature replaces thousands of workers. Automation in computing
is often achieved by the use of a program, a script, or batch processing.
5. Versatility
Versatility refers to the capacity of a computer. Computer perform different types of tasks
with the same accuracy and efficiency. A computer can perform multiple tasks at the same
time this is known as versatility. For example, while listening to music, we may develop our
project using PowerPoint and Wordpad, or we can design a website.
6. Memory
A computer can store millions of records. these records may be accessed with complete
precision. Computer memory storage capacity is measured in Bytes, Kilobytes (KB),
Megabytes (MB), Gigabytes (GB), and Terabytes (TB). A computer has built-in memory
known as primary memory.
6|Page By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)
Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
7. Accuracy
When a computer performs a computation or operation, the chances of errors occurring are
low. Errors in a computer are caused by human’s submitting incorrect data. A computer can
do a variety of operations and calculations fast and accurately.
Types of Computers:
1. Personal Computers (PCs): Used for general purposes like internet browsing, document
creation, and gaming.
2. Laptops: Portable computers with similar functionality to PCs.
3. Supercomputers: Extremely powerful machines used for complex simulations, scientific
calculations, and research.
4. Mainframe Computers: Used by large organizations for bulk data processing, such as
census or financial transaction processing.
Uses of Computers:
Introduction
We all use computers in our daily lives for a variety of reasons. Computers are now portable
and affordable, but once, there was a time when a computer used to take up an entire room’s
space, and only a few of them existed in this world.
The evolution of computers marked by ground breaking innovations and the relentless pursuit
of technological advancement.
When you were kids, you must have owned an abacus on which you learned basic
mathematical skills. Abacus originated in ancient Mesopotamia and is one of the earliest
known computing devices. It consisted of beads on rods and was used for basic arithmetic
calculations.
As we know that computers work through an interaction of hardware and software. The whole
transformation and advancement of the computer goes back decades. However, there are five
apparent generations of computers.
This long period is often conveniently divided into the subsequent phases called computer
generations.
Before the generation of computers, we used calculators, spreadsheets, and computer algebra
systems, mathematicians and inventors searched for solutions to ease the burden of calculation.
Below are the 8 Mechanical Calculators before modern computers were invented.
1. Abacus (ca. 2700 BC)
2. Pascal’s Calculator (1652)
3. Stepped Reckoner (1694)
4. Arithmometer (1820)
5. Comptometer (1887) and Comptograph (1889)
6. The Difference Engine (1822)
7. Analytical Engine (1834)
8. The Millionaire (1893)
(1) First Generation Computers
The technology behind the primary generation computers was a fragile glass device called a
vacuum tube. These computers were very heavy and large. These weren’t very reliable and
programming on them was tedious as they used low-level programming language and no OS.
First-generation computers were used for calculation, storage, and control purposes. They were
too bulky and large that they needed a full room and consumed a lot of electricity. Punch cards
were used to improve the information for external storage. Magnetic card used. Machine and
assembly language is developed.
Examples of some main first-generation computers are mentioned below.
ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, built by J. Presper Eckert and John
V. Mauchly was a general-purpose computer. It had been cumbersome, and large, and
contained 18,000 vacuum tubes.
EDVAC: Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer was designed by von Neumann.
It could store data also as instruction and thus the speed was enhanced.
UNIVAC: Universal Automatic Computer was developed in 1952 by Eckert and Mauchly.
Vacuum Tube
Characteristics Components
Examples of the first generation IBM 650, IBM 701, ENIAC, UNIVAC1, etc.
Transistor
Characteristics Components
Integrated Circuit
Characteristics Components
Microprocessor
Examples of the fourth- IBM PC, STAR 1000, APPLE II, Apple Macintosh, Alter
generation 8800, etc.
Important Question:-
1. What are the 5 types of generation of computer?
2. What is Artificial Intelligence?
3. What was the First Computer?
4. Who is known as the Father of Computers?
Types of computers.
Super Computer
Mainframe computer
Mini Computer
Micro Computer
Workstation Computer
Personal Computer (PC)
Server Computer
Analog Computer
Digital Computer
Hybrid Computer
Tablets and Smartphones
Mainframe computer
Mainframe Computer are efficient than supercomputers and also not extremely expensive.
These are commonly called as big iron, Large corporations and governmental organizations
frequently use mainframe computers to run everyday operations. They can store and analyze
a lot of data. To maintain information on their customers, students, and insurance
policyholders, banks, colleges, and insurance companies utilize them.
They may also act as a server in a network environment. Hundreds of users may be managed
simultaneously by them. for bulk data processing such as statistics, census data processing,
transaction processing and are widely used as the servers as these systems has a higher
processing capability as compared to the other classes of computers.
Mainframe architectures were established in 1960s, the research and development worked
continuously over the years and the mainframes of today are far more better than the earlier
ones, in size, capacity and efficiency. Eg: IBM z Series, System z9 and System z10 servers.
Note:- The first mainframe computer was the Harvard Mark 1, also known as the IBM
Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC), which was developed in the 1930s by
Harvard researcher Howard Aiken. Aiken's idea was to build a large calculator to solve non-
linear equations. IBM completed the device in 1943
Minicomputer
Minicomputers are used by small businesses and industries. They go by the term "Midrange
Computers." These minicomputers frequently have several users, just as mainframe
computers. They are a bit slower than mainframe computers.
These computers came into the market in the mid-1960s and were sold at a much cheaper
price than the mainframes, they were designed for control, instrumentation, human
interaction, and communication switching as distinct from calculation and record keeping,
later they became very popular for personal uses with evolution. In the 60s to describe the
smaller computers that became possible with the use of transistors and core memory
technologies, minimal instruction sets, and less expensive peripherals.
They usually took up one or a few inch rack cabinets, compared with the large mainframes
that could fill a room, there was a new term “MINICOMPUTERS” coined for Personal
Laptop, PC etc.
For example, the manufacturing department may employ minicomputers to keep an eye on
specific production processes. PDP-1 was the world's first minicomputer and it was
introduced in 1958. (Gordon Bell)
Characteristics of Minicomputer
It is smaller than mainframes or supercomputers in terms of size.
It is a personal computer introduced in 1970 and It is a small computer introduced in 1960 and used for
used for general purposes. operating business and scientific applications.
People use these computers for education and Companies use these computers for manufacturing
entertainment. control of processes.
Storage capacity is in terms of Gigabyte (GB). Storage capacity is in terms of Terabyte (TB).
They are primarily used for word processing, They are primarily used for process control,
managing databases or spreadsheets, graphics performing financial and administrative tasks, such as
and general office applications. word processing and accounting.
It is more cost effective and easy to use as It is more costly and difficult to use as compared to
compared to a a minicomputer. microcomputers.
It is very slower in speed and performance as It is faster in speed and performance as compared to
compared to mini computers. microcomputers because it contains multiprocessing
system that is capable of handling different users
simultaneously.
It uses tapes and disks as storage devices. It uses magnetic disks or tapes for secondary storage.
Generally less expensive and more widely More expensive than micro computers, but often more
available than mini computers. cost-effective for large-scale computing tasks.
Examples include personal computers (PCs), Examples include mid-range servers, mainframe
laptops, tablets, and smartphones. computers, and high-performance computing clusters.
Generally have less processing power and Typically have more processing power and memory
memory than mini computers. than micro computers.
Often used for personal and small business Often used for scientific and engineering applications,
applications, such as web browsing, email, and large-scale data processing, network servers, and
word processing. telecommunications.
Limited scalability, with less room for Highly scalable, with the ability to expand and
expansion and customization. customize the system to meet specific needs.
2. Workstation: Those are the computers designed primarily to be used by a single user at a
time. They run multi-user operating systems. They are the ones which we use for our day-to-
day personal / commercial work.
3. Information Appliances : They are the portable devices that are designed to perform a
limited set of tasks like basic calculations, playing multimedia, browsing the internet etc.
They are generally referred as the mobile devices. They have very limited memory and
flexibility and generally run on “as-is” basis.
4. Embedded computers : They are computing devices that are used in other machines to
serve limited set of requirements. They follow instructions from the non-volatile memory
and they are not required to execute reboot or reset. The processing units used in such
devices work to those basic requirements only and are different from the ones that are used
in personal computers- better known as workstations.
Important Questions:
Computer hardware - These are physical parts/ intangible parts of a computer. eg Input
devices, output devices, central processing unit and storage devices
Computer software - also known as programs or applications. They are classified into two
classes namely - system software and application software
Liveware - is the computer user. Also kwon as the humanware. The user commands the
computer system to execute on instructions.
a) COMPUTER HARDWARE
Hardware refers to the physical, computer equipment and devices, which provide support for major
functions such as input, processing , output, secondary storage (for data and programs), and
communication.
1. INPUT DEVICES
These devices are used for entering data or instructions into the central processing unit. classified
according to the method they use to enter data.
a) KEYING DEVICES
These devices are used to enter data into the computer using a set of Keys eg Keyboard, key-to-
storage and keypad.
i) The keyboard
A keyboard (similar to a typewriter) is the main input device of a computer . It contains three types of
keys-- alphanumeric keys, special keys and function keys. Alphanumeric keys are used to type all
alphabets, numbers and special symbols like $, %, @, A etc. Special keys such as <Shift>, <Ctrl>,
<Alt>, <Home>, <Scroll Lock> etc. are used for special functions. Function keys such as <Fl>,
<F2>, <F3> etc. are used to give special commands depending upon the software used e.g. F5 reloads
a page of an internet browser. The function of each key can be well understood only after working on
a PC. When any key is pressed, an electronic signal is produced. This signal is detected by a
keyboard encoder that sends a binary code corresponding to the key pressed to the CPU.
There are many types of keyboards but 101 keys keyboard is the most popular one.
The keys on your keyboard can be divided into several groups based on function:
Typing (alphanumeric) keys. These keys include the same letter, number, punctuation, and
symbol keys on a traditional typewriter.
Special (Control) keys. These keys are used alone or in combination with other keys to
perform certain actions. The most frequently used control keys are CTRL, ALT,
the Windows key, and ESC.
Function keys. The function keys are used to perform specific tasks. They are labeled as F1,
F2, F3, and so on, up to F12. The functionality of these keys differs from program to program.
Cursor Movement (Navigation) keys. These keys are used for moving around in documents
or WebPages and editing text. They include the arrow keys, HOME, END, PAGE UP, PAGE
DOWN, DELETE, and INSERT and ARROW KEYS.
Numeric keypad. The numeric keypad is handy for entering numbers quickly. The keys are
B. POINTING DEVICES
Are devices that enter data and instructions into the computer using a pointer that appears on the
screen. The items to be entered are selected by either pointing to or clicking on them.e.g mice,
joystick, touch sensitive screen, trackballs
To click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then press and release the primary button
(usually the left button)
Double-clicking
To double-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then click twice quickly. If the two
clicks are spaced too far apart, they might be interpreted as two individual clicks rather than as one
double-click. Double-clicking is most often used to open items on your desktop. For example, you
can start a program or open a folder by double-clicking its icon on the desktop.
Right-clicking
To right-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then press and release the secondary
button (usually the right button). Right-clicking an item usually displays a list of things you can do
with the item. For example, when you right-click the Recycle Bin on your
desktop, Windows displays a menu allowing you to open it, empty it, delete it, or see its properties. If
you are unsure of what to do with something, right-click it.
C) SCANNING DEVICES
Are devices that capture an object or a document directly from the source. They are classifie
according to the technology used to capture data e.g. Scanners and Document readers.
i) Scanners
Used to capture a source document and converts it into an electronic form.
Example are - FlatBed and HandHeld scanners.
b) Magnetic Readers
Reads data using magnetic ink.t uses principle of magnetism to sense data which have been written
using magnetised ink.
TYPES OF PROCESSORS
I) Comples Instruction Set Computers (CISC)
ii) Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC)
Components of a Computer
There are basically three important components of a computer:
1. Input Unit
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
3. Output Unit
1. Input Unit:
The input unit consists of input devices that are attached to the computer. These devices take input
and convert it into binary language that the computer understands. Some of the common input
devices are keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner etc.
The Input Unit is formed by attaching one or more input devices to a computer.
A user input data and instructions through input devices such as a keyboard, mouse, etc.
The input unit is used to provide data to the processor for further processing.
Once the information is entered into the computer by the input device, the processor processes it. The
CPU is called the brain of the computer because it is the control centre of the computer. It first
fetches instructions from memory and then interprets them so as to know what is to be done.
Thereafter CPU executes or performs the required computation, and then either stores the output or
displays it on the output device. The CPU has three main components, which are responsible for
different functions: Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and Memory registers
C. Memory Registers:
A register is a temporary unit of memory in the CPU. These are used to store the data, which is
directly used by the processor. Registers can be of different sizes (16-bit, 32-bit, 64 bit and so on) and
each register inside the CPU has a specific function, like storing data, storing an instruction, storing
the address of a location in memory etc.
The internal memory is also called the Primary memory or Main memory. This memory is also called
RAM, i.e., Random Access Memory. The time of access of data is independent of its location in
memory, therefore, this memory is also called Random Access memory (RAM).
Memory Unit is the primary storage of the computer.
It stores both data and instructions.
Data and instructions are stored permanently in this unit so that they are available whenever
required.
3. Output Unit :
The output unit consists of output devices that are attached to the computer. It converts the binary
data coming from the CPU to human understandable form. The common output devices monitors,
printer, plotter, etc.
The output unit displays or prints the processed data in a user-friendly format.
The output unit is formed by attaching the output devices of a computer.
The output unit accepts the information from the CPU and displays it in a user-readable form.
2. Software:
Software is a collection of programs (set of instructions), data, and protocols. It is not in material
form so we cannot touch such types of components. The execution of software programs is
performed by hardware. Firmware, operating systems, and applications are examples of software.
Basic Applications of Computers
Computers are used in every field of life, such as homes, businesses, educational institutions,
research organizations, the medical field, government offices, entertainment, etc. Today we cannot
imagine growing our technology without computers. The various field where the computer is very
essential are:
Science
Today computer is the primary work tool in the field of science. It is the best-suited machine for
collecting, analyzing, classifying, and storing data. It becomes the most essential medium to spread
knowledge internally and internationally. It allows scientists from different locations to work
together and share ideas on the same project.
In this diagram input is given to the CPU through input devices. This input goes to memory and the
control unit gets instructions from memory. The control unit now decides what to do with the input or
instructions and transfers it to ALU. Now, ALU performs various operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, logical operations, etc. After that, the final result gets stored in
memory and finally passed to output devices to give the output. So, this is how the CPU works.
CPU utilization is a basic metric of operating system efficiency. It measures how well the operating
system manages the processor resources.
2. Motherboard
The motherboard is the main circuit board inside a computer and it contains most of the electronic
components together. All the components of the computer are directly or indirectly connected to the
motherboard. It includes RAM slots, controllers, system chipsets, CPU, memory, storage, ROM BIOS,
Southbridge and Northbridge chipsets, cooling fans, peripheral connector slots, connectors for
peripheral devices, battery backup, and the power connector. It also controls how data transfers and
what type of monitor or screen device to use etc.
Computer Motherboard with Functions
i. Chipsets
A chipset is a set of semiconductor chips or circuits on the motherboard that provides interfaces for
memory, expansion cards, and other peripheral devices. It is the foundation of the motherboard and is
made up of one or several integrated circuit chips.
ii. Northbridge
A Northbridge is a chipset that establishes the communication among high-speed peripherals, such as
memory, PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) bus, AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) bus, and
the Level 2 processor cache (L2 Cache memory).
UNIT- II
(1) Keyboard
The keyboard is the most frequent input device for entering data into a computer. Although
there are additional keys for performing other operations, the keyboard layout resembles a
typical typewriter.
keyboards come in two sizes: 84 keys or 101/102 keys but currently keyboards with 104 keys or
108 keys are also available for Windows and the Internet.
Types of Keys
Numeric Keys: It is used to enter numeric data or move the cursor. It usually consists of a set
of 17 keys.
Typing Keys: The letter keys (A-Z) and number keys (09) are among these keys.
Control Keys: These keys control the pointer and the screen. There are four directional
arrow keys on it. Home, End, Insert, Alternate (Alt), Delete, Control (Ctrl) and Escape are
all control keys (Esc).
Special Keys: Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Tab and Print Screen are among the
special function keys on the keyboard.
Function Keys: The 12 keys from F1 to F12 are on the topmost row of the keyboard.
3. Speech Recognition
Speech recognition is the process of converting sound signals to text transcriptions. Steps
involved in the conversion of a sound wave to text transcription in a speech recognition system
are: Recording: Audio is recorded using a voice recorder
Key Features of Speech Recognition
Accuracy and Speed: They can process speech in real-time or near real-time, providing quick
responses to user inputs.
Natural Language Understanding (NLU): NLU enables systems to handle complex
commands and queries, making technology more intuitive and user-friendly .
Multi-Language Support: Support for multiple languages and dialects, allowing users from
different linguistic backgrounds to interact with technology in their native language.
Background Noise Handling: This feature is crucial for voice-activated systems used in public or
outdoor settings.
4. Digital Camera:-
A digital camera is a device that captures and stores images and videos digitally and can be used
as an input or output device for a computer. it is a use of computer algorithms, in order to get
enhanced image either to extract some useful information. Most digital cameras have a USB
port that can be used to connect to a computer.
Input device: A digital camera can capture images and send them to a computer.
Output device: A digital camera can send pictures to a computer.
Digital cameras have many advantages over film cameras, including:
Digital storage: Digital cameras store images electronically on a memory card, instead of
using light-sensitive film.
Quick processing: Digital cameras can take, process, and transmit images quickly.
Instant viewing: Images can be viewed immediately after being taken.
Editing and sharing: Images can be edited and shared on various digital platforms
(5) Scanner
A scanner is an input device that functions similarly to a photocopier. It’s employed when
there’s information on paper that needs to be transferred to the computer’s hard disc for
subsequent manipulation. The scanner collects images from the source and converts them to a
digital format that may be saved on a disc. Before they are printed, these images can be
modified.
Printer
Printers are output devices that allow you to print information on paper. There are certain types
of printers which are described below.
Impact Printers
Character Printers
Line Printers
Non-Impact Printers
Laser Printers
Inkjet Printers
Impact Printer
Characters are printed on the ribbon, which is subsequently crushed against the paper, in impact
printers.
The following are the characteristics of impact printers:
Exceptionally low consumable cost.
Quite noisy
Because of its low cost, it is ideal for large-scale printing.
To create an image, there is physical contact with the paper.
Examples of Impact Printer are Daisy-Wheel Printers, Dot -Matrix Printers, Line Printers, etc.
1. Daisy-Wheel Printers: Daisy wheel printing is a mechanical impact printing technology. It
is called daisy-wheel because its printing mechanism looks like a daisy. Its speed is usually 25-
50 characters per second.
3. Line Printers: Line Printers (also called line-at-a-time printers), as the name suggests it can
print whole line at once. Speed ranges somewhere between 1,000 to 6,000 lines per minute.
Non-Impact Printers
Characters are printed without the need for a ribbon in non-impact printers. Because these
printers print a full page at a time, they’re also known as Page Printers. The following are the
Characteristics of non-impact printers:
Faster
They don’t make a lot of noise.
Excellent quality
Supports a variety of typefaces and character sizes
Examples of non-impact printer are Inkjet printers, Laser Printers and etc.
1. Inkjet Printers: The inkjet printers are the most common and widely used printers in both
professional and domestic settings. It is popular due to its numerous advantages and very few
drawbacks.
Advantages of Inkjet printers
Capable of printing highly detailed and photo elastic prints.
Small footprints
Environment friendly
Compact Design
Versatile
Best Picture and Image quality
Disadvantages of Inkjet Printers
Higher cost per page than laser printers
Less Reliable
Slow print speed
3. LED Printers: LED Printers are quite like Laser Printers, but it uses LED instead of laser to
create pictures/images. LED printers are considered are more efficient and reliable than laser
printers.
Advantages of LED Printers
Efficient
Reliable
Cheaper than laser printers.
Produces characters and graphics on a piece of paper A type of printer that produces characters and
by striking it is called impact printer. graphics on a piece of paper without striking.
It prints by hammering a set of metal pin or character Printing is done by depositing ink in any form.
set. Have banging noise of needle on paper Works silently
Faster speeds around 250 words per second. Slower speeds around 1 page per 30 seconds.
Dot-matrix printer, Daisy wheel printers, line printer Inkjet printers, photo printers, laser printers are
are examples. examples.
They are not suited for printing photograph or any They are best suited for printing photograph or
high quality media. any high quality media.
Television
Television is one of the common output devices which is present in every house. It portrays
video and audio files on the screen as the user handles the television. Nowadays, we are using
plasma displays as compared to CRT screens which we used earlier.
Braille Reader
Braille Reader is a very important device that is used by blind users. It helps people with low
vision or no vision to recognize the data by running their fingers over the device to understand
easily.
Audio output
Audio output, also known as audio out, is the process of sending an audio signal from one
device to another. Audio output devices, such as speakers, headphones, or monitors, convert
sound wave data from a computer into usable sound signals.
Click the sound icon in the taskbar, select the drop-down list of available audio devices, and
then select your preferred device.
Web page
Use the Media Devices. Select Audio Output method to select an audio output device from
those allowed by the speaker-selection directive.
Speakers
Speakers are devices that produce sound after getting a command from a computer. Nowadays,
speakers come with wireless technology also like Bluetooth speakers.
Projector
Projectors are optical devices that have the work to show visuals on both types of screens,
stationary and moving both. It helps in displaying images on a big screen. Projectors are
generally used in theatres, auditoriums, etc.
Data is accepted by the user of the device It shows the data after processing to the user
These devices are used to accept the data These devices are used to display or show the data
Memory
Computer Memory
Computer memory is just like the human brain. It is used to store data/information
and instructions. It is a data storage unit or a data storage device where data is to be
processed and instructions required for processing are stored. It can store both the input and
output can be stored here.
1. Primary Memory
It is also known as the main memory of the computer system. It is used to store data
and programs or instructions during computer operations. It uses semiconductor technology
and hence is commonly called semiconductor memory.
Characteristics
volatile: Data is lost upon power loss.
High-speed access.
Limited capacity relative to secondary storage.
Examples: Random Access Memory (RAM), Read-Only Memory, Cache memory.
Advantages
High-speed access: Data can be retrieved and stored very quickly.
Directly accessible by CPU: No intermediate steps are required for data transfer.
Disadvantages
Volatile: Data is lost when power is turned off.
Limited storage capacity: compared to secondary storage, primary memory is relatively
small.
Expensive: Cost per unit is higher than secondary storage.
Applications
Temporary storage
Multitasking
Buffering
Caching
Primary memory is of two types:
RAM (Random Access Memory)
RAM is also known as Temporary or volatile memory. It holds the program and data, which are
currently in process or processing. All the data is erased when the computer is turned off or in case of
a power failure. Data stored in this memory can be changed. There are two types of RAM:-
1. MROM (Masked Read Memory): ROM is as old as semiconductor technology. MROM was the
first ROM that consisted of a network of word lines and bit lines interconnected by transistor
switches.
2. PROM (Programmable Read Memory): PROM is a form of digital memory. In this type of
ROM, each bit is locked by a fuse or protective fuse. The data stored in it is permanently stored and
cannot be changed or deleted.
3. EPROM (Removable Programmable Read Only Memory): EPROM, also called EROM, is a
type of PROM, but it can be reprogrammed. Data stored in EPROM can be erased and reprogrammed
with ultraviolet light.
4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Memory): As the name suggests, it can
be programmed and electrically erased. The data and program in this ROM can be erased and
programmed about ten thousand times.
2. Secondary Memory
It is also known as auxiliary memory and backup memory. It is a non-volatile memory and
used to store a large amount of data or information. The data or information stored in secondary
memory is permanent, and it is slower than primary memory. A CPU cannot access secondary
memory directly. The data/information from the auxiliary memory is first transferred to the
main memory, and then the CPU can access it.
Classification of secondary storage devices
Secondary memory is a type of computer memory that is used for long-term storage of data
and programs. It is also known as auxiliary memory or external memory and is distinct from
Optical Disk
An optical disk is any computer disk that uses optical storage techniques and technology to read
and write data. It is a storage device for optical (light) energy
Features of Magnetic Disk
Optical disks rely on a red or blue laser to record and read data.
Most of optical disks are flat, circular and 12-14 cm in diameter these days
Magneto-optical discs
A magneto-optical (MO) disk is a rewritable optical disk that uses both magnetic and optical
technologies to store and retrieve data. a low-power laser beam reflects off the disk, and the
polarization of the reflected light depends on the direction of magnetization of each spot. It can
read and write data to magneto-optical disks. The technology was made at the end of the 1980s.
The disks look like CD-ROMs, but they are protected with a plastic cover. The Minidiscs is a
Magneto-optical disk.
Flash Memory
Flash Memory is a kind of Semiconductor based Non-volatile, Rewritable computer memory it is just
like a RAM. Due to its higher speed, durability and Low Power Consumption, Flash memory is ideal
for many applications. Ex- Digital Camera, Mobile Phone, Printer and MP3 Players etc.
3. Cache Memory
It is a type of high-speed semiconductor memory that can help the CPU run faster. Between the
CPU and the main memory, it serves as a buffer (memory used to temporarily hold data while
it is being moved from one place to another). It is used to store the data and programs that the
CPU uses the most frequently.
Conversions of Units
Name Equal To
Bit 1 Bit
Nibble 4 Bits
Byte 8 Bits
Conclusion
Memory is the vital component of a computer system that stores data and instructions for
processing. It is divided into various types, each with its specific characteristics and purpose.
RAM ROM
RAM stands for Random Access Memory. ROM stands for Read Only Memory.
RAM is a volatile memory that stores data as long ROM is a non-volatile memory that retain data
as power supply is given. even after the power is turned off.
Speed of RAM is more than speed of ROM. ROM is slower then RAM.
A RAM chip can store only a few gigabytes (GB) A ROM chip can store multiple megabytes (MB)
of data. of data.
CPU can easily access data stored in RAM. CPU cannot easily access data stored in ROM.
RAM is used for the temporary storage of data ROM is used to store firmware, BIOS, and other
currently being processed by the CPU. data that needs to be retained.
The media type used is Multiple fixed disk The media type used is a Single removable disk
The storage capacity is high in magnetic disk The storage capacity of optical disk is comparatively
i.e. up to several Gigabytes, Terabytes. low i.e. up to 27GB in the case of Blue-ray.
Magnetic disks are a crucial part of computers. Optical disk is optional component in computers.
Magnetic disks are mainly used to hold data, Optical disks are portable and generally used to store
instructions, software applications, music, videos, and movies.
***
Need of software
Software is needed for a variety of reasons, including:
1. Automation: Software can automate repetitive and mundane tasks, allowing users to focus on
more complex and strategic work.
2. Efficiency: Software can increase efficiency by streamlining workflows, reducing errors, and
improving accuracy.
3. Scalability: Software can be designed to handle large volumes of data and users, making it
easier to scale as a business grows.
4. Innovation: Software can enable new products and services that were previously impossible or
difficult to achieve.
5. Communication: Software can facilitate communication and collaboration among team members
and with customers, partners, and suppliers.
6. Decision-making: Software can provide data insights and analytics to support informed
decision-making.
Depending on its use and area of implementation, Software’s can be divided into 3 major types:
1. System Software
2. Application Software
3. Utility Software
2. Specific Purpose Application Software: These are the type of software that is
customizable and mostly used in real-time or business environment.
Ticket Reservation System
Healthcare Management System
Hotel Management System
Payroll Management System
Utility Software
These are the most basic type of software which provides high utility to the user and the system.
These perform the basic but daily need tasks.
Antivirus Software’s: These provide protection to the computer system from unwanted
malware and viruses. Ex- Quick Heal, McAfee etc.
Disk Defragmenter Tools: These help the users to analyses the bad sectors of the disk and
rearrange the files in a proper order.
Text-editors: These help the users to take regular notes and create basic text files. Ex-
Notepad, etc.
Advantages of software:
There are several advantages of software, including:
1. Increased efficiency: Software can automate repetitive tasks, reduce errors, and streamline
workflows, leading to increased productivity and efficiency.
2. Improved accuracy: Software can perform complex calculations and data processing with
high accuracy and consistency, reducing the risk of human error.
3. Scalability: Software can be designed to handle large volumes of data and users, making it
easier to scale as a business grows.
4. Cost-effectiveness: Software can reduce costs by eliminating the need for manual processes,
reducing errors and waste, and improving resource allocation.
5. Innovation: Software can enable the development of new products and services, driving
innovation and competitiveness.
6. Better communication and collaboration: Software can facilitate communication and
collaboration among team members and with customers, partners, and suppliers, leading to
better outcomes and stronger relationships.
7. Data analysis: Software can provide data insights and analytics to support informed
decision-making and drive business growth.
Dis-advantages of software :
There are also some potential disadvantages to consider, including:
1. Cost: Software development can be expensive, especially for complex or customized
applications.
2. Security vulnerabilities: Software can be vulnerable to security threats such as hacking,
viruses, and malware, which can compromise data and systems.
3. Compatibility issues: Software may not be compatible with all hardware or operating
systems, which can limit its usefulness and require additional investments.
4. Maintenance and updates: Software requires ongoing maintenance and updates to ensure
optimal performance and security, which can be time-consuming and costly.
5. Learning curve: New software may require significant training and time to learn, which can
impact productivity and require additional resources.
6. Dependence on technology: Over-reliance on software can create a dependence on
technology, which can limit flexibility and creativity and increase the risk of disruptions.
Less interactive for the users. More interactive for the users.
System software plays vital role for the effective Application software is not so important for the
functioning of a system. functioning of the system, as it is task specific.
Role of Hardware
Hardware is designed to carry out computations and tasks, but it cannot do so without
Loved by gamers, Graphics Processing Units (GPUs) need software (games
themselves and drivers) to utilise their raw computing power.
Central Processing Units (CPUs) need a compatible operating system and applicable
software to perform calculations and process information.
Dependencey
Evolution
With advances in technology, the relationship between hardware and software has
become more cooperative rather than strictly hierarchical. New hardware often inspires
new software development, and vice versa.
Hardware upgrades often require corresponding software updates. This is evident in
new generations of CPUs often necessitating updates to the OS.
Virtualization is blurring the lines between hardware and software as software is used
to emulate hardware setups leading to greater flexibility.
Conclusion
In summary, hardware provides the raw power and structure for the system while
software tells the hardware what, when and how to accomplish tasks. A mutual
understanding and communication exist that makes the functioning of a computer
system possible.
Terminal/Terminator
Process
Decision
Document
Data or Input/Output
Stored Data
Flow Arrow
Comment or Annotation
Predefined process
On-page connector/reference
Off-page connector/reference
This box is of an oval shape which is used to indicate the start or end of the program. Every
flowchart diagram has an oval shape that depicts the start of an algorithm and another oval shape
that depicts the end of an algorithm. For example:
2. Data
This is a parallelogram-shaped box inside which the inputs or outputs are written. This basically
depicts the information that is entering the system or algorithm and the information that is leaving
the system or algorithm. For example: if the user wants to input a from the user and display it, the
flowchart for this would be:
This is a rectangular box inside which a programmer writes the main course of action of the
algorithm or the main logic of the program. This is the crux of the flowchart as the main
processing codes is written inside this box. For example: if the programmer wants to add 1 to the
input given by the user, he/she would make the following flowchart:
4. Decision
This is a rhombus-shaped box, control statements like if, condition like a > 0, are written inside
this box. There are 2 paths from this one which is “yes” and the other one is“no”. Every decision
has either yes or no as an option, similarly, this box has these as options. For example: if the user
wants to add 1 to an even number and subtract 1 if the number is odd, the flowchart would be:
5. Flow
This arrow line represents the flow of the algorithm or process. It represents the direction of the
process flow. in all the previous examples, we included arrows in every step to display the flow of
the program. Arrow increases the readability of the program.
6. on-Page Reference
This circular figure is used to depict that the flowchart is in continuation with the further steps.
This figure comes into use when the space is less and the flowchart is long. Any numerical
symbol is present inside this circle and that same numerical symbol will be depicted before the
continuation to make the user understand the continuation. Below is a simple example depicting
the use of On-Page Reference?
Benefits of flowchart:
A flowchart is used for problem-solving operations using some Pictorial representation.
It always has a starting and ending.
It improves the communication because it is easy to understand the process in a step by step
manner.
It also provide documentation of a process.
It provides an effective analysis by understanding the problem.
Flowchart makes the logic clear and helps in easy solving problems.
It provides an easy understanding and effective analysis of logic.
It is useful in coding and enable proper testing and debugging.
In flowchart, parallelogram is used for input and output.
In flow chart, processes are shown by rectangle.
Disadvantages of Flowchart
Flowcharts are challenging to draw for large and complex programs.
It does not contain the proper amount of details.
Flowcharts are very difficult to reproduce.
Flowcharts are very difficult to modify.
Flowcharts have several limitations, including:
Time-consuming: Flowcharts can be time-consuming to create, especially for complex
processes.
Complexity: Flowcharts can become difficult to understand and follow for complex
processes.
Limited detail: Flowcharts may not provide enough detail to fully understand a process.
Alterations: Redrawing a flowchart can be time-consuming and expensive if new steps are
discovered.
Reproduction: Flowcharts can't be typed, so they need to be drawn using software, which
can be time-consuming.
Oversimplification: Flowcharts can oversimplify a process and leave out key details.
Static representation: Flowcharts are typically static representations, making them less
suitable for real-time or dynamic processes.
Subjective design: The design of a flowchart can be subjective, leading to inconsistencies.
PseudoCode ( P-Code)
A Pseudocode is defined as a step-by-step description of an algorithm. Pseudocode does not use
any programming language in its representation instead it uses the simple English language text
as it is intended for human understanding rather than machine reading.
Pseudocode is the intermediate state between an idea and its implementation (code) in a high-
level language.
Algorithm Pseudocode
There are no rules to writing algorithms There are certain rules for writing pseudocode
This is a way of visually representing data, these are These are fake codes as the word pseudo means
nothing but the graphical representation of the fake, using code like structure but plain English
algorithm for a better understanding of the code text instead of programming language
The main goal of the Operating System is to make the computer environment more convenient to
use and the Secondary goal is to use the resources most efficiently.
Operating System is used as a communication channel between the Computer hardware and the
user. It works as an intermediate between System Hardware and End-User. Operating System
handles the following responsibilities:
Processor Management
In a multi-programming environment, the OS decides the order in which processes have access to
the processor, and how much processing time each process has. This function of OS is
called Process Scheduling. An Operating System performs the following activities for Processor
Management.
Device Management
An OS manages device communication via its respective drivers. It performs the following
activities for device management.
Keeps track of all devices connected to the system. Designates a program responsible for
every device known as the Input/Output controller.
Decide which process gets access to a certain device and for how long.
Allocates devices effectively and efficiently. Deallocates devices when they are no longer
required.
There are various input and output devices. An OS controls the working of these input-
output devices.
It receives the requests from these devices, performs a specific task, and communicates
back to the requesting process.
File Management
A file system is organized into directories for efficient or easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain other directories and other files. An Operating System carries out the
following file management activities. It keeps track of where information is stored, user access
settings, the status of every file, and more.
Security
The operating system uses password protection to protect user data and similar other techniques.
it also prevents unauthorized access to programs and user data. The operating system provides
various techniques which assure the integrity and confidentiality of user data. The following
security measures are used to protect user data:
76 | P a g e By-Mr. Swatantra Kumar (Ass. Prof. GGIMS)
Course Name:- Information Technology and Application
Course Code- BC103
Protection against unauthorized access through login.
Protection against intrusion by keeping the firewall active.
Protecting the system memory against malicious access.
Displaying messages related to system vulnerabilities.
Operating systems play a pivotal role in controlling and optimizing system performance. They act
as intermediaries between hardware and software, ensuring that computing resources are
efficiently utilized. One fundamental aspect is resource allocation, where the OS allocates CPU
time, memory, and I/O devices to different processes, striving to provide fair and optimal
resource utilization.
Job Accounting
The operating system Keeps track of time and resources used by various tasks and users, this
information can be used to track resource usage for a particular user or group of users. In a
multitasking OS where multiple programs run simultaneously.
Error-Detecting Aids
The operating system constantly monitors the system to detect errors and avoid malfunctioning
computer systems. From time to time, the operating system checks the system for any external
threat or malicious software activity.
Operating systems also coordinate and assign interpreters, compilers, assemblers, and other
software to the various users of the computer systems. the operating system as the traffic cop of
your computer. It directs and manages how different software programs can share your
computer’s resources without causing. It ensures that when you want to use a program, it runs
smoothly without crashing or causing problems for others.
The management of various peripheral devices such as the mouse, keyboard, and printer is carried
out by the operating system. Today most operating systems are plug-and-play. These operating
systems automatically recognize and configure the devices with no user interference.
Network Management
Network Communication: Think of them as traffic cops for your internet traffic. Operating
systems help computers talk to each other and the internet. They manage how data is
packaged and sent over the network, making sure it arrives safely and in the right order.
The Operating System provides certain services to the users which can be listed in the following
manner:
User Interface: Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI). This interface can
take several forms. One is a command-line interface (CLI), which uses text commands and
a method for entering them (a keyboard for typing in commands in a specific format with
specific options). Most commonly, a graphical user interface (GUI) is used. the interface is
a window system with a pointing device to direct I/O, choose from menus, and make
selections and a keyboard to enter text.
Program Execution: The Operating System is responsible for the execution of all types of
programs whether it be user programs or system programs. The Operating System utilizes
various resources available for the efficient running of all types of functionalities.
Handling Input/Output Operations: The Operating System is responsible for handling all
sorts of inputs, i.e., from the keyboard, mouse, desktop, etc. The Operating System does all
interfacing most appropriately regarding all kinds of Inputs and Outputs.
For example, there is a difference between all types of peripheral devices such as mice or
keyboards, the Operating System is responsible for handling data between them.
Manipulation of File System: The Operating System is responsible for making decisions
regarding the storage of all types of data or files, i.e., floppy disk/hard disk/pen drive, etc.
The Operating System decides how the data should be manipulated and stored.
Resource Allocation: The Operating System ensures the proper use of all the resources
available by deciding which resource to be used by whom for how much time. All the
decisions are taken by the Operating System.
Accounting: The Operating System tracks an account of all the functionalities taking place
in the computer system at a time. All the details such as the types of errors that occurred
are recorded by the Operating System.
Information and Resource Protection: The Operating System is responsible for using all the
information and resources available on the machine in the most protected way. The
Operating System must foil an attempt from any external resource to hamper any sort of
data or information.
System Services: The operating system provides various system services, such as printing,
time and date management, and event logging.
Error Detection: The operating system needs to be detecting and correcting errors
constantly. Errors may occur in the CPU and memory hardware ( for eg. a memory error
or a power failure), in I/O devices (such as a parity error on disk, a connection failure on a
network, or a lack of paper in the printer), and in the user program ( an arithmetic
overflow. All different kinds of Operating Systems more or less provide the same services.
Scheduling: Operating systems provide scheduling algorithms that determine the order in
which tasks are executed on the system. These algorithms prioritize tasks based on their
resource requirements and other factors to optimize system performance.
Backup and Recovery: Operating systems provide backup and recovery mechanisms to
protect data in the event of system failure or data loss.
Debugging: Operating systems provide debugging tools that allow developers to identify
and fix software bugs and other issues in the system.
Conclusion
In simple terms, the operating system performs essential functions like managing computer
hardware, running applications, handling file systems, and providing a user interface.
Working of MS-DOS
MS-DOS input and output occur at the command line in the form of issued commands and system
results of those commands. When booted, MS-DOS systems display a command prompt. MS-
DOS commands are then entered using a keyboard. Commands are either one of the standard
DOS commands, implemented as part of the OS, or they are the file name of an executable
program.
Limitations of MS DOS Operating System
It is not a multitasking operating system that is we cannot run too many applications in the
background.
Files on the system can be easily deleted or the system can also be easily destroyed.
It does not provide any warning message before you delete or perform any unwanted task
like in windows or Linux.
It is text-based and it does not have any graphical user interface.
Not secure to be used in any kind of public network.
Encryption is not supported.
Difficulty in memory access.
Mouse cannot be used to give inputs.
Types of MS-DOS Commands
There are mainly two types of MS-DOS commands:
1. Internal Commands
Internal commands are those commands that are loaded automatically in the memory when DOS
is loaded into memory during the booting process. These commands are easier to learn and use.
They require no external files for their storage as in the case of external commands. These are for
performing a basic operation on files and in directories. They do not need any external file
support. These commands are used for common jobs such as copying and erasing files.
2. External Commands
These external commands are for performing advanced tasks and they do not need some external
file support as they are not stored in COMMAND.com. The external commands are used less
frequently and are stored in some external files which are stored in some secondary storage
devices. Whenever an external command is to be executed then the external file in which that
particular command is stored is transferred from the secondary storage disk to the main
memory(RAM).
chkdsk Check the hard drive running FAT for errors. External
chkntfs Check the hard drive running NTFS for errors. External