Design of

Fluctuating
Load

POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

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Design of Fluctuating Load

Types of load

Static load
In this type of load the magnitude and direction of the load do not change with respect
to time and the load will be gradually applied.

Fatigue load
In this type of load, the magnitude or direction or both magnitude and direction changes,
and the load will be repeatedly applied. When a material is subjected to fatigue load, it
fails at stresses below the yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is
known as fatigue.

1. Fluctuating fatigue load - When only magnitude of the load changes

2. Completely reversed fatigue load - When only direction of the load changes

3. Alternating fatigue load - When both direction and magnitude of the load
changes

Stress Concentration

It is defined as the localization of high stresses due to the irregularities present in the
component or due to abrupt changes in the cross-section.

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Static stress concentration factor

For a plate with a circular hole:

Maximum nominal stress

Amin = Minimum cross-section = (W-d) x t

W = Width of the plate

d = Diameter of the hole

t = Thickness of the plate

Actual stress due to stress concentration near discontinuity (σact) = Kt × (σ0)max

For stepped circular shaft

d = Diameter of the smaller shaft

(σact) = Kt × (σ0)max

P = gradually applied load

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Points to Remember
 The effect of the theoretical stress concentration factor for ductile material can be
neglected because of local yielding but for brittle material stress concentration
factor Kt is a must since there is no yielding in brittle material.

 For a flat plate with an elliptical hole,

a = half of the dimension perpendicular to the direction of load

b = half of the dimension parallel to the direction of load

For circular hole (a = b), Kt = 3

Fatigue stress concentration factor

Kf = 1 + q(Kt – 1)

Theoretical stress = Kt × σ0

Actual stress = Kf × σ0

σ0 = Nominal stress

q= =

When a material has no sensitivity q = 0

When a material is fully sensitive q = 1

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Reduction in stress concentration

 Providing multiple notches and holes reduces the stress concentration when the
member is in tension.

 Providing fillet radius, undercutting and notches, reduces stress concentration when
the member is in bending

 Drilling additional holes in a shaft reduces stress concentration.

Endurance limit
Endurance limit (Se), also known as fatigue limit is the stress level below which a
specimen can withstand cyclic stress indefinitely without exhibiting fatigue failure.

Modified endurance limit

Se = Ka .Kb .Kc .Kd .S’e

S’e = Endurance limit of standard specimen

Se = Modified endurance limit = Endurance limit of actual machine component

Ka = Surface finish faction (Ka< 1)

Kb = Size factor (As size increases Kb decreases)

Kc = Reliability factor (As Reliability increases Kc decreases)

Kd = Modifying factor to consider the effect of stress concentration

If surface finish is poor, the surface irregularities will act as stress raisers and result
in stress concentration. The endurance limit is reduced due to the introduction of
stress concentration.

When the machine part is larger, greater is the probability that a flaw exists
somewhere in the component. The endurance limit reduces with the increasing size
of the component.

The greater the likelihood that a part will survive, the more is the reliability factor.

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Basic terminologies of fluctuating

stress
Range (R) = σmax - σmin

Amplitude

Mean stress

Stress ratio =

Amplitude ratio =

For completely reversed loading condition

σmin = - σmax

Range = 2 σmax

Amplitude = σmax

Mean stress = 0

S-N Curve
It is the graphical representation of stress amplitude (σa) versus the number of stress
cycles (N) on a log-log graph.

The S-N curve of steel becomes asymptotic at 106 cycles.

From S-N curve endurance limit can be defined as stress corresponding to 106 cycles

Endurance limit of non-ferrous materials is not definite. For these materials, the curve
is assumed to be asymptotic at 108 cycles.

B = No. of cycles

A = Fatigue strength of a component corresponding to a life cycle of B

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Sut = Ultimate strength

Se = Modified endurance limit

Different proposed criteria for

component’s safety

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Soderberg line,

Goodman line,

Gerber line,

Modified Goodman line,

Whichever gives the safest result from the above two, consider that one.

Where,

Sut = Ultimate strength

Se = Modified endurance limit

Syt = Yield strength

σa = Stress amplitude

σm = Mean stress

FOS = Factor of Safety

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Points to Remember
 Soderberg line is the most conservative line

 For a given factor of safety, the Soderberg line gives the higher diameter

 For a given diameter Soderberg line gives a low factor of safety

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