General Chemistry

Principles and Modern Applications

Petrucci, Harwood, Herring.

Assist. Prof. Tuğçe İNAN

[email protected]
Room:E2-A51
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY
Principles and Modern Applications
Petrucci, Harwood, Herring.

1 Midterm
1 Final

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• Main Purpose: To gain knowledge about the basic concepts and
principles of chemistry and the role it plays in our lives!

• What we’re going to learn?:

✓Properties and measurement of matter,
✓Atomic theory,
✓Elemental structure of atoms,
✓Elements and compounds,
✓Chemical reactions,
✓Periodic system,
✓Chemical bonds,
✓Gases, liquids, solids and intermolecular forces,
✓Solutions and physical properties
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Chapter 1: Matter: Its Properties and Measurement

1.1 Scientific method

1.2 Properties of Matter
1.3 Classification of Matter
1.4 States of Matter
1.5 SI Units
1.6 Density and Percent Composition:
Their Use in Problem Solving
1.7 Uncertainties in Scientific
Measurements
1.8 Significant Figures

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What is Chemistry ?
• Chemistry is the scientific discipline that studies the composition, structure, properties,
and reactions of matter.
• Chemistry focuses on the structure and properties of matter and its behavior, the
formation of one substance from another, observation of changes (energy, etc.) during
reactions and is a branch of science that examines and explains through experiments.
• It is often referred to as the central science because
➢ it connects and overlaps with various other scientific fields, such as physics, biology,
and environmental science.
• Basic Concepts in Chemistry
➢ Matters
➢ Atoms and Elements
➢ Molecules and Compounds
➢ Chemical Bounds

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 1.1 Scientific Method
• A method of procedure that has characterized natural science since
the 17th century, consisting in systematic
o observation,
o measurement,
o and experiment,
o and the formulation,
o testing, and
o modification of hypotheses.

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General Chemistry Fall 2024
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 Scenario: Investigating the solubility of a salt at different temperatures
1.Observation:
1. When dissolving salt in water, you notice that it dissolves more easily in hot water than in
cold water.
2.Hypothesis:
1. If the temperature of water increases, then the solubility of salt will increase.
3.Experiments designed to test hypothesis:
1. Design an experiment where you dissolve a fixed amount of salt (e.g., 10 grams) in water
at different temperatures (e.g., 20°C, 40°C, 60°C, 80°C).
2. Measure how much salt can dissolve at each temperature until the solution becomes
saturated.

4. Revise hypothesis (if necessary):

•If experiments show that solubility decreases or does not change as expected with
temperature, you revise the hypothesis.
•For example, "If the water temperature increases, the solubility of some salts might decrease."

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5. Theory or model:
•Once you gather enough consistent data that shows a clear relationship between temperature and
solubility, you can develop a theory/model explaining how temperature influences the solubility of
salts based on molecular interactions.
6. Experiments to test predictions of theory:
•After developing the theory, test its predictions by experimenting with other salts or solutes (e.g.,
sugar or potassium nitrate) to see if the same principles apply to different substances.
7. Modify theory (if necessary):
•If new experiments challenge the theory (e.g., some salts may behave differently under different
conditions), modify the theory to better explain these observations.
8. Theory established:
•If the theory consistently explains observations across various salts and solubility scenarios, it may
become widely accepted in the scientific community—unless future experiments reveal new
evidence that challenges it.

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1.2 Properties of Matter
Matter: is anything that occupies space, has a mass.

Composition: refers to the components of a substance and their relative

proportions in the substance.
Water is a combination of two simple substances, H and O, in a fixed
ratio. According to the chemist, the composition of water is 11.9% H
and 88.81% O by mass.

Properties: are the qualities that distinguish one sample of matter from
other samples of matter. Properties of matter can generally be
categorized into two groups: physical properties and chemical
properties.

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 1.2 Properties of Matter :Physical Properties
• A physical property is a characteristic of a substance that can be
observed or measured without changing the identity of the
substance.
• Does not change the composition of a substance.
• Physical properties include color, hardness, malleability, solubility,
electrical conductivity, density, melting point, and boiling point.

Sometimes a sample of a substance undergoes physical change its appearance. In physical change,
some of the substance its physical properties change, but its composition remains unchanged. For
example, when liquid water freezes to form solid water (ice), different but its composition is still 11.9% H
and 88.81% O by mass.

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1.2 Properties of Matter :Chemical Properties
• It is the change in the composition of a substance. It is the ability or
inability of a substance to produce a change in its composition
under certain conditions.
• In a chemical change or chemical reaction, one or more substances
are transformed into new samples of matter in various different
compositions.
✓ The ability of Zn to react with HCl solution is a distinctive
chemical property of zinc.
✓ Gold's inability to react with HCl is a chemical
characteristic of gold.

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1.2 Properties of Matter : Examples

•Burning of paper and log of wood

•Digestion of food
•Boiling an egg
•Chemical battery usage
•Electroplating a metal •Crumpling a sheet of aluminum foil
•Baking a cake •Melting an ice cube
•Milk going sour •Casting silver in a mold
•Various metabolic reactions that take place in the cells •Breaking a bottle
•Rotting of fruits •Boiling water
•Decomposition of waste •Evaporating alcohol
•The explosion of fireworks •Shredding paper
•The reaction between salts and acids. •Sublimation of dry ice into carbon dioxide vapor
•Rusting of iron
•Lighting a matchstick
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1.3 Classification of Matter
• Matter is made up of very small units called atoms.
• Substances composed of a single type of atom are called elements.
• The complete list of elements and a special table showing information
about the chemistry of elements is known as the Periodic Table.
➢The first 94 elements occur naturally. The remaining 24 elements (95–118)
occur only when synthesized in laboratories.
• Compounds are comprised of two or more elements.
• Molecules are the smallest units of compounds.
The composition and properties of an element or compound are the same
throughout a given sample and do not change from one sample to another.

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1.3 Classification of Matter
• Elements and compounds are called pure substances.
• Mixture is a combination of different things in which the component
elements are individually distinct.
• When describing mixtures of pure substances, the terms
homogeneous mixtures or solutions are used.
• Homogeneous mixtures are mixtures or solutions of which composition and
properties are the same throughout a given sample.
• Heterogeneous mixture is a mixture in which the composition is not uniform
throughout the mixture.

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A classification scheme for matter

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Gas in Gas Homogeneous Air, atmosphere, etc
Liquid in Gas Heterogeneous Fog, mist, etc
Solid in Gas Heterogeneous Dust particles in air, etc
Gas in Liquid Heterogeneous Carbonated beverages, etc
Liquid in Liquid Homogeneous Alcohol in water, etc
Solid in Liquid Heterogeneous Mud in water, Medicinal syrups etc
Gas in Solid Heterogeneous Gases adsorbed on metal surfaces, etc
Liquid in Solid Heterogeneous Amalgams, etc
Solid in Solid Homogeneous Alloys, etc Fall 2024
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 Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Homogeneous mixture has throughout uniform Heterogeneous mixture has non-uniform solution
solution composition composition
Separation in individual liquids cannot be seen by Separation in individual liquids can be seen through
naked eye the naked eye
Atoms or molecules are evenly distributed throughout
Atoms or molecules are non-uniform in the solution
the solution
Homogeneous mixtures have single phases Heterogeneous solutions contain two or more phases
This mixture is not physically separable It is an easily separable mixture
Smaller particles constitute the mixture Larger particles constitute the mixture
Individual components have same physical properties Individual components have different physical
properties
They are more stable They are less stable
They have more solvation capacity They have less solvation capacity
Solution is an example of a homogeneous mixture Suspension is an example of a heterogeneous
mixture
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 Filtration Distillation
Chromatography is a
method of separation
based on how
different molecules
adhere to different
solid surfaces,
including paper and
starch.
Chromatography

Separating Mixtures: a physical process A chemical change:

decomposition of ammonium
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 1.4 States of Matter

Solid: Atoms or molecules are very close to each other. They exist in a very regular structure
known as a crystal.
Liquid: Atoms or molecules are farther apart than in a solid. The mobility of these atoms or
molecules gives the liquid its most important distinguishing feature: its ability to flow. They
cover the bottom of the container and take the shape of the container.
Gas: The distance between atoms or molecules is much larger than that of a liquid expands to
fill the container it is in.
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 1.4 States of Matter
• Depending on the circumstances, a substance may appear in one
state or in two or three states.
Triple point: In thermodynamics, the triple point of a
substance is the temperature and pressure at which the
three phases (gas, liquid, and solid) of that substance
coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium.

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 1.5 The Measurement of Matter

• Chemistry is a quantitative science. We express chemical

measurements as the product of a number and a unit.
• The scientific system of measurement is known as the international
system of units (sytéme internationale d'unités), abbreviated (SI). It is
the modern form of the metric system, based on the unit of length
known as the meter (m).

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 1 Mole = 6.022×1023 Avagadro
number

Derived Units Common units

Length Angstrom, Å, 10-8 cm
Force Newton, kg.m/s2 Volume Liter, L, 1dm3 , 10-3 m3
Pressure Pascal, kg/m.s2 Energy 1calori, 1 cal , 4,18 J
Energy Joule, kg.m2/s2 Pressure 1Atm = 1.064 x 102 kPa,
1 Atm = 760 mm Hg

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 1.5 The Measurement of Matter
Mass
refers to the amount (quantity) of matter in a body.
The mass standard in SI is 1 kilogram, 1 kg.

Weight
is the force of gravity on an object.

W=gm W α m
It is directly proportional to mass.

The mass (m) of an object is constant regardless of where and how it is

measured. The weight, W, can change. Because it depends on gravity.

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 Mars

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 1.5 The Measurement of Matter
Volume
the amount of space that a
substance or object occupies

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 1.5 The Measurement of Matter
Temperature
In the Celsius scale: the melting point of ice
is 0°C, the boiling point of water is 100°C.
These are divided into 100 equal intervals
known as degrees celcius.

On the Fahrenheit scale: the melting point

of ice is 32°F, and the boiling point of water
is 212°F. These are divided into 180 equal
intervals known as degrees Fahrenheit.

The SI temperature threshold is the Kelvin

threshold. The lowest temperature
considered is 0. This zero (0K) represents -
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 1.6 Density and Percent Composition: Their Use in
Problem Solving
Density is the ratio of mass to volume.
d (density)= mass (m)/ volume (V)
g/mL or g/cm3
• Mass and volume are extensity properties. The extensity property depends
on the amount of matter observed.
• Density is a property of intensity. The intensity property is independent of
the amount of substance observed.
Accordingly, whether water is found in a swimming pool or in a glass, the density
of pure water at 25°C is at a certain value.
But;
Density is a function of temperature! density of water at 4 ºC = 1000 g/1000 mL,
1.000 g/mL. 20 ºC= 0.9982 g/mL

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1.6 Density and Percent Composition: Their Use in
Problem Solving
Density in Conversion Pathways
What is the mass of a cube of osmium that is 1.25 inches on each
side?

Have volume, need density = 22.48 g/cm3

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1.6 Density and Percent Composition: Their Use in
Problem Solving

Composition is generally expressed in percentage,

For example:

3.5% g sodium by mass of a seawater sample that every 100 grams of

seawater contains sodium chloride. That's 3.5g of sodium chloride.

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Example
• Seawater containing 3.5% salt by mass is evaporated to dryness to
produce 79 g of table salt. How many liters of sea water should be
taken for this purpose. (Sea water density 1.03 g/ml)

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1.6 Density and Percent Composition: Their Use in
Problem Solving

You’ve found a piece of zinc metal. The density of zinc is 7.1 g/mL. You
measured the mass to be 275.7 grams. How much zinc (in dm3 ) did you
find?

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Measuring Volume of an Irregular Object

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1. What is the mass of a cube of platinum that is 4.0 inches on each side?
Given:
• Side length of cube = 4.0 inches
• Density of platinum = 21.45 g/cm³

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3. Calculate the volume in liters of a rectangular tank that is 4.5 feet long, 3 feet wide,
and 2 feet deep.

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5. What is the mass of a gold bar in kg that has dimensions of 10 inches by 5 inches by
2 inches, if the density of gold is 19.32 g/cm³?
Given:
• Dimensions: 10 inches × 5 inches × 2 inches
• Density of gold = 19.32 g/cm³

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We want to mark off a thermometer in both Celsius and Fahrenheit temperatures. On the
Celsius scale, the lowest temperature mark is at and the highest temperature mark is at 50
°C. What are the equivalent Fahrenheit temperatures?

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A family/consumer science class is given an assignment in candle-making that
requires the wax to be heated to a temperature between 160 - 180 °F. A student
borrows a thermometer from the chemistry laboratory that has a range from -10 to
110 °C to do this assignment. Will this thermometer serve the purpose? Explain.

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 1.7 Uncertainties in Scientific Measurements
All measurements are subject to error.

Systematic errors: Built-in / inherent errors

• have a definite value and an assignable cause, and are of the same magnitude for
replicate measurements made in the same way.
• Systematic errors lead to bias in measurement results. Bias can be negative or
positive in sign. e.g. thermometer constantly measures 2° C low.
• must be avoided by carefully calibrating a method against a known sample or result

Random errors: results either too high or too low

• are observed by scatter in the data and can be dealt with effectively by taking the
average of many measurements
• Limitations in experimenters ability to read a scale.

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1.7 Uncertainties in Scientific Measurements
• How is Uncertainty Expressed?
• Uncertainty is typically expressed like this:

• For example, 5.0 cm ± 0.1 cm means that the true value is estimated to lie
between 4.9 cm and 5.1 cm.
• Methods to Reduce Uncertainty:
• Use more precise instruments: Precise instruments can reduce uncertainty.
• Take multiple measurements: Repeating the same measurement and
calculating the average value can reduce uncertainty.
• Proper calibration: Ensuring measurement instruments are correctly calibrated
minimizes systematic errors.

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1.7 Uncertainties in Scientific Measurements
Accuracy: is the closeness of a measured value Xi to the true
or accepted value Xt .

Precision: Reproducibility of a measurement.

Reproducibility ∼ 0.1 g ∼ 0.0001 g

Precision low General Chemistry Fall 2024 high 42
1.7 Uncertainties in Scientific Measurements

We can have very precise results

(upper right) with a mean that is
not accurate and an accurate
mean (lower left) with data points
that are imprecise.

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Measuring the Temperature of a Liquid
Suppose the actual (true) temperature of a liquid is 100°C. You perform multiple measurements using a
thermometer, but the thermometer may have some errors or variability.

Case 1: Measurements: 100.1°C, 100.0°C, 99.9°C, 100.2°C, 100.0°C

Case 2: Measurements: 80°C, 110°C, 95°C, 105°C, 90°C

Case 3: Measurements: 95°C, 105°C, 98°C, 102°C, 100°C

Case 4: Measurements: 90.2°C, 90.1°C, 90.0°C, 90.3°C, 90.1°C

4
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 1.8 Significant Figures

• All nonzero digits are significant.

• Zeros are also significant, but with
two important exceptions for
quantities less than one. Any zeros;
➢ preceding the decimal point, or
➢ following the decimal point and
preceding the first nonzero digit,
are not significant!

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1.8 Significant Figures
The case of terminal zeros that precede the decimal point in
quantities greater than one is ambiguous.
The quantity 7500 m is an example of an ambiguous case

Example

Number # of Significant figures

6.29 g 3
0.00348 g 3
9.0 2
1.0x10-8 2

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1.8 Significant Figures

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 1.8 Significant Figures
Addition and Subtraction
The quantity carrying the fewest number of digits beyond the decimal point must be represented with the same
number of digits as the result of addition or subtraction.

1.14
0.6
+ .11.676
13.416 13,4
Multiplication and Division
Only the least precisely known quantity in the calculation may be present in the multiplication or division result in
terms of significant figures.

0,01208 / 0,236 = 0,0512

14.79 cm x 12.11 cm x 5.05 cm = 904 cm3
(4 sig. fig.) (4 sig. fig.) (3 sig. fig.) (3 sig. fig.) = 5.12 x 10 -2

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 Rounding Rules
• If the digit following the last digit to be retained is less than 5, the last digit is left
as it is and the following digits are discarded.
The number 3.6247 with 3 significant figures is 3.62.
• If the digit following the last digit to be retained is 5 or greater than 5, the last
digit is increased by 1 and the following digits are discarded.
Writing the number 7.5647 with 4 significant figures 7.565 and 6.2501
with 2 significant figures is 6.3.

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• If the number after the last digit to be retained is 5 followed by zeros, if the
last digit is an odd number, increase by 1 and subtract 5; if the last digit is
even, leave it as it is and subtract 5.
The number 3.250 with 2 significant figures is 3.2;
the numbers 7.635 and 8.105 with 3 significant figures are 7.64 and 8.10.
In such cases, the rounded number is always even. Zero is also considered
an even number.

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