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 Summary

CHAPTER 2 Spatial Representations of Weather Data

2.1 The Station Model

2.2 Surface Maps

2.2.1 Isotherms and Temperature Maps
2.2.2 Temperature Fronts
2.2.3 Isobars and Pressure Maps
2.2.4 Highs, Lows, Ridges, and Troughs

2.3 Upper-Level Maps

2.4 Radar

2.5 Satellites
2.5.1 Visible Satellite Images
2.5.2 Infrared Satellite Images
2.5.3 Water Vapor Images
2.5.4 Geostationary Satellites
2.5.5 Polar-Orbiting Satellites
Summary

Appendix 2.1 Important Satellite Cloud Signatures

Appendix 2.2 Contiguous USA Reference Map

CHAPTER 3 Our Atmosphere: Origin, Composition, and Structure

3.1 Aspect

3.2 Composition

8
3.3 Origin and Evolution

3.4 Future Evolution

3.5 Vertical Structure

Summary

Appendix 3.1 Dynamic Equilibrium

CHAPTER 4 Heat and Energy Transfer

4.1 Conduction

4.2 Convection

4.3 Radiation
4.3.1 The Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
4.3.2 Temperature and Radiation

4.4 Radiative Interactions

4.4.1 Absorption
4.4.2 Reflection
4.4.3 Scattering
4.4.4 Radiative Equilibrium
4.4.5 Selective Absorbers
4.4.6 A Window to the Sky
4.4.7 The Greenhouse Effect

4.5 Radiation and Weather

4.5.1 Heat Imbalance
4.5.2 Seasonal Variations
4.5.3 Diurnal Variations

9
 4.5.4 The Influence of Clouds
4.5.5 Land–Ocean Contrasts
Summary

CHAPTER 5 Water

5.1 The Water Cycle

5.2 Saturation

5.3 Humidity

5.4 Relative Humidity

5.5 Humidity and Temperature

5.5.1 Relative vs. Absolute Humidity
5.5.2 Condensation

5.6 Dew Point Temperature

5.7 Applications of the Dew point Temperature

5.7.1 Surface Weather Maps
5.7.2 Meteograms
5.7.3 Radiosonde Profiles
5.7.4 Back to Relative Humidity
5.7.5 How to Saturate
Summary

CHAPTER 6 Cloud Formation

6.1 Adiabatic Processes

6.2 Adiabatic Processes in the Atmosphere

10
6.3 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate

6.4 Relative Humidity

6.5 Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate

6.6 Orographic Lifting

6.7 Lifting by Convergence

6.8 Frontal Lifting

6.9 Convection
6.9.1 Stable Air
6.9.2 Unstable Air and Thermals
6.9.3 Stable vs. Unstable
6.9.4 Fair-Weather Cumulus Clouds
6.9.5 Conditional Instability and Cumulonimbus
Summary

Appendix 6.1 A Cloud Family Album

CHAPTER 7 Precipitation

7.1 Warm vs. Cold Clouds

7.2 Collision and Coalescence

7.3 Ice-Crystal Growth

7.4 Precipitation Types

Summary

Appendix 7.1 Some Optical Phenomena

11
CHAPTER 8 Wind

8.1 Force and Acceleration

8.2 Pressure Gradient Force

8.3 Sea Breeze and Land Breeze

8.4 Coriolis Force

8.5 Geostrophic Wind

8.6 Gradient Wind

8.7 Surface Winds

8.8 Friction

8.9 Topography
8.9.1 Mountain Breeze and Valley Breeze
8.9.2 Katabatic Winds
Summary

CHAPTER 9 Global Wind Systems

9.1 The Averaged Atmosphere

9.1.1 Surface Temperature
9.1.2 Upper-Level Heights
9.1.3 Surface Pressure
9.1.4 Precipitation

9.2 The Single-Cell Model

9.3 The Three-Cell Model

12
9.4 Some Large-Scale Circulations
9.4.1 West Coast vs. East Coast
9.4.2 Antarctica
9.4.3 The Sahel
9.4.4 The Indian Monsoon
9.4.5 El Niño
Summary

CHAPTER 10 Air Masses, Fronts, and Midlatitude Cyclones

10.1 Air Masses

10.2 Fronts
10.2.1 Stationary Fronts
10.2.2 Cold Fronts
10.2.3 Warm Fronts
10.2.4 Occluded Fronts
10.2.5 Large-Scale Influences on Cyclone Structure, and the
T-bone Model

10.3 Midlatitude Cyclone Development

10.3.1 The Life Cycle of a Midlatitude Cyclone
10.3.2 Vertical Structure of Cyclones
10.3.3 The February 2014 Cyclone
10.3.4 Where do Cyclones Form?
Summary

Appendix 10.1 Southern Hemisphere Midlatitude Cyclones

Appendix 10.2 The Bergen School of Meteorology

CHAPTER 11 Thunderstorms and Tornadoes

13
11.1 Ordinary Thunderstorm

11.2 Severe Thunderstorm

11.3 Lightning and Thunder

11.4 Supercells

11.5 Tornadoes
11.5.1 Description
11.5.2 Tornado Development
11.5.3 Tornado Alley
Summary

CHAPTER 12 Tropical Cyclones

12.1 Facts and Figures

12.2 Tropical Cyclone Structure

12.3 Tropical Cyclone Development

12.3.1 Tropical Easterly Wave
12.3.2 Tropical Depression
12.3.3 Tropical Storm
12.3.4 Tropical Cyclone (Hurricane)
12.3.5 Tropical Cyclone Decay

12.4 Conditions for Tropical Cyclone Development

Summary

CHAPTER 13 Weather Forecasting

13.1 Weather Forecasts and Uncertainty

14
13.2 Prognostic Equations

13.3 Ensemble Forecasting

13.4 Chaos and Weather Prediction

13.5 From Forecast Grids to Reliable Forecast Values

13.6 Making a Forecast

13.6.1 Medium to Long-Range Forecasting
13.6.2 Seasonal Outlook
Summary

CHAPTER 14 Air Pollution

14.1 Pollutants
14.1.1 Gases and Compounds
14.1.2 Particulates
14.1.3 Photochemical Smog

14.2 Wind and Stability

14.3 Large-Scale Patterns

14.4 Topography
Summary

CHAPTER 15 Climate Change and Weather

15.1 Past and Future

15.2 Changing Composition

15.3 A Warmer World

15
15.4 An Altered Water Cycle

15.5 Changing Global Wind Systems

15.6 Midlatitude and Tropical Cyclones in a Warmer World

15.7 Beyond Weather

15.8 The Forecast

Summary

Glossary

References

Credits

Index

16
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Preface
Having taught introductory classes on weather many times, we came to see
the need for a textbook on the subject that covers the foundations of
meteorology in a concise, clear, and engaging manner. We set out to create
an informative, cost-effective text that meets the needs of students who
may not have any background in mathematics and science. The result –
Weather: A Concise Introduction – is an introductory meteorology
textbook designed from scratch to provide students with a strong
foundation in the physical, dynamical, and chemical processes taking place
in the atmosphere.
This textbook is unique in that it:

► provides a concise and practical approach to understanding the

atmosphere;
► introduces the basic physical laws early on and then ties them
together with a single case study spanning the book;
► presents weather analysis tools early in the book to allow
instructors to engage in discussions of current weather in tandem
with the basic concepts, thus attracting and retaining student
interest; and
► facilitates students’ learning and understanding of the fundamental
aspects of weather analysis and forecasting, as well as practical
skills, through a careful description of the forecasting process.
Modern methods, such as ensemble forecasting, are central to the
approach.

Features

17
 Case Study: February 2014 Cyclone
The main concepts of the book are illustrated in Chapters 2–13 by a single
case study: a midlatitude cyclone that swept through the eastern half of the
USA between February 19 and 22, 2014. This rich case study serves as a
common thread throughout the book, allowing students to study it from
multiple perspectives. Viewing the storm in the context of different topics
provides a familiar setting for mastering new subjects and for developing
an holistic understanding of midlatitude cyclones.

Boxes on More Advanced Topics

Instructors have the option of including more advanced coverage through
use of boxes that provide insights on various topics. For example, in
Chapter 1, Weather Variables, boxes include an in-depth description of the
four laws of physics that are central to the study of the atmosphere. The
book contains 25 boxes, affording instructors the opportunity to tailor the
level of the material that they present to students in their course.

Appendixes for Additional Coverage

Appendixes at the ends of Chapters 2, 3, 6, 7, and 10 include additional
material on important cloud signatures found in satellite imagery, the
concept of dynamic equilibrium, the cloud classification, some optical
phenomena, southern hemisphere midlatitude cyclones, and the Bergen
School of meteorology.

Summary
18
A summary of key points has been included at the end of each chapter so
that students can, at a glance, confirm that they have understood the
significant take-away facts and ideas.

Figures, Charts, and Maps

Figures have been designed to convey the key concepts in a simple and
self-explanatory way, keeping in mind that clean representations of
information are more helpful to students than complex drawings. Graphs
and maps have been created with real data as much as possible, obtained
from NOAA, NASA, ECMWF, and similar research-quality sources
referenced in the text.

Key Terms and Glossary

The main text contains terms (in bold) that students need to understand and
become familiar with. Many of these terms are listed in the Glossary at the
back of the book. The Glossary allows the reader to look up terms easily
whenever needed and can also be used to review important topics and key
facts.

SI Units
We have consistently used SI units throughout the book, while providing
alternative units whenever possible or relevant.

Organization

19
The first two chapters provide a general overview of key variables and
weather maps used by meteorologists, which facilitates daily weather map
discussions early in the course. We have found that motivating lecture
topics with real-time examples using weather map discussions is a very
effective way to engage students in the lecture material, and it allows
instructors to introduce aspects of weather forecasting at their discretion
well in advance of discussing the material more completely in Chapter 13.
As a result, students are more invested in adding to their knowledge, which
builds systematically toward understanding and predicting weather
systems.
Chapters 3–8 provide foundational material on the composition and
structure of the atmosphere, along with the application of the laws of
classical physics to emphasize and explain the role of energy, water, and
wind in weather systems.
Chapters 9–12 apply the foundational material to understanding the
general circulation of the atmosphere (Chapter 9), midlatitude cyclones
and fronts (Chapter 10), thunderstorms (Chapter 11), and tropical cyclones
(Chapter 12).
Chapters 13–15 build further on the first twelve chapters by applying
the concepts developed to explain processes that affect how weather
forecasts are made (Chapter 13), air pollution (Chapter 14), and climate
change (Chapter 15).

Instructor Resources
A companion website at www.cambridge.org/weather contains PowerPoint
slides of the figures in the text as well as a testbank of questions.

20
 Acknowledgments
We thank: NOAA, NASA, and ECMWF for providing access to data and
images; Reto Knutti, Jan Sedlacek, and Urs Beyerle for providing access
to IPCC data; Rick Kohrs from the University of Wisconsin-Madison for
providing global composite satellite imagery; and Paul Sirvatka from the
College of DuPage for providing radar imagery.
We also thank Ángel Adames, Becky Alexander, Ileana Blade, Peter
Blossey, Michael Diamond, Ralph Foster, Dargan Frierson, Qiang Fu,
Dennis Hartmann, Lynn McMurdie, Paul Markowski, Cliff Mass, Max
Menchaca, Yumin Moon, Scott Powell, Virginia Rux, David Schultz,
Justin Sharp, Brian Smoliak, Mike Warner, Steve Warren, Rachel White,
Darren Wilton, Matt Wyant, and Qi Zhong, as well as 13 anonymous
reviewers, for their help in the preparation of this book.
This project would not have come to life without the support, help,
influence, and constructive criticism from many fellow professors,
teaching assistants, and students. We cannot acknowledge them all here by
name, but we thank them nevertheless for the important role they have
played in shaping the development of this book.

21
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 XIX
ACROSS THE AGES

N IGHT falls. The stars shine brightly through the clear Judean air.
We walk very slowly down the winding road, and often stop to
look back to the hilltop where the thick-clustered houses of the little
town stand so clear and white against the blue-black sky. Yonder lies
Bethlehem, bathed in soft, silvery starlight which cleanses it from
every trace of violence and bigotry and crime, and paints only
pleasant memories of love and valor and hope.
There the lonely heart of the Moabitess found its haven. There the
sweet singer of Israel set to melodious measures the story of the
fields and the mountains and the divine Shepherd’s care. There a
wondrous Child was born, for whose sake wise men and tender
women left home and friends across the sea, that they might dwell
near the hallowed, humble spot of His Nativity. Within the vague,
dark shadow of that ancient church, the noblest-born of earth have
gathered to do homage to the Lord of lords and King of kings. And
across the stillness of the night there seem to echo again the sturdy
shouts of dauntless warriors who made the mountains ring with their
triumphant cry of faith, “God wills it! God wills it!”
Yes, God has willed it all, even in the hardest, darkest hour of
Bethlehem’s long history. Before our lingering steps lie the noisy
bazaars of Jerusalem and the busy, practical, modern world to which
we must so soon return. But we have been to Bethlehem; and
across all the troublous ages, bursting from every shining star, and
drowning with its sweet music the perplexities of our own weary
lives, there rings the glad refrain of the Angel’s Song—

GLORY TO GOD IN THE HIGHEST, AND ON

EARTH PEACE, GOOD WILL TOWARD
MEN.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHRISTMAS
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