2016

READ ANALYSE AND RESPOND TO A VARIETY OF TEXTS

UNIT STANDARD ID: 8975
NQF LEVEL: 4
CREDITS: 5
NOTIONAL HOURS: 50

LEARNER GUIDE

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Table of Contents
HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE ................................................................................................................ 3
ICONS ................................................................................................................................................. 3
PURPOSE ........................................................................................................................................... 4
LEARNING ASSUMPTIONS ............................................................................................................... 4
HOW YOU WILL LEARN ..................................................................................................................... 4
HOW YOU WILL BE ASSESSED ........................................................................................................ 4
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT .............................................................................................................. 5
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT .............................................................................................................. 5
SECTION 1: CRITICALLY ANALYSING INFORMATION IN TEXTS ............................................ 7
1.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 8
1.2 ORGANISATIONAL FEATURES OF TEXTS ............................................................................... 15
1.3 SYNTHESIS OF INFORMATION FROM TEXTS ......................................................................... 22
SECTION 2: VALUES, ATTITUDES AND ASSUMPTIONS IN TEXTS ........................................ 25
2.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 26
2.2 VALUES, ATTITUDES AND ASSUMPTIONS IN TEXTS ............................................................. 26
2.3 UNDERSTANDING OF SURFACE AND EMBEDDED MEANING IN TEXT ................................ 31
2.4 EVIDENCE CITED FROM TEXTS ............................................................................................... 36
SECTION 3: UNDERSTANDING CONTENT, LANGUAGE, AND STYLE .................................. 40
3. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 41
3.1 THE EFFECTS OF CONTENT ON DIFFERENT READERS/VIEWERS ...................................... 41
3.2 THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENT WRITING TECHNIQUES ON READER PERSPECTIVES .......... 44
3.3 THE INFLUENCE OF SPECIFIC LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND FEATURES ....................... 50
3.4 THE EFFECT OF PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES IN VISUALS ................................................... 59

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HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE

This workbook belongs to you. It is designed to serve as a guide for the duration of your training
programme and as a resource for after the time. It contains readings, activities, and application aids
that will assist you in developing the knowledge and skills stipulated in the specific outcomes and
assessment criteria. Follow along in the guide as the facilitator takes you through the material, and feel
free to make notes and diagrams that will help you to clarify or retain information. Jot down things that
work well or ideas that come from the group. Also, note any points you would like to explore further.
Participate actively in the skill practice activities, as they will give you an opportunity to gain insights from
other people’s experiences and to practice the skills. Do not forget to share your own experiences so
that others can learn from you too.

ICONS

For ease of reference, an icon will indicate different activities. The following icons indicate different
activities in the manual.

Outcomes Individual activity

Assessment Criteria Note!

Practical activity Reflection

Notes (Blank) Group Discussion

Definition Summaries

Additional Reading Example

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PROGRAMME OVERVIEW

PURPOSE

Competence at this level will enable learners to use analytical skills to make sophisticated judgements
about complex human and social issues. They are aware of both the functions of language and of its
drama and power. Learners are critical, reflective and responsive readers and/or viewers of
written/signed and visual texts. They are able to draw comparisons between texts, and to compare and
contrast themes and issues in texts with those in the contexts in which they live and work. They identify
and analyse style and tone/sign size and pace and account for their effectiveness in different texts. They
are willing to challenge the assumptions and values expressed in texts. They are especially critical
readers/viewers of both the written/signed and/or visual mass media. They can access, process and use
information from a wide variety of texts.

At the end of this training session you will be able to:

 Critically analyse texts produced for a range of purposes, audiences and contexts
 Identify and explain the values, attitudes and assumptions in texts
 Evaluate the effects of content, language and style on readers'/viewers' responses in specific
texts.

LEARNING ASSUMPTIONS

The credit calculation is based on the assumption that learners are already competent in terms of the
following outcomes or areas of learning when starting to learn towards this unit standard: NQF Level 3
unit standard entitled Interpret and use information from texts.

HOW YOU WILL LEARN

The programme methodology includes facilitator presentations, readings, individual activities, group
discussions, and skill application exercises.

HOW YOU WILL BE ASSESSED

This programme has been aligned to registered unit standards. You will be assessed against the
outcomes of the unit standards by completing a knowledge assignment that covers the essential
embedded knowledge stipulated in the unit standards. When you are assessed as competent against

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the unit standards, you will receive a certificate of competence and be awarded 5 credits towards a
National Qualification.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

In each Learner Guide, several activities are spaced within the content to assist you in understanding the
material through application. Activities in the learner manual are not for assessments. Formative
assessments are in a separate module written formative assessment. Please make sure that you
complete ALL activities in the Formative Assessment Guide, Formative activities must be completed at
the end of each section.

SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT

You will be required to complete a Portfolio of Evidence for summative assessment purposes. A portfolio
is a collection of different types of evidence relating to the work being assessed. It can include a variety
of work samples.

The Portfolio Guide will assist you in identifying the portfolio and evidence requirements for final
assessment purposes. You will be required to complete Portfolio activities on your own time, using real
life projects in your workplace environment in preparing evidence towards your portfolio.

Being Declared Competent Entails:

Competence is the ability to perform whole work roles, to the standards expected in employment, in a
real working environment.
There are three levels of competence:
 Foundational competence: an understanding of what you do and why.
 Practical competence: the ability to perform a set of tasks in an authentic context.
 Reflexive competence: the ability to adapt to changed circumstances appropriately and
responsibly, and to explain the reason behind the action.
To receive a certificate of competence and be awarded credits, you are required to provide evidence of
your competence by compiling a portfolio of evidence, which will be assessed by a Services SETA
accredited assessor.
You Have to Submit a Portfolio of Evidence

A portfolio of evidence is a structured collection of evidence that reflects your efforts, progress and
achievement in a specific learning area, and demonstrates your competence.
The Assessment of Your Competence

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Assessment of competence is a process of making judgments about an individual's competence through
matching evidence collected to the appropriate national standards. The evidence in your portfolio should
closely reflect the outcomes and assessment criteria of the unit standards of the learning programme for
which you are being assessed.
To determine a candidate’s knowledge and ability to apply the skills before and during the learning
programme, formative assessments are done to determine the learner’s progress towards full
competence. This normally guides the learner towards a successful summative (final) assessment to
which both the assessor and the candidate only agree when they both feel the candidate is ready.
Should it happen that a candidate is deemed not yet competent upon a summative assessment, that
candidate will be allowed to be re-assessed. The candidate can, however, only be allowed two
reassessments.
When learners have to undergo re-assessment, the following conditions will apply:
Specific feedback will be given so that candidates can concentrate on only those areas in which they
were assessed as not yet competent.
Re-assessment will take place in the same situation or context and under the same conditions as the
original assessment.
Only the specific outcomes that were not achieved will be re-assessed.
Candidates who are repeatedly unsuccessful will be given guidance on other possible and more suitable
learning avenues.
In order for your assessor to assess your competence, your portfolio should provide evidence of both
your knowledge and skills, and of how you applied your knowledge and skills in a variety of contexts.
This Candidate’s Assessment Portfolio directs you in the activities that need to be completed so that
your competence can be assessed and so that you can be awarded the credits attached to the
programme.

NOTE YOUR POE GUIDE HAS MORE INFORMATION ON THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS

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SECTION 1: CRITICALLY ANALYSING
INFORMATION IN TEXTS

Specific Outcome
On completion of this section you will be able to critically analyse
texts produced for a range of purposes, audiences and contexts.

Assessment Criteria
 Reading and/or viewing strategies appropriate to the purposes
for reading/viewing are adopted. . (SO 1, AC 1)

 Organisational features of texts are identified. The role of each

of the features is explained in relation to usefulness in making
meaning of readings and/or viewing. (SO 1, AC 2)

 Synthesis of information from texts, and generalisation of

patterns and trends, result in appropriate conclusions about
purpose, audience and context. (SO 1, AC 3)

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1.1 INTRODUCTION

The purpose for critical analysis is to evaluate somebody's work (a book, an essay, a movie, or a
painting) in order to increase the reader's understanding of it. Texts are produced for a range of
purposes, audiences and contexts. Therefore, a critical analysis of texts explains what a work of
literature means, and how it means it; it is essentially an articulation of and a defense of an interpretation
which shows how the resources of literature are used to create the meaningfulness of the text. A critical
analysis is subjective writing because it expresses the writer's opinion or evaluation of a text. Analysis
means to break down and study the parts: it requires separating the content and concepts of a text into
their main components and then understanding how these interrelate, connect and possibly influence
each other. However, to be critical does not mean to criticise in a negative manner. Rather it requires
you to question the information and opinions in a text and present your evaluation or judgement of the
text. To do this well, you should attempt to understand the topic from different perspectives (i.e. read
related texts) and in relation to the theories, approaches and frameworks of texts for a range of
purposes, audiences and contexts.

1.1.1 Definition of key terms

I. Critical analysis: is a central process in all academic work. It involves thinking critically, which is
applying rational and logical thinking while deconstructing the texts you read (and write). Browne
and Keeley (2001, p. 2) define critical thinking as:
 An awareness of a set of interrelated critical questions
 The ability to ask and answer critical questions at appropriate times
 The desire to actively use the critical questions.

II. Analysis: is a systematic examination and evaluation of data or information, by breaking it into
its component parts to uncover their interrelationships or the examination and evaluation of the
relevant information to select the best course of action from among various alternatives.

III. Purpose: the purpose of a text means what it was written for, or why the writer wants you to read
it. Texts may be written to:

 Instruct: texts that instruct tell you how to do or make something. For example, written
directions tell you how to get to a particular place.

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  Explain: texts that explain may tell you the background about something or about how
something works. For example, a book might explain how electricity was discovered and how
it is generated.

 Persuade: texts that persuade try to make you do something. For example, adverts may
persuade you to buy a product. They often include descriptions to make the product sound
tempting.

 Describe: texts that describe help you imagine how something (or someone) looks, sounds,
smells, tastes or feels. For example, a holiday postcard might include a description of the
place you are staying.

IV. Audience: is a particular group of people, identified as the intended recipient of a

presentation or message. In simple terms, an audience is a group of people who participate in
a show or encounter a work of art, literature (in which they are called "readers"), theatre, music (in
which they are called "listeners"), video game (in which they are called "players"), or academics in
any medium.

1.1.2 READING OR VIEWING STRATEGIES

Reading is the active process of understanding print and graphic texts. Reading is a thinking process.
Effective readers know that when they read, what they read is supposed to make sense. They monitor
their understanding, and when they lose the meaning of what they are reading, they often unconsciously
select and use a reading strategy (such as rereading or asking questions) that will help them reconnect
with the meaning of the text. Reading skills and strategies can be taught explicitly while learners are
learning subject-specific content through authentic reading tasks. Effective readers use strategies to
understand what they read before, during, and after reading.

Before reading, they:

 Use prior knowledge to think about the topic.
 Make predictions about the probable meaning of the text.
 Preview the text by skimming and scanning to get a sense of the overall meaning.

During reading, they:

 Monitor understanding by questioning, thinking about, and reflecting on the ideas and information
in the text.

After reading, they:

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  Reflect upon the ideas and information in the text.
 Relate what they have read to their own experiences and knowledge.
 Clarify their understanding of the text.
 Extend their understanding in critical and creative ways.

Reading is not just pronouncing words- it requires understanding. Most experienced readers use a
variety of strategies to understand text. Research has shown that educators can, and should, teach
these strategies to beginning readers.

The following strategies can help learners understand any text in any subject.
 Skim
 Scan
 Make Predictions
 Visualize
 Ask and Answer Questions
 Retell and Summarize
 Connect the Text to Life Experiences, Other Texts, or Prior Knowledge
 Word-Attack Strategies

1. Skim
Skimming is used to quickly identify the main ideas of a text. When you read the newspaper, you are
probably not reading it word-by-word; instead you are scanning the text. Skimming is done at a speed
three to four times faster than normal reading. People often skim when they have lots of material to read
in a limited amount of time. Use skimming when you want to see if an article may be of interest in your
research. There are many strategies that can be used when skimming. Some people read the first and
last paragraphs using headings, summarizes and other organizers as they move down the page or
screen. You might read the title, subtitles, subheading, and illustrations. Consider reading the first
sentence of each paragraph. This technique is useful when you are seeking specific information rather
than reading for comprehension. Skimming works well to find dates, names, and places. It might be used
to review graphs, tables, and charts.

2. Scan
Scanning is a technique you often use when looking up a word in the telephone book or dictionary. You
search for key words or ideas. In most cases, you know what you are looking for, so you are

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concentrating on finding a particular answer. Scanning involves moving your eyes quickly down the page
seeking specific words and phrases. Scanning is also used when you first find a resource to determine
whether it will answer your questions. Once you have scanned the document, you might go back and
skim it. When scanning, look for the author's use of organizers such as numbers, letters, steps, or the
words, first, second, or next. Look for words that are bold faced, italics, or in a different font size, style, or
color. Sometimes the author will put key ideas in the margin.

3. Make Predictions
Predictions encourage active reading and keep learners interested, whether or not the predictions are
correct. Incorrect predictions can signal a misunderstanding that needs to be revisited. Instruct learners:
 Look at the pictures, table of contents, chapter headings, maps, diagrams, and features. What
subjects are in the book?
 Write down predictions about the text. During reading, look for words or phrases from those
predictions.
 While reading, revise the predictions or make new ones.

4. Visualize
Many learners think visually, using shapes, spatial relationships, movement, and colors, and can benefit
greatly from this strategy. Instruct learners:
 Imagine a fiction story taking place as if it were a movie. Imagine the characters' features. Picture
the plot in time and space.
 Imagine processes and explanations happening visually. Use nouns, verbs, and adjectives to
create pictures, diagrams, or other mental images.
 Use graphic organizers to lay out information. Make sketches or diagrams on scrap paper.

5. Ask and Answer Questions

Having learners form their own questions helps them recognize confusion and encourages active
learning. Instruct learners:
 Before reading, think about the subject based on the title, chapter heads, and visual information.
Make note of anything you are curious about.
 While reading, pause and write down any questions. Be sure to ask questions if there is
confusion.
 Look for the answers while reading. Pause and write down the answers.
 Were all the questions answered? Could the answers come from other sources?

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6. Retell and Summarize
Relating the text in learners' own words clears up language issues. Retelling challenges them to aim for
complete retention. Summarization allows learners to discriminate between main ideas and minor
details. Instruct learners:
 During reading, note the main ideas or events. Put a check mark in the book or write a note to
point out a main idea.
 At the ends of chapters or sections, review the information or story. Note main ideas or events
and the details that support them.
 After reading, retell or summarize the text. Focus on the important points, and support them with
relevant details.
 Refer to the book to check the retelling or summarization.

7. Connect the Text to Life Experiences, Other Texts, or Prior Knowledge

Connecting a text to learners' experiences and knowledge helps learners personalize the information. It
also helps learners remember information when they link it to their lives. Instruct learners:
 Is the subject familiar? Do the characters resemble familiar people? Have you learned about the
concept from school, home, or other experiences?
 Is the style or genre familiar? Does it resemble other texts? Television shows, movies, and
games can be considered "texts."
 Write down similarities between the current text and experiences, knowledge, or other texts.

8. Word-Attack Strategies
Word-attack strategies help learners decode, pronounce, and understand unfamiliar words. They help
learners attack words piece by piece or from a different angle. Model and instruct learners:

a) Use Picture Clues

 Look at the picture.
 Are there people, objects, or actions in the picture that might make sense in the sentence?

b) Sound Out the Word

 Start with the first letter, and say each letter-sound out loud.
 Blend the sounds together and try to say the word. Does the word make sense in the sentence?

c) Look for Chunks in the Word

 Look for familiar letter chunks. They may be sound/symbols, prefixes, suffixes, endings, whole
words, or base words.

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  Read each chunk by itself. Then blend the chunks together and sound out the word. Does that
word make sense in the sentence?

d) Connect to a Word You Know

 Think of a word that looks like the unfamiliar word.
 Compare the familiar word to the unfamiliar word. Decide if the familiar word is a chunk or form of
the unfamiliar word.
 Use the known word in the sentence to see if it makes sense. If so, the meanings of the two
words are close enough for understanding.

e) Reread the Sentence

 Read the sentence more than once.
 Think about what word might make sense in the sentence. Try the word and see if the sentence
makes sense.

f) Keep Reading
 Read past the unfamiliar word and look for clues.
 If the word is repeated, compare the second sentence to the first. What word might make sense
in both?

g) Use Prior Knowledge

 Think about what you know about the subject of the book, paragraph, or sentence.
 Do you know anything that might make sense in the sentence? Read the sentence with the word
to see if it makes sense.

Activity 1

1. Define the following terms with examples,

 Critical analysis

 Analysis

 Purpose

 Texts

 Contexts

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2. Identify and adopt different reading and/or viewing strategies appropriate to the purposes for
reading.

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1.2 ORGANISATIONAL FEATURES OF TEXTS

When writing to communicate, writers use their knowledge of language features, grammar and the
features of written texts. Features of written texts include the length and layout of the text, the different
parts of the text and the cohesive devices, such as the sequencing of paragraphs that link the parts.
Different written text types have different characteristic features. Other text features that writers may
need to be able to use include visual language features such as tables, charts, maps, illustrations and
photographs. Different types of nonfiction text contain common features that learners can recognise
and use to help them understand the information being presented; identify main ideas as well as key
words and concepts. Drawing attention to, as well as discussing the text’s typical features with learners
can help them to find and understand information, enabling them to be more effective readers and
learners. Looking at text features and scanning the chapter also activates prior or background
knowledge. Activating prior knowledge helps learners make connections to the text they are reading
which increases comprehension.

Meaning in books is not communicated by the body of the text alone. Books can also include features,
such as photographs and captions, headings and subheadings, or indexes and glossaries that provide
access points into and information about the text. Text features can help readers identify the most
important ideas in a text, anticipate what’s to come, understand challenging ideas, and find information
they are looking for. Understanding text features can enhance reading comprehension, particularly
comprehension of informational text. The use of text features is especially useful in science, since
science texts use many text features to explain, organize, emphasize, reinforce, and extend important
information. Identify text features in any textbook of your choice.

Organisational features of texts include;

 Role of titles
 Headings
 Introductions
 Paragraphs
 Conclusions
 Outcome statements
 Chapters

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  Summaries
 Contents
 Diagrams
 Appendices or addenda
 Foreword
 Index
 Content lists glossary
 Hyper-links
 Layout
 Icons
 Tables
 Graphics
 Font size and/or type
 Photographs
 Captions
 Visuals
 Cinematographic techniques

Role of titles

The title is a very important factor when reading/viewing texts. The title should be able to explain to the
reader what the texts is about/idea to give them the incentive to pick up the book for instance, and
carry on reading. With so many reading materials on the store shelf, a writer has only seconds to
capture a reader. Most people go to the section of the store they like (romance, fantasy, etc.) then scan
the titles. If a title catches their eye, they read the back cover. If that sparks their interest, they may
read a little inside, and then hopefully buy the book. If the title does not catch the readers eye it simply
won’t be read, some writers will use catchy titles, some prefer to use irony or just a plain title e.g
gardening etc, Some will use play words such as antonyms e.g love/hate in order to get an audience.
In simple terms, the title of the story helps to tell the potential reader what the reading material may be
about.

Headings
Headings are usually found at the top of the page or paragraph, usually printed in a larger or colored
font and they describe the topic or paragraph in a one - or two-word phrase. Headings are titles or
subtitles of sections within a document that identify the main topic of the section. Headings are
important because they make the organization clear, make the relationship between each section easy

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to understand, and help readers locate information easily. Headings break the information into
manageable parts or chunks so that the reader can follow the texts. Well-written headings are an
important tool for helping users scan quickly. Headings should conceptually relate to the information or
functions that follow them. Headings should provide strong cues that orient users and inform them
about page organization and structure. Headings also help classify information on a page. Each
heading should be helpful in finding the desired target. The ability to scan quickly is particularly
important for older adults because they tend to stop scanning and start reading more frequently. If
headings are not descriptive or plentiful enough, the user may start reading in places that do not offer
the information they are seeking, thereby slowing them down unnecessarily.

Each section starts with a Level 1 heading (excepting the Introduction, where the Level 1 heading is
invisible) and then proceeds to Level 2, 3, 4, and 5 as needed, in that order. The format of each level is
illustrated below:

Level Format
1 Centered, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Headings
2 Left-aligned, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
3 Indented, boldface, lowercase heading with a period. Begin body text after the period.
4 Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase heading with a period. Begin body text after the
period.
5 Indented, italicized, lowercase heading with a period. Begin body text after the period.

Paragraphs
A paragraph is much more than a collection of connected sentences. It is a building block of document
development, and paragraphs provide the structure needed to develop the thesis of a paper. In fact, a
useful way to think about a paragraph is as a ―mini-article,‖ or an article within an article, with its own
mini-thesis (the topic sentence), middle or body (the supporting details) and end or conclusion (the
concluding sentence). To understand how paragraphs help to develop an idea, think of them as
landmarks on a map. With each paragraph, writers describe where they are standing and point the
direction for your readers to make sure they complete the journey to your conclusion. A vague signpost
or a detour down a side trail could well have your readers lost and wondering where you are taking
them. Clear signals, on the other hand, in the form of clearly worded topic sentences, relevant support,

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reasonable interpretations of material, and logical conclusions will help your readers follow the
development of your ideas.

Types of paragraphs
In an article, there are four types of paragraphs: introductory, body, transitional and concluding; and
each serves a slightly different function in the paper. In the simplest terms, introductory paragraphs
introduce your thesis, body paragraphs develop it, transitional paragraphs move your readers from one
aspect of it to another, and concluding paragraphs sum up the development of the thesis and restate it.
Thus, while all four types support the theory, they support it in different ways. Linking words or phrases
in paragraphs helps the reader to make sense of documents when reading or viewing texts.

Conclusions

Conclusions are shorter sections of texts which usually serve two functions. The first is to summarise
and bring together the main areas covered in the writing, which might be called "looking back"; and the
second is to give a final comment or judgement on this. The final comment may also include making
suggestions for improvement and speculating on future directions.

The conclusion should reassert the core idea of text, but it should also clearly flow from the material the
writer has carefully developed in the body paragraphs and thus, it should be more than a mechanical
restatement of the thesis. Rather, an effective concluding paragraph should reinforce the central idea
of the written text and leave the readers satisfied that the writer has made his/her case.

Outcome statements

The Outcomes Statements are intended to provide readers with a sense of what kinds of knowledge
they should be expected to acquire and demonstrate by the end of each section, topic or article. The
outcome statements are intended to create a sense of common purpose for the written text and clear
expectations for the readers. At the same time, the outcomes also help to maintain the flexibility in the
article that allows individual readers to continue the tradition of innovation and creativity while reading.
For example, ―upon successful completion of the course, learners should achieve competency in the
following five areas......‖ Outcome statements therefore help readers to review from time to time if they
have mastered the topics, sections or the reading materials. Readers will also have this in mind while
reading/viewing text as guidelines to keep them on track.

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Chapters

Chapters in texts are the meat of the texts. You will know exactly what the chapters will cover if you
have read the Table of Contents and Introduction. Texts chapters vary in length and style. Depending
on your publisher, education level, and reading ability, texts chapters will have an easy or difficult flow.
Some texts have graphics, charts, photographs, and line art. Some will have questions at the end of
each chapter; some will have short chapter summaries. Depending on the text, it is recommended that
you read the chapter introduction (a short paragraph at the onset of each chapter) and the chapter
summary or chapter questions (at the close of each chapter) for a general understanding of what each
chapter covers. Remember, chapters are always divided into sub-sections. Sometimes your educator
will often just assign a sub-section of a chapter and it will be important for you to read just that portion.
You can always read around the assigned chapter if you desire. Chapters are used to group related
information together so as to enable clear flow of information in an article from the start to the end.

Index

The Index comes at the end of the chapters and is a detailed listing of all words and ideas in the course
of the text. The Index is different from the Glossary. The Index is printed in extremely fine print and tells
you what pages words, ideas, and people are printed on. It helps you locate specific names and
sections within the sheer size of the text quite easily. So, if Nelson Mandela is mentioned in the text at
least once, it will be listed in the Index. The Index will then tell you what page number (and all page
numbers) on which Nelson Mandela is mentioned.

Glossary

The Glossary is a mini-dictionary in the back of your text. In scientific texts, Glossaries are obviously
longer than in art texts. Nonetheless, the glossary is an alphabetical listing of definitions at the end of
the text. Usually, the words that are listed in the Glossary are highlighted or bolded within the body of
the text so that readers know if it is a Glossary word.

Appendices/Figures

Appendices and Figures are optional blocks of information at the end of written texts. Appendices give
the reader additional, but not essential facts and explanations. For example, if you refer to a theory,
case history, lesson plan, biography, or other extra material in the body of your texts, but do not want to
explain it in detail, you can put it in an appendix and simply write ―see Appendix 1 (2, 3, ...)‖. Figures
are images (e.g. pictures, graphs, diagrams and tables) which the writer writes about in articles. They
can either be put in the text, near the appropriate paragraph, or at the end. You should always refer to
the figure when you are writing about it, for example, ―In Figure 1 ...‖, ―As can be seen in Figure 2 ...‖

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Table of Contents
The Table of Contents generally follows the Title Page and is a brief listing of all chapters and
subchapters in the article. It will be your guide as your navigate the text. Your educators will always tell
you what chapter to read and what sub-chapters to read. Often, you will not read texts in its entirety.
You will simply read the important chapters. This is where the Table of Contents comes into play. It is a
very descriptive guide; the table of contents in texts will list every single chapter, sub-chapter heading,
and outline within. Often, the table of contents in text can cover dozens of pages.

Foreword

A foreword is an introductory remark about the subject and/or scope of a book, preceding the main text
and the introduction, written by a person other than the book's author. When a new edition of
the work is published, the foreword is usually re-written or extended to inform the reader of
the changes. If written by the author, it is properly called a preface. Foreword often tells of some
interaction between the writer of the foreword and the book's primary author or the story the book tells.
Usually an article’s Foreword consists of someone telling you a bunch of stuff about the article you are
holding in your hand- either to encourage you to buy it, or to get you excited about the article before
you read it. A foreword usually inspires the reader to read the text with an open mind like the writer of
the foreword.

Hyperlinks
Hyperlinks are connection between a hypertext and/or graphical element (button, drawing, image), and
one or more such items in the same or different electronic document. Upon clicking the mouse button
on a hyper-linked item, the reader is automatically transferred to the other end of the hyperlink which
could be another document or another website. Any particular order of ideas is "linear" in that one
moves in a line from the first sentence or paragraph to the next, and so on to the last. With hyperlinked
passages, the reader may visit the hyperlink if s/he wishes or ignore it the first time through, in order to
read the main ideas linearly first, going back later for the details as they relate to those
ideas. Hyperlinks thus allow a writer to organize the same material for readers in many different ways
at one time, permitting the opportunity to make the material more intelligible, more persuasive in cases
where persuasion is important, and more neatly "tied together" or interconnected in those cases where
different aspects of the material are related or where some element in the material is relevant to many
different things.

Graphics

Graphics are visual presentations on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, screen, paper, or stone to
brand, inform, illustrate, or entertain. Some examples of graphics include; photographs, drawings,

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graphs, diagrams, typography, numbers, symbols, geometric designs, maps, or other images. Graphics
often combine text, illustration, and colour. Because many articles include complex, voluminous data,
writers can tell their story better by including graphic aids (e.g., tables, charts, diagrams, etc.). Graphic
aids supplement the text, help communicate the article content, give emphasis to key points of
coverage, and make the article more inviting and readable. In simple terms, graphics
are visual elements often used to point readers and viewers to particular information. They are also
used to supplement text in an effort to aid readers in their understanding of a particular concept or
make the concept more clear or interesting.

Tables
Tables are those rows and columns of numbers and, sometimes, words. They allow rapid access to
information and comparison of information. The biggest use of tables is for numerical data. Imagine that
you are comparing different models of coffee makers. All specifications, whether they are price or
physical characteristics such as height, depth, length, weight, and so on are perfect for a table. However,
don't think that tables are only for numerical data. A table can be as simple as one row and one column
of data. It can also be very complex. At the top of each column is a column heading. This defines or
identifies the contents of that column (and usually it indicates the unit of measurement, for example,
percentage or kilograms). On the left edge of the table there are usually row headings. These define or
identify the contents of those rows. When rows or columns have to be grouped or subdivided, you have
to create row or column subheadings.

Cinematography techniques are of vital importance to any reader as they help tell the story of the
article in the most effective manner possible. It is important for writers to use the right font size or type
that is readable so that readers may read without any difficulties. The layout of the text is important as
well: there should be flow of information in any written article. When visuals are incorporated in texts
readers will be able to understand the information with much ado. Paragraphs and illustrations add
visual appeal to the page; provides support for the written text.

Activity 2

1. Identify organisational features of texts.

2. Explain the role of each of the features in relation to usefulness in making meaning of readings
and/or viewing.

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1.3 SYNTHESIS OF INFORMATION FROM TEXTS

Synthesizing information requires a learner to process and interact with information rather than simply
copying and pasting information. Learners are actively engaged with information when they categorize,
analyze, combine, extract details, re-assess the value of the collected information, look for bias,
omissions, etc. Finally, they relate this new understanding to their own knowledge and experiences and
develop new meaning or solution. Information synthesis is one of the most valuable contributions a
reader can make. Preparing an information synthesis requires four steps: defining the topic and relevant
information about that topic, the purpose of the synthesis, and the target audience; systematically
gathering this relevant information; assessing the validity of such information; and presenting validated
information in a way useful to the target audience.

A synthesis is a combination, usually a shortened version, of several texts made into one. It contains the
important points in the text and is written in your own words. To make a synthesis you need to find
suitable sources, and then to select the relevant parts in those sources. You will then use your
paraphrase and summary skills to write the information in your own words. The information from all the
sources has to fit together into one continuous text. Please remember, though, that when you synthesize
work from different people, you must acknowledge it.

Questions that help learners synthesize information:

 How can the information from this selection be presented visually?

 Which graphic organizer would you use to present the information in this selection?

 What parts of this text can you use to create new ideas or products?

 How would an artist illustrate the details from this selection?

 How can you use the facts you have learned to write a persuasive letter?

 How would you use the facts in this selection to write a reader’s theater script?

 How would you use the facts in a dramatic presentation?

When synthesizing information the following stages may be useful:

1. Find texts that are suitable for your assignment.

2. Read and understand the texts.

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 3. Find the relevant ideas in the texts. Mark them in some way - write them down, take notes,
underline them or highlight them.

4. Make sure you identify the meaning relationships between the words/ideas - use colours or
numbers.

5. Read what you have marked very carefully.

6. Organise the information you have. You could give all similar ideas in different texts the same
number or letter or colour.

7. Transfer all the information on to one piece of paper. Write down all similar information together.

8. Paraphrase and summarize as necessary.

9. Check your notes with your original texts for accuracy and relevance.

10. Combine your notes into one continuous text.

11. Check your work.

a. Make sure your purpose is clear

b. Make sure the language is correct

c. Make sure the style is your own

d. Remember to acknowledge other people's work

Make Inferences

When you make inferences, you increase your understanding by making judgments, drawing
conclusions, and reasoning about a text. You come up with your own ideas (about any of the items in the
lists at the left). Readers make inferences by combining what they already know with information or
clues provided by the writer. Making inferences can help readers draw conclusions or make judgments
about the text. Making inferences can be challenging. One good way to help you make inferences is to
focus on the conclusions you are drawing while you read. You may confirm or alter your inferences as
you continue reading. As your understanding about what you are reading evolves, your thinking might
change.

Good readers extend their understanding of a text by making connections and generalizing texts
patterns and trends. There are three basic types of connections: text-to-self, text-to-text, and text-to-
world. Making connections can help you understand and respond to texts in many ways: by helping you
visualize, make predictions, make inferences, draw and support conclusions, form opinions, make
judgements, or evaluate the text.

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Activity 3

Explain how synthesis of information from texts, and generalisation of patterns and trends, result in
appropriate conclusions about purpose, audience and context.

Generalization Text Pattern

Practical Task

Step 1: Select a topic or viewpoint that is of interest to you. It does not have to be confrontational.

Possible Examples:

 Aliens Exist

 Skateboards are a safe method of transportation

 Dress Codes help learners learn

 Football/Hockey are too violent

Step 2: Use the computer and do some research on your topic. Make sure to cite your sources.

Step 3:

Create a graphic organizer

Step 4:

Write your article using the generalization text pattern. Make sure you follow these guidelines:

 I stated my viewpoint clearly, probably in the topic sentence of the first paragraph

 I checked to make sure that points supporting my argument came from reliable sources (trusted
Internet sites)

 I cited my sources (wrote down the website)

 I considered opposing viewpoints fairly, and used logical arguments to counter those viewpoints

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SECTION 2: VALUES, ATTITUDES AND
ASSUMPTIONS IN TEXTS

Specific Outcome
On completion of this section you will be able to identify and explain
the values, attitudes and assumptions in texts.

Assessment Criteria
 An understanding of surface and embedded meaning in the text is
reflected in presentations of viewpoints. (SO 2, AC 1)

 Values and views in selected texts are identified and explained in

terms of the impact on meaning and target audience. (SO 2, AC 2)

 Evidence cited from texts in defence of a position is relevant.

SO 2, AC 3)

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2.1 INTRODUCTION

It is important for a reader to be able to read in between the lines inorder to have a better understanding
of the author. Each text is composed of both explicit and implicit messages. It is up to the reader to
deeply analyse the text inorder to extract the implicit messages in a text. These implicit and explicit
messages can be relating to authors,
 Values
 beliefs
 Attitudes
 assumptions

2.2 VALUES, ATTITUDES AND ASSUMPTIONS IN TEXTS

It is important for the reader to be able to identify the values, attitudes, beliefs, assumptions and
intentions of the writer inorder to determine the point of view expressed directly or indirectly. That is,
writers are informed by their attitudes, beliefs and intentions when writing text.

Each individual responder is positioned by their cultural background to attach meanings to particular
visual cues. Therefore, the interpretation of a text is often dependent upon the values that individuals
place on age, gender, ethnicity and lifestyle as well as the connotations that arise from more subtle cues
such as colours. An awareness of the use of these cultural assumptions will enable you, as a responder,
to view visual texts more objectively and, as a composer, to express views more concisely.

 Our attitudes are the manifestation of our values - they are expressed through what we say or do.

 Values make us accept certain things and reject others - how we act and what we say present our
attitudes - i.e. our values made manifest.

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1. Values
These make up our belief system. Values are beliefs that guide our behaviour. They have often been
strengthened by religious sanctions: God said this is the way to live. However, they are socially
constructed and devised to allow society to operate with the least amount of conflict. Values define what
we accept as good, right or acceptable. We may have our own personally thought-out and constructed
values but many of the values we accept are socially or culturally constructed. Society develops a value
system or a set of values and conveys these to us through schools, governments, churches, the media,
the family etc. Nationalities often have different values which mean communication between nations is
sometimes difficult. We value the freedom of people to have as many children as they wish while China
has introduced the value of a one child limit because the value of inhibiting population growth is more
important to them.

2. Attitudes
Sometimes writers make their feelings or views about something absolutely clear. Other times, they
imply or suggest what they feel. When you are asked to identify the writer’s attitude or feelings, you’re
being asked to say what the writer thinks about the issue. To do this, you should consider some of the
following:
 The writer’s stated attitude
 The words used by the writer
 The balance of views reported
 The people and sources quoted
 The tone and level of formality.

Read the following article and explore the attitude; beliefs and intention of the author

5th April 2010

By Steve Hughes
ENGLAND fans could be caught up in a machete race war at the World Cup in South Africa.

The killing of white supremacist leader Eugene Terre’Blanche caused far-right campaigners to warn
teams to avoid the ―land of murder‖ this summer.
More than 25,000 England fans are due to watch Wayne Rooney, 24, and Fabio Capello, 63, launch
the campaign in ten weeks. Many supporters have already hired extra security in the crime-ravaged
country. But that was before the murder of Terre’Blanche, 69.

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The head of resistance movement Afrikaner Weerstands- beweging was hacked to death with a
machete at his home just 40 miles from England’s World Cup camp.

Two of his black farm workers, who allegedly claimed he owed them money, were being held by police
last night. White leaders have already vowed ―revenge‖ on black groups blamed for inciting the murder.
And machete gangs were roaming the streets.

AWB spokesman Andre Visagie said: ―The death of Mr Terre’Blanche is a declaration of war by the
black community of South Africa to the white community that has been killed for 10 years on end.
―They attacked him in such a way it was difficult to recognise the face of Eugene Terre’Blanche. ―We
will decide upon the action we are going to take to avenge Mr Terre’Blanche death.‖

AWB’s supporters have blamed African National Congress Youth League leader Julius Malema, who
caused outrage by recently singing an anti-white song called Kill The Boers. But the ANCYL denied that
Malema’s singing, ruled illegal by a South African court, had anything to do with Terre’Blanche killing.

Malema, 29, has already vowed to continue with the inflammatory songs, adding: ―We are not going to
stop. We are prepared to go to jail and get arrested again.‖ The ruling African National Congress last
night tried to play down claims of a civil war. ANC spokesman Jackson Mthembu said: ―The black
community has never declared war on any other nationality in South Africa.‖

South African President Jacob Zuma, 67, called for both sides to remain calm as he desperately tried to
prevent an explosion of violence. FIFA would be left with a ―total nightmare‖ if civil war erupts and
means the tournament cannot be played in the country this summer.

With only 10 weeks to go, football’s world governing body would almost certainly not have time to
reschedule the World Cup for this year. Two years ago, FIFA president Sepp Blatter, 74, admitted
there was a contingency plan in place, should South Africa not be ready in time.

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But a FIFA source said: ―If it becomes too dangerous to hold the World Cup in South Africa then we are
looking at a total nightmare. ―I don’t know if it could maybe be moved to next year, but we are all hoping
that the problems in South Africa are resolved in time for June.‖

Even before the race-war threat, more than a million tickets remained unsold.

3. Ideology
Ideology is a belief system that consists of certain values and attitudes. It is a collective view of the
world. It is secular and religious. Ideology unconsciously determines our ―way of seeing‖, creates values
and set standards that guide our attitudes. In other words, ideology is a system of assumptions by which
a society operates, and which permeates everything it produces, including literature.

3. Assumptions
Assumptions are accepted cause and effect relationships, or estimates of the existence of a fact from
the known existence of other fact(s). Although useful in providing basis for action and in creating "what if"
scenarios in order to simulate different realities or possible situations; assumptions are dangerous when
accepted as reality without thorough examination. Critical thinking is the
objective examination of assumptions (adopted rules of thumb) underlying current beliefs to assess their
correctness and legitimacy, and thus to validate or invalidate the beliefs.

4. Culture
Culture is a system of beliefs, lifestyles, customs (usual habits and practices), values, attitudes and
lifestyle of a particular people. Culture can refer to groups of people such as nations or, more
specifically, groups such as sporting teams. The culture of a particular person will influence the way they
perceive (look at or understand) gender (male/female), ethnicity, religion, youth, age, disability, sexuality,
cultural diversity, social class and work.

IMPACT OF VALUES, INTENTION, ASSUMPTIONS AND VIEWS ON MEANING AND TARGET

AUDIENCE

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As with all texts, you need to analyse themes, motifs, characterization, relationships, setting, narrative
style and structure, point of view, imagery, symbolism, and the ideas about society and the individual
that are being communicated.
 Many learners identify views and values quite well, but do not take the next step and show
whether the text or author endorses, challenges or leaves unquestioned those views and values.

 Below are explained the main terms for the positions a text can take with regard to the ideas and
attitudes circulating within it.
1.Critique
A text provides a critique of a viewpoint, value or belief by examining it critically.
 Various aspects are considered, positive as well as negative.
 The overall position is negative, or critical.
 A critique can be wide-ranging in scope, e.g. a critique of white settlement in South Africa, a
critique of materialism in modern societies, etc.

2. Endorse
When a text takes a positive stance in relation to a view or value, it can be said to endorse that view or
value
 The qualities endorsed by the text will often be embodied in one or more characters that are
represented sympathetically.

 The qualities endorsed will usually be contrasted with views or values that have opposing effects:
o the value of loyalty could be endorsed by showing the destructive consequences of betrayal
o the value of generosity would become evident through a representation of characters who are
greedy and selfish, and so on.

The views and values endorsed by a text are not necessarily also endorsed by the society depicted in
the text, or by the society in which the text is published – hence the controversial reception of many
literary texts.

3. Challenge
A text challenges views and values when it reveals their shortcomings and limitations: in other words,
their negative impacts on people.
 The text could challenge the attitudes and beliefs of certain aberrant characters, or of society as
a whole.

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  Views and values can be challenged through the development of the narrative, so that harmful
effects only become increasingly evident as the plot unfolds and conflict becomes more intense.

 Even when a text challenges views and values, it is likely to include a degree of complexity in its
treatment of these ideas. It may, for example, show why a character takes up criminal activity by
depicting their troubled childhood – thereby demonstrating compassion and understanding, but
not actually legitimating such behaviour.

4. Leave unquestioned
No text can explicitly acknowledge and explore every point of view on all aspects of society and human
behaviour. There will always be gaps, silences and omissions – if the text was as messy and
all-inclusive as life itself, it would lack the coherence that makes it literature. And the writer’s own
experience and interests usually mean there are views and values they have no wish to represent.
 Views and values can be left unquestioned when a character who might present a challenging
point of view is marginalized or silent in the text.

 Leaving views and values unquestioned might be a reflection of the writer’s bias – that is, not
prejudice as such, but simply the characteristic attitudes and conventions of their own cultural,
historical and social contexts.

 Identifying views and values that are left unquestioned can illuminate aspects of the text’s
construction; it’s clear and compelling narrative might be made possible by its omission of
complicating details and alternative perspectives.

In writing your essay it is essential that you emphasise Newton's role, especially HOW (i.e. by what
means) he makes certain views and values (including his own) clear to the reader.

2.3 UNDERSTANDING OF SURFACE AND EMBEDDED MEANING IN TEXT

Texts are never neutral. The values and beliefs of the writer or speaker affect the messages that are
communicated. For this reason, it is important for adult learners to develop the skills for thinking critically
about the texts they read, view, or hear. Thinking critically involves analysing and interpreting meanings,
responding critically to texts when reading and listening, and being critically aware when writing and
speaking. Adult learners develop their awareness of speakers’ and writers’ different perspectives and
purposes in order to gain deeper levels of meaning, to avoid being manipulated by writers and speakers

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and to gain insights and enjoyment from the texts they engage with. To read with understanding, readers
need to develop a critical awareness that enables them to consider who wrote a text and for whom, why
the text was written and whether it may have purposes that are not immediately apparent. As they
become aware of writers’ differing purposes and perspectives, readers are able to make their own
judgments about the relevance, reliability or bias of what they read.

When you read certain texts, it becomes clear that there are meanings there that seem to lie ―deeper‖
than ―on the surface‖. These occur when the writer has used language that develops imagery or
connotations. These ―layers of meaning‖ can be created in a text by the use of literary devices. A
common literary device that creates layers of meaning is irony. When irony is being created, the writer
says one thing, but you, the reader, are aware that something rather different is meant. Irony is like a
subtle form of sarcasm. There are several other ways to create layers of meaning in a text, for example,
through the use of language that creates connotations, such as the literary devices of metaphor and
symbol.

To appreciate a text's deeper levels of meaning it is necessary to reflect and interpret what you read and
to notice when language creates emotion. A war poem, for example, might, on the surface, tell about life
in the trenches, but at a deeper level might make a powerful case against war or against the propaganda
being put out back home. These deeper levels of meaning are used to help a writer develop the kind of
emotion in the reader that helps create persuasive themes or messages.

PRESENTATION OF VIEWPOINTS

Basically, there are three points of view:

 First Person
 Second Person
 Third Person (limited, subjective multiple viewpoints, or omniscient)

First Person
 First person means the story is told from the ―I‖ viewpoint. This point of view brings the reader up
close and personal with the narrator. Many detective and private eye novels are written in first person
because this viewpoint immediately puts the reader ―in the shoes‖ of the crime-solving hero. The
reader can quickly identify and derive pleasure from experiencing the events in the book as if they
are seeing them through the eyes of the main character.

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Second Person
 Second person is told from the ―you‖ viewpoint and is most often associated with literary works. It
would be rare to find an entire mystery written in this point of view. However, second person can be
very effective in small doses, such as in a prologue or in italicized scenes interspersed throughout a
first or third person novel. But an entire novel written in this tense can quickly gets tiresome unless
the author has mastered the technique. Two authors who consistently employ this point of view are
Joyce Carol Oates and Thomas H. Cook. Thomas H. Cook writes both literary novels and mysteries.
Many of his novels contain a blend of tenses, including second person. An example of a novel which
contains scenes written in second person: The Orchids Thomas H. Cook.
Third Person Limited
 Third person limited means that everything is seen through the main character’s eyes and in past
tense. A book written in third person has the phrases ―he said, he thought,‖ all coming from the same
person’s head. The reader sees, thinks and feels only what the main character experiences. There
are no shifts at any other time to other character’s thoughts or emotions. Many detective novels are
written in this simple, straightforward tense. This POV is comfortable, easy to read, and readily
accepted by most publishers.

Third Person Subjective Multiple Viewpoint

A change in viewpoint can heighten suspense. Many mystery writers uses subjective multiple viewpoint
to tell their story. Books written in third person limited or subjective multiple viewpoint
 The Case of the Daring Divorcee by Erle Stanley Gardener
 A Taint in the Blood by Dana Stabenow
 Cold in the Grave by Peter Robinson
 Coyote Waits by Tony Hillerman (alternating narrators Chee and Leaphorn)

Third Person Omniscient

In the third person omniscient point of view, the author takes a panoramic, bird’s eye view of the
characters and in describing the overall picture. The story is not shown through the eyes of any one
character, but an invisible, all-knowing, all-seeing narrator. This point of view works best in a story with a
complicated plot and multiple characters. Most of popular author Stephen King’s works are written in
third person omniscient.

Novels written in Third Person Omniscient:

 A Time to Kill, and The Partners by John Grisham
 And then There Were None by Agatha Christie

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Mixed Points of View
There is no solid rule that a book must be written from a single point of view. Many authors mix points of
view, alternating from third person limited to third person omniscient. In this case, part of the book is
usually seen through omniscient eyes, the other through the eyes of the detective. Some authors may
also switch from first person to third person viewpoint, using first person for the hero and third for the
villain.

When a reader is presenting a viewpoint based on the surface meaning of text he/she explores what the
text directly states or points at. For instance, the office memo stated that all employees are to clock in
before the beginning of a working day. The reader does not seek out any other text meaning than
already stated for instance, the office memo suggest that some or all employees were not clocking in
before the beginning of a working day (embedded meaning).

Inferring Meaning
Consider the following statement:

The Minister admitted owning the gun that killed his wife.

On the face of it (surface meaning), we have a simple statement about what someone said. Our
understanding, however, includes much that is not stated. We find meaning embedded in the words and
phrases. Unpacking that meaning, we can see that the Minister was married and his wife is now dead—
although this is not actually stated as such. (In fact, the sentence is about an admission of gun
ownership.) It is as though the single sentence contains a number of assertions:
 There is a Minister.
 He owns a gun.
 He is married.
 His wife is dead.
 That gun caused her death.
 The Minister admitted owning that gun.

Clearly, the original sentence is a clearer and simpler way of conveying all of this information. On a more
subtle level, we recognize that a public figure confronts involvement in a major crime. Our understanding
need not stop there. We infer that the gun (or at least a bullet) has probably been recovered and
identified as the murder weapon - or the notion of an admission would make little sense. We also

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recognize the danger of unwarranted inferences. We recognize that we do not necessarily know if the
Minister’s admission is true. We do not really know whether the Minister is not in any way responsible for
his wife's death, nor do we know that she died of gunshot wounds (she could have been hit over the
head with the gun). We do not even know if it was murder: it might have been suicide or an accident.

Are we reading things in here? Or are these meanings truly within the sentence? We are going beyond
that the text says, but not beyond what it actually means to most readers. Inferences such as these are
essential to both written and spoken communication. Writers often only hint at what they mean, and
mean much more than they actually seem to say. On the other hand, we can see the danger (and
temptation) of assuming facts or interpretations for which evidence is not present, and recognize that a
critical reader reads with an open mind, open to many possible interpretations.

The following story is often presented as a brain twister. In fact, it’s a reading exercise.

A man and his son are driving in a car. The car crashes into a tree, killing the father and seriously
injuring his son. At the hospital, the boy needs to have surgery. Upon looking at the boy, the doctor says
(telling the truth), "I cannot operate on him. He is my son."

How can this be? Decide on your answer before reading further.
 Whether this passage is a brain twister or a reading passage, readers must assume that any lack of
understanding is not due to the story, but due to their own lack of understanding. We must work
harder to think about how the story might make sense.
 We quickly see that we have to explain how a doctor can have a son ("I cannot operate on him. He
is my son") when at the same time the father is dead (―The car crashes into a tree, killing the
father‖). The answer: The doctor is the boy's mother. Many readers are blinded to this meaning by
the sexist assumption that the doctor must be a male.

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Activity 4

Reflect an understanding of surface and embedded meaning in the text in presentations of viewpoints.

Activity 5

1. Define the terms, values and views with examples.

2. Identify and explain values and views in ―The Story I Am about to Tell ―by Duma Kumalo in terms
of the impact on meaning and target audience.

2.4 EVIDENCE CITED FROM TEXTS

A citation consists of the surname of an author, and the year of publication, commonly in brackets:
(Achebe, 1996). Citations are always connected to references in writing. Correct and relevant use of
citations is a fundamental tool in writing. All writing (especially academic) is constructed on references to
other peoples' work. Citations give specific evidence and emphasise how you are connected to other
academic work or sources. On the other hand, general comments with no source are not recommended
in academic writing. There are three main ways to cite information
 Quoting
 Paraphrasing
 Summarizing

Using Quotations: A Special Type of Evidence

As already highlighted, one effective way to support your claim is to use quotations. However, because
quotations involve someone else's words, you need to take special care to integrate this kind of evidence
into your essay. Here are two examples using quotations, one less effective and one more so.

Ineffective Use of Quotation

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Today, we are too self-centered. "We are consumers-on-the-run . . . the very notion of the family meal as
a sit-down occasion is vanishing. Adults and children alike eat . . . on the way to their next activity"
(Gleick 148). Everything is about what we want. This example is ineffective because the quotation is not
integrated with the writer's ideas. Notice how the writer has dropped the quotation into the paragraph
without making any connection between it and the claim. Furthermore, she has not discussed the
quotation's significance, which makes it difficult for the reader to see the relationship between the
evidence and the writer's point.

A More Effective Use of Quotation

Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much anymore as they once
did. Other people and activities take precedence, as James Gleick says in his book, Faster. "We are
consumers-on-the-run . . . the very notion of the family meal as a sit-down occasion is vanishing. Adults
and children alike eat . . . on the way to their next activity" (148). Sit-down meals are a time to share and
connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize
individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity.
The second example is more effective because it follows the guidelines for incorporating evidence into
writing. Notice, too, that it uses a lead-in phrase (". . . as James Gleick says in his book, Faster") to
introduce the direct quotation. This lead-in phrase helps to integrate the quotation with the writer's ideas.
Also notice that the writer discusses and comments upon the quotation immediately afterwards, which
allows the reader to see the quotation's connection to the writer's point.

How to write citations

Simple citations
If you are using an idea, an example, a quotation, statistics, summarizing information from somebody
else's work, then you put a citation into your text. By far the most common method is simply to use the
information and then put the citation in brackets afterwards e.g.

Numerous studies and publications show that the major focus has tended to be on the development of
tests (Bachman, 1990).

Citations with more than one author

If a number of authors have made a particular point, then you can mention more than one author in your
citation: e.g.
It has been argued that an uninformed outsider evaluator will have no vested interest or particular
perspective to influence their reporting (Worthen & Sanders, 1987; Beretta, 1992; Weir & Roberts,
1994).

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According to...
If you want to give more prominence to the author who you are citing, you can introduce a citation like
this:
According to Smith...
Smith proposes...

Smith (1994) proposes that: "what is needed is to take account of multiple perspectives - of participants
or stakeholders with acceptability and success being matters of degree, and related to users in context."
He believes that both insiders and outsiders should be involved in the evaluation process.

Notice that the author includes the quotation and then goes on to mention a further point: ('He believes
that...')

You might then go on to provide further evidence from other authors:

Supporting this view and referring specifically to a self-access language learning environment, Gardner
& Miller (1999) also identify the benefits in terms of additional perspectives brought to an evaluation by
an "external agent".

Citations for Edited Volumes

If you are referring to an edited volume, then it is possible simply to cite the first author and the 'et al'
convention - meaning 'and others':

In education in general, evaluation has played a vital role for more than one hundred years (Madaus et
al, 1983).
This citation would refer to the following item in the References:
Madaus, G. F., Stufflebeam, D., & Scriven, M. S. (eds.). (1983). Evaluation Models: Viewpoints on
Educational & Human Services Evaluation Boston: Klujer-Nijhoff.

Secondary citations
Sometimes a text you are reading will make a reference to another author’s work. Self-access centres
(SACs), as examples of post-industrial initiatives (Heuring, 1997 quoting Toffler, 1980) that allow for
flexible access to learning resources, are playing an increasingly central role in educational systems -
particularly in Europe and Asia. In your text, you should show whose ideas you are citing (Toffler, 1980),
and where you read about them (Heuring, 1997).In your bibliography, do not list Toffler because you
haven’t read his book. Your bibliography must, however, list the book in which you read about his ideas,
in this case Heuring.

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Practical Activity

You have read information from several sources, heard from other people, and
done some research and thinking about media in your own life or in world affairs. When you consider
what all these different sources say about the effects of media use:
 What are the gains?
 What are the dangers for the lives of young people? And for a larger society?
Write a short (750 words) essay in which you:
 Explain what's at stake: Why does this issue matter?
 Develop and state your own position.
 Defend your position with a range of different types of evidence (interviews, observations,
research data, and newspaper reports, etc.).
 Include research that you may have conducted.
 Draw your own conclusions about the effects of media on young people and the
world.

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SECTION 3: UNDERSTANDING CONTENT,
LANGUAGE, AND STYLE

Specific Outcome
On completion of this section you will be able to evaluate the effects
of content, language and style on readers'/viewers' responses in
specific texts.

Assessment Criteria
 Content is outlined and its possible effects on different
readers/viewers are explored. (SO 3, AC 1)

 The impact of different writing/signing techniques on

reader/viewer perspective are identified and explained in terms
of the particular effect produced by each. (SO 3, AC 2)

 The influence of specific language structures and features is

analysed. (SO 3, AC 3)

 The effect of selected production techniques in visuals is

explained. (SO 3, AC 4)

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 3. INTRODUCTION

Every text is produced for a specific audience and a response is logically expected. The content of the
text formulates how the audience is going to respond to the given text; sometimes content is meant to
have the audience act in a certain desired way, for instance, change their behavior. The content of a text
carries with it the message of the writer or text originator to his/her audiences. The message appeals to
the audiences on different levels, first it gives them knowledge of the writer’s communicated idea,
second it informs them of the writer’s reason for creating the text and selecting them as his/her audience
then it generates a response; whether in agreement or disagreement.

The language in which a text is found has the effect of naturally selecting audiences. If any reader gets
hold of a piece of text, they quickly discover their admission to the audience by way of the language
used. If a reader does not understand the language used it mostly means the writer created the text
without them in mind. Language also has the effect of appealing to the fabric of humanity in terms of
culture. Some texts can be created in a native language so as to appeal to a given culture. If a South
African travelling abroad comes across a piece of text produced in isiZulu, they quickly assume they are
the audience and would very much want to give their opinionated response.

The style used in a text can cause a reader to ignore the whole text. A doodling on billboard created with
shiny bouncing letters may not draw the attention of company directors as much as it will draw child
educators and children. In the same manner, tabulated and graphically presented texts quickly draw the
attention of analysts, business people and such manner of people as are moved by figures. The
tabulated and information may cause the readers to want to contact the creator of the text for more
information or for clarification. Some writing style may only appeal to artists and fellow writers.

3.1 THE EFFECTS OF CONTENT ON DIFFERENT READERS/VIEWERS

Content is generally meant to draw a response. Depending on the type of content shared in a text the
reader may be encouraged to take on behaviour, abandon behaviour or reply in text. Content has the
ability to alter a reader’s viewpoint altogether. For instance a text discussing the habits of men who take
in alcohol often times may change a woman’s perception of her husband and or her view on alcohol.
Text content can be categorised differently:

Content Type Satisfaction-Related Characteristics Special Group Reactions

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Arts Increased quantity Heavy readers:
Shorter stories Commentary/criticism
Entertainment listings
Business and personal Commentary, criticism and advice Young readers: photographs
finance Increased quantity Women: national focus
Light readers: shorter stories
Heavy readers: stock listings
Community news and Increased quantity Young readers: photos
ordinary people First-person point of view from Light readers: more local, less
ordinary people national
Feature-style stories
Youth section
Crime, courts and Local, staff written Women: fewer photographs
legal Decreased quantity Young readers: fewer photos
Disaster and accidents Decreased quantity Young readers: shorter stories
Fewer colour photographs Light readers: shorter stories
Women: feature-style stories
Education Increased quantity None
Longer stories
More featured on the front page
Education section
Youth section
Health, home, food, Increased quantity Young readers: weekend and
fashion and travel Feature-style stories lifestyle sections
―Go and do‖ information Women: photographs, health,
food and youth sections
Heavy readers: community
announcement listings
Parenting, relationships Youth section Young readers: photos
and religion Shorter stories
Community announcement listings
Increased quantity
Politics, government Increased quantity Young readers: shorter stories,
and war Stand-alone opinion section more graphics
Colon photographs

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 Feature-style stories
Pop music Graphics Women: feature-style stories
Colour photos
Increased quantity
Entertainment listings
Science, technology Increased quantity None
and environment International focus
Longer stories
Feature-style stories
More, bigger photographs
Sports Feature-style content Men: Commentary
Television and movies Shorter stories Heavy readers: commentary
Increased quantity
Feature-style stories
Entertainment listings

Activity 6

1. Define the following terms with examples;

 Content
 Language
 Style

2. Outline content and explore its possible effects on different readers/viewers. Use examples to
support your answer.

3. Identify and explain the impact of different writing/signing techniques on reader/viewer perspective in
terms of the particular effect produced by each.

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3.2 THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENT WRITING TECHNIQUES ON READER PERSPECTIVES

A writing technique is an element used by writers in the structure of their work to try and formulate a
desired response from the chosen audience. Such elements can reveal how much value the writer puts
in an idea that appears in his/her text. The elements can also be used to draw the attention of the
reader. Writers use these different writing techniques to express their ideas, opinions to readers. An
important form of communication is writing. Writers have different purposes for writing and will use
different writing techniques to fit each purpose. To be able to get a point across in writing, a writer should
master each of the following writing techniques.

Description
Description will use the senses of feeling, seeing, hearing, smelling, and tasting. Through description, a
writer helps the reader experience what they experience. Having good descriptive details in the written
words, the writer will help the reader more clearly understand the different people, places, and things
about what the writer is writing about. Descriptive writing is the most common form of writing.

Exposition
A writer uses exposition to inform, explain, and clarify his or her ideas and thoughts. To help the
reader understand what is written, exposition goes beyond description with greater clarity and depth. It
helps the reader understand the ideas and thoughts of the writer. Like descriptive writing, expository
writing is commonly found in newspapers, magazines, and books, besides other forms of written
communication.

Narration
A writer tells a story through narration. A story has characters, a setting, a time, a problem, ways of
solving the problem, and a solution to the problem. Examples of narrative writing are short stories,
novels, and scripts written for movies and plays.

Persuasion
To try to change a reader’s point of view on a topic, subject, or position, a writer uses persuasion. The
writer will present facts and opinions to try to get the reader to understand why something is right, wrong,
or in between. Examples of persuasive writing are editorials, letters to the editor, and the words for a
political speech.

Comparison and Contrast

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By using comparison and contrast, a writer points out the similarities and differences about a certain
topic. A writer will use comparison to show the reader what is alike or in common between two points or
subject matters. Contrast will be used to point out the things that are not alike or similar. Describing how
life was like in 1911 and how life is like today in 2011 would allow the writer to use a lot of comparison
and contrast.

In-text Writing Techniques

The writer may also make use of in-text writing techniques such as sentence length, which may have an
impact on how the reader will understand the whole sentence. A short and precise sentence when
writing about an academic opinion may be interpreted to mean that the writer is absolutely sure and
clear about the idea portrayed in the sentence. For instance, ―Calcium makes teeth stronger‖. The
preciseness of the sentence seems to suggest that the writer is absolutely right and expects no criticism
from his/her readers therefore they just make a statement and do not care to explain it further. This kind
of technique is usually used by field experts or researchers. Readers usually take the sentence at face
value.

Punctuations and other non-manual

Punctuations and other non-manual features are also another type of technique employed by different
writers to express their ideas, opinions to readers. Writers use these to control the pace and tone by
which their readers go through the written text. For instance, if the writer desires that the reader poses
before reading the preceding line, he/she inserts a coma. That way the reader gets the real tone of the
text. So the impact of non-manual features is that they control the pace at which a reader goes through a
text. For instance, ―John is here‖, can be punctuated more to be, ―John is here!‖ The reader will pick
tones and pace from such non-manual features.

Diction
Diction is also another technique used by writers to carry their readers through a text. On readers,
diction has a tendency of suggesting stuff about the writer and about the setting of the text. Some words
seem to suggest that the story is about a certain sport or field. In simple terms, diction refers to the
choice in words you use to describe your thoughts and ideas. Choosing the best speech and writing for
different contexts requires using different language for different situations. The effect of diction in
changing contexts can make all the difference in how an audience perceives you, whether you seem
credible, interesting, precise, or none of the above. A lawyer speaking to a judge in court requires polite,
formal diction.

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Effective voice is shaped by words that are clear, concrete and exact. Good writers avoid words like
pretty, nice, and bad. Instead, they use words that invoke a specific effect
 A coat isn’t torn; it is tattered.
 The South African Army does not want revenge; it is thirsty for revenge.
 A door does not shut; it thuds.

Specific diction brings the reader into the scene, enabling full participation in the writer’s world

Figurative language
Figurative language refers to a way of using description to create a special image and bring out one's
emotions. It is also closely linked to the senses. There are several types of figurative language.
Figurative language is an important part of writing and is also widely used in speech. Figurative
language can be used to inform on severity or similarity, the reader’s knowledge of something else is
used on him/her to cement an idea. ―They gave the little boy an elephant load‖, this sentence appeals to
the reader’s knowledge of how big an elephant is and expects the reader to infer that the load was huge.
Figurative language is language that is not to be taken literally. It includes, to name a few, simile,
metaphor, hyperbole, oxymoron, personification and metonymy.

Simile
When two things are compared using the words "like" or '"as," this is called a simile. The comparison is
usually made between two things that are essentially unlike. Two examples are: "Mary is as beautiful as
a rising sun" or "Those flowers are as delicate as a spider web."

Metaphor
Similar to a simile, a metaphor compares two things that are not alike, but the metaphor does not use
the words "like" or "as." "Life is a hard road" is an example of a metaphor. Some metaphors are not
directly stated; they are merely suggested. These types of metaphors are called "implied metaphors."
There are also extended metaphors in which the comparison is drawn out throughout an entire poem.

Hyperbole
A hyperbole is an exaggeration. This type of figurative language is used by poets and writers for special
effect. Shakespeare uses hyperbole in Macbeth: "Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood clean
from my hand?"

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Oxymoron
A figure of speech that brings together ideas or terms that are opposites is an oxymoron. Examples
include "living death," "wise fool" and "sweet sorrow." Oxymorons are usually created with just two or
three opposing words.

Personification
Personification is when the writer gives human qualities to something that is not human. Poets often use
this type of figurative language to breathe life into nonhuman objects like trees or sunsets. For example:
"The sharp teeth of the cold wind bit through my overcoat." The cold wind doesn't have teeth to bite with,
so this is an example of personification.

Metonymy
Metonymy is a figure of speech in which one thing is used to stand for itself. Examples include "crown"
for a king and "sails" for ships.

Jargon
Jargon is the language of specialized terms used by a group or profession. It is common shorthand
among experts and if used sensibly can be a quick and efficient way of communicating. Most jargon
consists of unfamiliar terms, abstract words, nonexistent words, acronyms, and abbreviations, with an
occasional euphemism thrown in for good measure. Every profession, trade, and organization has its
own specialized terms. At first glance, jargon seems like a good thing: a quicker way to send an effective
communication, the way text message abbreviations can send common messages in a shorter, yet
understandable way. But that’s not always how things happen. Jargon can be an obstacle to effective
communication, causing listeners to tune out or fostering ill-feeling between partners in a conversation.
When jargon rules the day, the message/written text can get obscured. A key question to ask before
using jargon is, ―Who is the Receiver of my Message?‖ If you are a specialist speaking to another
specialist in your area, jargon may be the best way to send a message while forging a professional
bond- similar to the way best friends can communicate in code. For example, an information technology
(IT) systems analyst communicating with another IT employee may use jargon as a way of sharing
information in a way that reinforces the pair’s shared knowledge. But that same conversation should be
held in Standard English, free of jargon, when communicating with staff members outside the IT group.

Slang
Slang is casual spoken language which differs from dialectical speech and jargon as well as formal
speech. Some linguists think of slang as the sprinkles of color in a language, since slang is often unique,
unusual, and sometimes startling. As a general rule, slang is not used in formal spoken language, or in

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writing, unless the speaker is attempting to achieve a deliberate effect. Some slang terms, however,
make the jump from slang to accepted common usage, as was the case with ―OK.‖ Often, slang begins
as group-specific argot, which is related to jargon. Unlike jargon, however, argot is not a collection of
technical terms which are used within a group with limited outside understanding. Instead, argot is used
to differentiate members of a group from others, and to foster a sense of collective belonging in the
group. In addition, it can provide a way to talk about questionable or illegal activity without being obvious.
When argot begins to spread from small subgroups to the rest of a group of language speakers, it
becomes slang.

Slang can help your reader identify with the characters. If the slang is up-to-date by the time the novel or
written texts is published then it could make your characters seem cooler to the teens reading it, or help
them identify with your character as being like real people. Slang can also be used to date your novel.

Your readers have to know what the slang means. If you make up your own slang then there should be
some context as to its meaning. You also don't want to use slang that most people wouldn't know. For
instance, you wouldn't use American slang in a book set in South Africa, because your South African
audience won't get it. So, if you use slang, then you need to make sure your target audience will
understand it.

Dialect
Dialects are typically used in dialogue or in instances of a very clear and important narrative
voice. Oftentimes they are used to personalize the speaker, to imply an origin, or to invoke stereotypes
associated with the dialect. For instance, if only one person in the dialogue has an accent, then their
words can stand alone. If someone has a distinct dialect...say the dialect used in Kwazulu Natal, then
one can assume the person is from Kwazulu Natal. We have a long literary tradition of writing dialogue in
accents and dialect. Dialect instantly gives characters authenticity and offers insight into their attitudes,
background, and education. An accent allows the reader to use their sense of hearing and gives text
depth and flavor. On the other hand, using dialects and accents is often a distraction. When accented
words are spelled phonetically, they can frustrate and slow the reader down. If accents are inaccurate or
inauthentic, they can stereotype or even insult. With all of these risks, writing dialects has largely gone
out of fashion. While we don’t want to lose the art of conveying speech patterns through the written
word, in today’s world, there are more subtle ways to illustrate character traits.

Irony
Irony is an important way in which writers can develop deeper levels of meaning in a text. And it also is a
very effective way of engaging and involving a reader in a text. It is a very common ―literary device‖ that
writers employ - far more regularly than you might realize. You will find irony in many kinds of texts - not

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just literary fiction and poetry so be on the lookout for it as it's a subtle technique that leads to high
marks! Dramatic irony is a special type of irony used mainly in the theatre and in TV and film.

Humour
Some of the greatest writing tools an individual can have to make a write-up additional entertaining
would be applying the tools of humour and comedy. Being able to use these issues proficiently will make
any text a lot extra intriguing to read and additional human. By applying some humour in your text you
can even bolster your top quality and boost it. Even so, this can be sort of tough to pull off. There are
some methods in which you can get humour into your articles devoid of coming off as ridiculous. The
writer must know these and apply them effectively otherwise the reader may not take the written texts
seriously or may get bored while reading.

Exaggeration is one particular of the ideal approaches to express humor. Showing humanity as it is is
being honest but it also enables people to laugh. When you exaggerate issues it will eventually lead you
to the humor in most items.

Satire
Satire is a technique that ridicules particular people or objects in order to point out problems in an
attempt to instigate (bring about) change. Satire covers many different methods including irony,
sarcasm, burlesque, parody, exaggeration, juxtaposition and double entendres.

Sarcasm
Sarcasm is a sharp or cutting statement like a taunt or jibe, meant to really drive a point home. It can be
meant to give pain and can include irony. On the other hand, sometimes you can make a point and still
be funny. William Shakespeare is well-known for his use of sarcasm. In the play "Julius Caesar," the
character of Mark Antony gives a speech at the funeral of Caesar that begins, "Friends, countrymen,
lend me your ears." In this speech, Mark Antony repeats the phrase "honourable man" several times
speaking of Brutus, whose actions (murdering Caesar) have been anything but honourable. This
repetition has the effect of completely inverting its literal meaning. Writers use sarcasm to criticize
everything from religion and government to philosophers and other writers. When sarcasm is written
instead of spoken, the reader must be able to tell from the context as there is no intonation to rely upon.
This difficulty may be the origin of the axiom "sarcasm is the lowest form of wit, but the highest form of
intelligence."

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When writing or speaking to someone, be clear about your goal or message. What is your purpose in
communicating with this person? If you are not sure, then your audience won't be sure either. To be
clear, try to minimize the number of ideas in each sentence. Make sure that it's easy for your reader to
understand your meaning. People should not "read between the lines" and make assumptions on their
own to understand what you are trying to say. Therefore, changes must be made when writing ―rules
must not be obeyed all the time‖ in order to meet the needs of the audience.

3.3 THE INFLUENCE OF SPECIFIC LANGUAGE STRUCTURES AND FEATURES

Understanding the language of other people is essential to understanding the culture of that people. It is
hard to understand the beliefs, attitudes, values, and world view of a people without understanding their
language and the nuances of how that language is used. Imagine you see people go by a certain rock
and seemingly walk out of their way to avoid it. Suppose they believe an evil spirit resides there. How
could you possibly know that without being able to ask and understand their answer? All languages
have definite patterns in the sounds their speakers use, in how those sounds are combined to form
symbols, and how those symbols are organized into meaningful sentences. When people encounter an
unfamiliar language for the first time, they are often confused and disoriented, but after becoming
familiar with the language, they eventually discover its' rules and how the various parts are interrelated.

 Structures of language refer to characteristics of the overall ordering and organisation of texts.

 Features of language refer to the grammar of speech and of writing.

3.3.1 BASIC LANGUAGE STRUCTURES

There are a number of ways we describe languages; one includes classifying them according to their
basic grammatical structures:

 Isolating languages (aka analytic) - ones that use invariable words, but have strict rules of word
order to keep the grammatical meanings of things clear.
o Included are Chinese, Indonesian, Pidgins and Creoles.
o English is inflexional (see below), but has been moving towards being isolating.
o Isolating languages are easy for adults to learn, but not as easy for children.

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 Agglutinating languages (aka synthetic)- ones that add very regular prefixes and suffixes to main
words in order to express nuances
o Included are Finnish, Turkish, Japanese, Tamil, etc.
o These languages are very explicit and logical, and easy for children to learn.

 Inflexional languages (aka fusional)- languages that use prefixes and suffixes, but also vary words
to express nuances of meaning
o Included are Indo-European and Afro-Asiatic languages.
o Declensions -- variations on nouns (e.g. man, men, man’s, men’s).
o Conjugations -- variations on verbs (e.g. sing, sang, sung).
o Inflexional languages can be difficult to learn, because they usually involve many irregularities.

 Amalgamating languages (aka polysynthetic) -- a much smaller group of languages that tend
towards complex words that carry a sentence-worth of information.
o Included are Basque, many Amerindian languages, and Klingon.
o These languages are usually very difficult to learn, unless you are brought up with them. The
Basques joke that they are immune to the Devil because he couldn't learn their language!

Part of writing effectively is knowing and respecting your audience: all members of your audience. To
accomplish this, it is important to be sensitive to racial, ethnic, age, religious, socioeconomic, political,
occupational, and gender groups. By doing so, writers can avoid perpetuating and reinforcing
stereotypes. Using unbiased language is a matter of showing respect for and sensitivity to the feelings
and beliefs of others.

Avoiding Biased Language

Bias is prejudice toward or unfair characterization of the members of a particular group. Bias is so
common in speech and writing that we often are not even aware of it. But it is the responsibility of
everyone to become conscious of and write without bias. The following guideline will help you to
accomplish this objective. When writing, avoid using offensive terms when referring to an individual or
group of people.

Not: They have hired more broads this year than men.
Nobody used to hire micks around here.
But: They have hired more women this year than men.
Nobody used to hire individuals around here of Irish descent.

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Moreover, realize that terms once considered to be accurate or acceptable may no longer be and may
even be considered offensive. When writing about a group of people, use the term that the group
currently uses to refer to themselves.
Not: If he is elected, he would be the first Negro in the White House.
He has had the physical handicap since he was five.
There are many elderly people in our town.
But: If he is elected, he would be the first African American in the White House.
He has had the physical impairment since he was five.
There are many senior citizens [or seniors] in our town.
Avoid expressions that stereotype a group of people, even when the stereotype is a positive one.

Not: I'm sorry; I must have been having a blonde moment.

Our neighbor drives like a farmer.
Mpho Dlamini, a Zulu exchange learner, is of course good at science.
Since the surgery, my father moves like an old fogy.
But: I'm sorry; I must not have understood what you said.
Our neighbor is a slow driver.
Mpho Dlamini, a hard-working exchange learner, does well in science.
Since the surgery, my father moves more slowly.

Avoiding Gender Bias

Gender bias in language, or sexist language, is language that stereotypes or demeans an individual or
individuals because of their gender. Language that is sexist unnecessarily distinguishes between or
brings attention to differences between men and women in ability, temperament, behavior, or
occupation. Such language, whether used intentionally or unintentionally, often irritates or offends
readers. Thus, writers should pay attention to their style to avoid gender bias.

Generic Pronouns
Traditionally, the male pronouns were used to represent all members of a group, regardless of gender.
However, many readers feel that using the generic he and him and similar pronouns encourages and
reinforces gender-role stereotyping—that is, the belief that men are more able or better-suited to hold a
certain occupation or status in society or the like. In order to avoid gender bias, do not use male
pronouns to refer to people in general.

Not: Please remind everyone to bring his notepad and pen or laptop to the meeting.
Mark each potential donor's name off the list after you have talked to him.

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 Every person I talked to said he could come to the company party.
To fix this problem, one option is to use both the male and female pronouns.
But: Please remind everyone to bring his or her notepad and pen or laptop to the meeting.
Mark each potential donor's name off the list after you have talked to him or her.
Every person I talked to said he or she could come to the company party.

This construction can become distracting when overused, however. To avoid this, you can also change
the sentence to use the plural form of the pronoun. Make sure when you do so that you change the noun
that the pronoun refers to the plural form, as well.
Examples: Please remind team members to bring their notepad and pen or laptop to the meeting.
Mark potential donors' names off the list after you have talked to them.
All the people I talked to said they could come to the company party.

In longer texts, you can alternate the use of gender pronouns, using he in one paragraph (or section,
chapter, example, and so forth) and she in another, for instance. (Keep in mind that some readers,
however, may find this method somewhat distracting.) If you use this method, try to use pronouns that
counter established stereotypes.

Examples: On her first day of work, each airplane mechanic should complete all of the necessary new-
hire paperwork.
Every doctor should carry her pager with her when she is on call.
Before leaving work each day, the secretary should write down his most important tasks to
be completed the next day.

Or, you can also recast the sentence and remove the pronoun reference completely.

Examples: On the first day of work, each airplane mechanic should complete all of the necessary new-
hire paperwork.
Every doctor should carry a pager when on call.
Before leaving work each day, the secretary should write down the most important tasks to
be completed the next day.

Some writers have responded to the singular pronoun problem by replacing the generic he with the
generic she. This simply replaces one gender bias with another, however, and so this practice should
likewise be avoided.

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Not: Each employee should record daily the hours she spends on each project.
Every member of our staff gives her very best effort.
After the three-month probation period, a new employee can elect her medical and other benefits.
But: Each employee should record daily the hours he or she spends on each project.
All members of our staff give their very best effort.
After the three-month probation period, a new employee can elect medical and other benefits.

Though in speech we often use the plural pronoun with a singular noun (particularly when preserving the
anonymity of a person), this construction should be avoided in formal writing.

Not: Each member of the board denied that they were involved in the matter.
One staff member said they would not be able to attend the training.
Every manager agreed that they would come to the summit meeting.
But: Each member of the board denied being involved in the matter.
One staff member said he or she would not be able to attend the training.
The managers agreed that they would come to the summit meeting.

And finally, avoid such constructions as he/she and s/he, as they are awkward and unattractive.

Not: The release forms must be signed by each contractor before s/he can be hired.
Each new hire should bring his/her completed documentation on the first day of work.
But: The release forms must be signed by each contractor before he or she can be hired.
New hires should bring their completed documentation on the first day of work.

Word Choice
Do not use man, boy, and the like (or words containing such prefixes or suffixes) to refer to both
genders.

Not: The firemen arrived on the scene shortly after the blaze started.
Tomorrow I am meeting with the chairman.
Do you know if the mailman has come yet?
But: The firefighters arrived on the scene shortly after the blaze started.
Tomorrow I am meeting with the chair.
Do you know if the letter carrier has come yet?

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Gender Stereotypes
Do not reinforce social or occupational stereotypes. Do not include unnecessary information that
unnecessarily differentiates between genders or calls attention to the gender or gender role of an
individual.

Not: Jan is going to school to become a lady doctor.

Jeff Davids is a superb secretary, despite the fact that he is a man.
Mark Mendenhall, a manager, and Linda Johnson, a supervisor and mother of two, are vying for
the position.
But: Jan is going to school to become a doctor.
Jeff Davids is a superb secretary.
Mark Mendenhall, a manager, and Linda Johnson, a supervisor, are vying for the position.

This rule applies when giving examples, as well. If you consistently use examples that portray men and
women in their ―traditional‖ roles, you are reinforcing long-held stereotypes. Instead, use examples that
challenge these stereotypes.

Not: The men in our department are good employees as well as good breadwinners.
Three out of four women prefer our brand of dish soap.
But: The people in our department are good employees as well as good breadwinners.
Three out of four customers prefer our brand of dish soap.

Furthermore, do not use language that is demeaning or patronizing to either gender.

Not: She is an excellent manager, for a woman.

For a male, he's a rather competent nurse.
The women on our staff—those who haven't left to become stay-at-home mother—are hard-
working and loyal.
But: She is an excellent manager.
He's a rather competent nurse.
The women [or better, the employees] on our staff are hard-working and loyal.

Gender-Neutral Terms
Biased Unbiased
businessman businessperson
chairman chair, chairperson, head

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clergyman member of the clergy, minister, pastor
Congressman member of Congress, legislator, representative
fireman firefighter
foreman supervisor
mailman letter carrier, mail carrier, postal worker
mankind humankind, humans, people
manpower Personnel, staff
policeman police officer
salesman salesperson
stewardess flight attendant
waitress/waiter server
Avoiding Racial Bias
Another form of bias is racial or ethnic bias, which stereotypes or demeans others based on their race or
ethnicity. Blatantly derogatory statements, such as racial slurs, are unacceptable in any context.
Not: A family of Polacks moved into their neighborhood last month.
They have hired several Japs in our department in the last year.

But: A Polish family moved into their neighborhood last month. (Or, better, “A new family moved into
their neighborhood last month.”)
They have hired several Japanese employees for our department in the last year. (Or, better, “They
have hired several Japanese employees for our department in the last year.”)

Such distinctions based on race should be made only if they are important to the context. Otherwise, it is
unnecessary and inappropriate to mention an individual's or group's ethnicity. In addition to racial slurs,
racial bias also includes humor targeted at a particular group. Such jokes are never appropriate. As is
the case with gender bias, racial and ethnic bias can be perpetuated by thoughtless or repeated use of
negative examples, such as referring to black unmarried mothers receiving welfare or Zimbabweans
being illegal aliens. Such obviously biased, and generally exaggerated or inaccurate, examples should
be avoided.

Furthermore, as indicated above, terms used to identify a group of people often acquire negative
connotations over time. For this reason, it is not always easy to determine the correct or currently
acceptable name for a group. Therefore, when referring to a group of people, use the term that they
currently use to refer to themselves. If you are not sure what that term is, ask a member of the group.

Not: I believe this region was once the primary home of the Eskimos.

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 A large number of Indians attend my son's school.
Many Oriental learners study at that university.
But: I believe this region was once the primary home of the Inuit people.
A large number of Navajo children attend my son's school.
Many Asian learners study at that university.

Avoiding Age Bias

In South Africa and various other countries, looking and feeling young is considered by many to be very
important. Perhaps because of this obsession with perpetual youth, aging, and particularly becoming
―old,‖ are sometimes looked down upon. However, it is unacceptable to show disrespect or disregard for
individuals beyond a certain age, just as it is unacceptable to show bias toward any group.
Avoid using demeaning terms to refer to older individuals.

Not: My manager, Mr. Van De Merwe, just had his 50th birthday. Now he's definitely over the hill.
Mrs. Jayson, that old biddy, sometimes requires too much of her employees.
But: My manager, Mr. Winchester, just had his 50th birthday.
Mrs. Jayson sometimes requires too much of her employees.

Also, avoid examples, illustrations, and jokes that are disrespectful or that reinforce negative stereotypes
based on someone's age.

Ethnic Bias
In South Africa there is a great deal of conscious and unconscious prejudice against what are perceived
to be the characteristics of other nationalities. The principle that all persons are created equal is
accepted, but society cannot fully disguise its nationalistic bias. Language frequently fosters this bias.
Avoid ethnic bias all the time.

Avoiding Euphemisms
When writing to avoid bias, it is also important to be cautious when using euphemisms. A euphemism is
a mild or vague word or phrase that is substituted for one thought to be offensive or blunt. Such words
should be avoided when they are simply used in irony or derisively as a means of mocking political
correctness. Though they have their place (as when a speaker or writer is genuinely trying to be tactful
or sensitive to another's feelings), euphemisms can be unnecessarily wordy and indirect. Therefore,
when avoiding bias, use euphemisms appropriately.

Not: When your hair turns white and your face has more character, talk to us about helping you meet

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 your long-term care needs.
Those in our country with a darker skin color are more susceptible to strokes.
But: If you would like more information, talk to us about helping you meet your long-term care needs.
African Americans are more susceptible to strokes than other Americans.

Ellipsis
Writers have many tools at their disposal to convey different ideas in their writing, and not all of these
tools come in the form of words. Punctuation can often convey as much meaning as words, and they can
indicate ideas words sometimes can't--such as silence, pauses, and emotional cues such as excitement.
One such form of punctuation is the ellipsis, which is meant to indicate either omitted text, a pause within
a sentence, or an idea trailing off into silence. An ellipsis is typically indicated by a series of three periods
(...) and can occur anywhere in a sentence, depending on the intended meaning. An ellipsis does not
always come in the form of three dots. It may also be indicated by an M-dash (--) or three asterisks (***),
but the most common form is the three periods (...). This technique has led to the ellipsis's colloquial
name, the "dot dot dot."

Because an ellipsis does not necessarily mean the same thing in all instances of its appearance, the
reader must be responsible for deciphering the meaning of its presence. When placed in a sentence, an
ellipsis may indicate to the reader that a word or words has been omitted, but it may also mean that
a silence or pause has been indicated.

The real meaning is largely up to the reader to decide. Here is an example:

John flew to...Zimbabwe.

The ellipsis in this sentence may indicate that the specific location in Zimbabwe has been omitted,
John flew to Harare, Zimbabwe.

Or, it may indicate that the speaker of the sentence has paused before mentioning Zimbabwe, perhaps
to think about where John went, or perhaps for some other intention, such as hiding John's specific
location within Zimbabwe. In this case, the reader is not given enough contextual information to make
the determination, but in most cases, the reader will have gleaned enough information from previous
sentences and paragraphs to decipher what the writer has intended by using an ellipsis.

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The ellipsis is not limited to writing in English, either. When making long lists of numbers,
mathematicians and learners may use the ellipsis to indicate a continuation of the list to a certain point.
For example, when counting by tens to 100, one might write the following: 10, 20, 30 ...100. This
indicates the person counting should continue counting by ten past thirty all the way to one hundred, but
the ellipsis saves space on the page by cutting out what should be obvious to the astute reader.

Activity 7

Analyse the influence of bias (cultural, religious or peer preferences, misrepresentation, discrimination,
racist, sexist, ageist), humour, irony, sarcasm, use of omission and silence, figurative expressions,
repetition, hyperbole, generalisations, stereotyping, pictures and captions, typography and grammar.

3.4 THE EFFECT OF PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES IN VISUALS

Production techniques are the features used to make the text(s) interesting and unique. Techniques may
include: music, dialogue, lighting, graphics, colour, special effects, soundtrack, camera work, layout, use
of space, oral and visual production techniques, or use of links. By looking at the production techniques
closely you will gain a better understanding of how the text has been produced in order to present the
themes, characters, settings, and plot.

Range of visuals includes:

 Photographs
 Transparencies
 Slides
 Posters
 Graphics
 Videos
 Films

Film Techniques
Film techniques are the term used to describe the ways that meaning is created in film.

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Camera angles
It is important that you do not confuse camera angles and camera shots. Camera shots are used to
demonstrate different aspects of setting, themes and characters. Camera angles are used to position the
viewer so that they can understand the relationships between the characters. These are very important
for shaping meaning in film as well as in other visual texts. The following examples will help you to
understand the differences between the different camera angles

 A bird's eye angle (animation on right) is an angle that looks directly down upon a scene. This
angle is often used as an establishing angle, along with an extreme long shot, to establish setting.

 A high angle (animation on right) is a camera angle that looks down upon a subject. A character
shot with a high angle will look vulnerable or small. These angles are often used to demonstrate to
the audience a perspective of a particular character. The example above demonstrates to us the
perspective or point of view of a vampire. As a viewer we can understand that the vampire feels
powerful.

 An eye-level angle (animation on right) puts the audience on an equal footing with the
character/s. This is the most commonly used angle in most films as it allows the viewers to feel
comfortable with the characters.

 A low angle (animation on right) is a camera angle that looks up at a character. This is the
opposite of a high angle and makes a character look more powerful. This can make the audience
feel vulnerable and small by looking up at the character. This can help the responder feel empathy if
they are viewing the frame from another character's point of view.

As with camera shots, you will be able to see many examples of camera angles in any film or visual text
that you view. The next time that you watch television or see a film, take note of the camera angles and
think of how they affect your perception (idea) of different characters.

Another camera angle that you might come across is a Dutch angle.

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A Dutch angle (animation on right) is used to demonstrate the confusion of a character. The example
above should disorientate you.

Lighting
Lighting is a very important aspect for shaping meaning in films. What kind of atmosphere is created in a
room lit by candles? Have you ever heard of mood lighting? A room that is brightly lit by neon lights
might seem to be sterile or a shadowy room might be eerie or scary. The lighting technicians in a film
crew have the task of creating lighting to suit the mood and atmosphere of each scene in a film. It is
important to ensure that lighting suits the characters in the frames. For instance, if the two people in a
film are very happy and the scene is lit brightly what would be the effect on the atmosphere if the lighting
were dark and shadowy? Remember that lighting is used in still image visual texts as well as in films.

Photographs
Pictures, and especially photographs, carry with them implicit narratives, making them ideal writing
prompts for generating new short story ideas. In the absence of an object or a model, you may be able
to use photographs. They will not work effectively, however, unless they are large enough for the
audience to view without straining. Normal-size photos are too small to be seen clearly without being
passed around—which only diverts the audience from what you are saying. In order to clearly explain
certain concepts, it is important to use photographs. The writer must ensure that the size, composition,
layout, foregrounding, back grounding, the use of colour/black and white and borders are correct in order
to ensure that the reader clearly understand the purpose and use of photograph in the text.

Drawings
Diagrams, sketches, and other kinds of drawings are inexpensive to make and can be designed to
illustrate your points exactly. This more than compensates for what they may lack in realism.

Charts
Charts provide easy-to-interpret visual representations of data. While charts do not provide the detail
typically found in tables, they allow audiences to understand the "big picture" easily. Consider using a
chart to depict group data over time. Charts convey the correlation between trends and time. Depending
on the information you need to depict, you will have to use the appropriate chart:

 Line Graphs: Line graphs depict trends over long, continuous intervals. For instance, you would use
a line graphs to show the number of women and men in parliament over thirty years. The axis and
grid provide a background for curves on a line graphs. Since you will typically have more than one
trend depicted on this type of graphs, use different colors and label each trend.

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 Column Graphs: Column graphs are easy for audiences to understand. These charts present trends
over a few (or grouped) time intervals. If you need to show the number of Black African, Coloureds,
Native Africans, and White Africans in parliament during specific years (1977, 1982, 1995, and 2007)
over a thirty year period, a column chart is a good choice. A column graphs should have no more
than eight single bars and a maximum of four bars per group (i.e. all ethnic groups are represented
under each specific year). For your column graphs to be legible, the spacing between each bar
should be: 1/2 bar width for single bars and one bar width between grouped bars.

 Bar Graphs: Bar graphs are similar to column graphs, except the bars run horizontally rather than
vertically. These charts compare groups at a single point in time. For example, bar graphs would
accurately depict the number of Black African, Coloureds, Native Africans, and White Africans in the
1982 parliament. Visually-effective bar charts should be spaced as follows: 1/2 bar width between
single bars and one bar width between grouped bars. Below is an example of a bar chart.

 Pie Charts: A pie chart effectively displays the proportion of the parts of a whole. For instance, a pie
chart can visually display the percentage of men and women in parliament during a particular
session. Each slice of the pie chart must be labeled, and the number or percentage should be placed
under the corresponding label. Avoid clutter by having no more than six slices within a pie. Consider
combining smaller groups to reduce the slices to six. Below is an example of a pie chart.

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 Scatter plots: Scatter plots show correlations between raw data, but they are relatively difficult to
see and understand. Use scatter plots only with specialized audiences. Otherwise, you may confuse
your audience. Typically, a point on a scatter plot represents thousands of cases. A scatter plot is
useful to show how citizens vote during an election.

Maps
In geography maps are one of the most important tools researchers, cartographers, learners and others
can use to examine the entire Earth or a specific part of it. Simply defined maps are pictures of the
Earth's surface. They can be general reference and show landforms, political boundaries, water, the
locations of cities, or in the case of thematic maps, show different but very specific topics such as the
average rainfall distribution for an area or the distribution of a certain disease throughout a county.
Today with the increased use of GIS, also known as Geographic Information Systems, thematic maps
are growing in importance. There are however applications for different types of general reference maps
when the different types are understood correctly. These maps do not just show a city's location for
example; instead the different map types can show a plethora of information about places around the
world.

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Graphics often combine text, illustration, and colour. Graphic design may consist of the deliberate
selection, creation, or arrangement of typography alone, as in a brochure, flier, poster, web site, or book
without any other element. Clarity or effective communication may be the objective, association with
other cultural elements may be sought, or merely, the creation of a distinctive style.

Overhead Transparencies
Overhead transparencies are useful for audience settings of 20 to 50 people and can be produced
quickly, easily, and inexpensively. Any camera-ready artwork, whether word charts, illustrations, or
diagrams can be made into transparencies using standard office paper copiers.

 Most manufacturers of paper copiers offer clear and colored acetate sheets that run through
copying machines like paper, but transfer a black image into acetate for use as overhead
transparencies.
 The standard transparency size is 8=" x 11''. The only piece of hardware required is an overhead
transparency projector.
 Overlay transparencies provide a good cumulative presentation.
 Speaker can use an overhead projector with significant light in the room, thereby enabling the
speaker to maintain eye contact with the audience.

Posters
Posters are prepared graphic devices that can be made of a variety of materials and media -
photographs, diagrams, graphs, word messages, or a combination of these. Posters work best in smaller
audience sizes.

 Posters are permanent and portable.

 Posters can be simple or very elaborate.
 Posters can be used alone or in a series to tell a story.

Videotape

If you are talking about the impact caused by a low-speed automobile accident, what could be more
effective than showing slow-motion video of crash tests? Or suppose you are explaining the different
kinds of roller coasters found in amusement parks. Your best visual aid would be a video showing those
coasters in action. The detail, immediacy, and vividness of video are hard to match. Now that it is readily

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available in digital formats on DVDs, peer-to-peer networks, and Web sites like YouTube it’s easier than
ever to incorporate into a speech. Despite its advantages, however, adding video to a speech can
cause more harm than good if it is not done carefully and expertly. First, make sure the clip is not too
long. While a 30-second video can illustrate your ideas in a memorable way, anything much longer will
distract attention from the speech itself. Second, make sure the video is cued to start exactly where you
want it. Third, if necessary, edit the video to the precise length you need so it will blend smoothly into
your speech. Fourth, beware of low-resolution video. This is particularly important in the case of
YouTube clips, which may look fine on a computer but are blurry and distorted when projected on a large
screen or monitor.

Videotape electronically carries both a picture and a sound track. Its features of sound, movement, vivid
image, color, and variety hold an audience's attention the way film does. Videotape can be used to
program an entire presentation, or to support a speaker's remarks by highlighting certain topics.

Activity 8
1. List examples of visuals and a range of production techniques.
2. What are the major advantages of using visual aids?

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Practical Activity

1. Watch a how-to television program (a cooking or gardening show, for example) or the weather
portion of a local newscast (for example, on ETV or SABC 3). Notice how the speaker uses visual
aids to help communicate the message. What kinds of visual aids are used? How do they enhance
the clarity, interest, and retainability of the speaker’s message? What would the speaker have to do
to communicate the message effectively without visual aids?

2. Plan to use visual aids in at least one of your classroom speeches. Be creative in devising your aids,
and be sure to follow the guidelines discussed in this section for using them. After the speech,
analyze how effectively you employed your visual aids, what you learned about the use of visual
aids from your experience, and what changes you would make in using visual aids if you were to
deliver the speech again.

3. As a veterinarian and owner of a small-animal practice, you work closely with your local humane
society to help control a growing population of unwanted dogs and cats. You and your staff devote
many hours annually in free and reduced-cost medical services to animals adopted from the society.
Now you have been asked to speak to the city council in support of legislation proposed by the
society for stronger enforcement of animal licensing and leash laws.

In your speech, you plan to include statistics that (1) compare estimates of the city’s dog population
with the number of licenses issued during the past five years and (2) show the small number of
citations given by local law enforcement for unleashed pets during the same period of time. Knowing
from your college public speaking class how valuable visual aids can be in presenting statistics, you
decide to illustrate one set of statistics with a chart and the other with a graph.

 For which set of statistics will a chart be more appropriate?

 For which set will a graph be more appropriate?
 Of the three kinds of graphs discussed in this chapter (bar, line, pie), which will work best for
your statistics and why?

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67 | P a g e US 8975 At the end of this training session you will be able to read analyse and respond to a variety of texts