Curious & Recreational Math's

“Do not worry about your difficulties in mathematics. I can

assure you mine are still greater.”
- Albert Einstein

1.0 - Positional Numeral Systems

In digital world when we deal with computer and information
technology, normally we require a working knowledge of
traditional numeral system, i.e. Binary, Octal, Decimal and
Hexadecimal as well as the other numeral system which plays
a major role in computing.
The numeral systems like Ternary, Quaternary, Quinary,
Senary, Septenary, Nonary, and Undecimal, are the some
examples of positional number systems, which distinguish
themselves from the other existing numeral systems and
make them worth and need an extra look.
1.1 - Number Representation of Numeral System
A number is a count or measurement that is really an idea in
our minds. A digit is a single symbol used to make numbers.
The concept of number is the most basic and fundamental in
the world of mathematics. The first digit in any numbering
system is always a zero.
A base 2 (Binary) number contains 2 digits: 0 and 1, a base 3
(Ternary) numbers contains 3 digits: 0, 1 and 2, a base 4
(Quaternary) number contains 4 digits: 0, 1, 2, and 3 and so
on a base 10 (Decimal) number contains 10 digits from 0 to 9.

In general, in a number system with a base or radix n, the

digits used are from 0 to n-1 and the numbers can be
represented as:

Book 1 of 2 — “A fun way to play and learn.” 11

 Curious & Recreational Math's

Where x = Number, b = Base, a = any digit in that base. Any

real number x can be, represented in a positional number
system of base “b” by the expression.

The above expansion form is explained below:

1.2 - Decimal (Base 10) Number System
Positional decimal systems from 1 to 9 and include a zero,
use symbols (called digits) for the ten values (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, and 9) to represent the 10 numbers.
When we write decimal (base 10) numbers, we use a
positional notation system. Each digit is multiplied by an
appropriate power of 10 depending on its position in the
number system: For example decimal number 201,

Table 01 - 01 – Decimal place value chart

Book 1 of 2 - “A fun way to play and learn.” 12

 Curious & Recreational Math's

Decimal Number System

A Base 10 positional number system has 10
symbols hence it has base =10
The maximum value of a single digit is 9 which is
one less than the value of the base
Each position of a digit represents a symbol and
having a place value and an absolute value
1.3 - Place Value System and Zero
The Place-value system, first seen around 3rd-century.
Aryabhata, born in 476, was the first in the line of great
mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian
mathematics and Indian astronomy. He invented the concept
of Zero. He did not use a symbol for Zero
Mathematical equations were spelled out or spoken in poetry
or chants rather than symbols. Different words symbolized
Zero as "Sunya" (void).
In 628, a Hindu astronomer and mathematician named
Brahmagupta, developed a symbol for Zero. He also
developed mathematical operations using Zero, wrote rules
for reaching Zero through addition and subtraction, and the
results of using Zero in equations. This was the first time in
the world that Zero was recognized as a number of its own, as
both an idea and a symbol
From India, the Zero made its way to China and back to the
Middle East, where it was taken up by the mathematicians,
astronomers, and geographers like Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn
Musa al-Khwarizmi of Persia around 773.
It was al-Khwarizmi, who first learned and translated the
Indian concepts of Decimal numerical system and arithmetic
operations with zero in Arabic and showed how the zero
could function in algebraic equations to Arabians.
His work later has been translated to Latin in 12th century
about Indian numerals and introduced the decimal positional
number system to the Western world.

Book 1 of 2 — “A fun way to play and learn.” 13

 Curious & Recreational Math's

Earliest evidence of the zero

Image 01 - 01 – A stone tablet showing the first inscription

with 270 (showing Zero in 2nd line) on the wall of at
Chaturbhuj Vishnu Temple also known as Temple of Zero
constructed around 850 AD in Gwalior fort , Madya Pradesh.
Scientists have discovered evidence of the zero symbol in the
Indian Bakhshali manuscript, a mathematical text which was
discovered in 1881 near the village Bakhshali. Pakistan.

Image 01 — 02 The Bakhshali Manuscript

Carbon dating indicates that the manuscript dates from as
early as 3rd century, making it the world’s oldest recorded
origin of the zero symbol.
The experiment conducted by the University of Oxford using
the radiocarbon dating technology on the Bakhshali
manuscript had revealed that it dates to early 3rd century,
which is five centuries older than previously estimated.

Book 1 of 2 - “A fun way to play and learn.” 14

 Curious & Recreational Math's

World's oldest zero symbol, carved in a sandstone as a dot in

a set of script from the Khmer civilization.

The above inscription conveying the message that the Chaka

era has reached the year 605 on the fifth day of the waning
moon. the inscription was discovered during the end of the
19th century at the Trapang Prei archaeological site in Kratie
province of northeastern Cambodia by French archaeologist
Adhemard Leclere (1853-1917) in 1891, but his colleague and
compatriot George Coedes (1886-1969) later classified it with
the name K-127. Archaeologists date this phrase to 687 AD,
in pre-Angkor Cambodia.
The same historian Coedes subsequently divulged the
importance of the discovery in the article About the Origin of
Arabic Numbers, published in 1931.
American mathematician Amir Aczel (1950-2015) defended
the significance of K-127 strengthening the idea that the zero
symbol's origin in the decimal number system comes from
Asia.

Book 1 of 2 — “A fun way to play and learn.” 15

 Curious & Recreational Math's

By the ninth century the Zero had entered the Arabic numeral
system in a form resembling the oval shape we use today.
It wasn't until the 1500 that the Hindu – Arabic numerals
began to take hold among merchants as well as scholars and
accepted because it is very easy to represent through decimal
place value system.
Two French Mathematicians and Albert Einstein Quotes
about Indian Numerical System.
“The ingenious method of expressing every possible number
using a set of ten symbols (each symbol having a place value
and an absolute value) emerged in India. The idea seems so
simple nowadays that its significance and profound
importance is no longer appreciated. Its simplicity lies in the
way it facilitated calculation and placed arithmetic foremost
amongst useful inventions. The importance of this invention is
more readily appreciated when one considers that it was
beyond the two greatest men of Antiquity, Archimedes and
Apollonius.”
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749 – 1827)

"The Indian mind has always had for calculations and the
handling of numbers an extraordinary inclination, ease and
power, such as no other civilization in history ever possessed
to the same degree. So much so that Indian culture regarded
the science of numbers as the noblest of its arts…..
A thousand years ahead of Europeans, Indian savants knew
that the zero and infinity were mutually inverse notions."
Georges Ifrah (1947)

"We owe a lot to the Indians, who taught us how to count,

without which no worthwhile scientific discovery could have
been made."
Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955)

Book 1 of 2 - “A fun way to play and learn.” 16

 Curious & Recreational Math's

1.4 - Binary (Base 2) Numeral System

Binary systems use 0 & 1 to represent any number. It has
been invented by an ancient Indian scholar named Pingala
(2nd or 3rd century BC), He also authored Chandahsastra
(Pingala-Sutras). He explored the Combinatorics (A branch
of Mathematics which is about counting, enumeration,
combination & permutation of sets of musical elements and
the mathematical relations that characterize their musical
properties.) His work, Chandahsastra means science of
meters is a concept on music and can be dated back to 2nd
century BCE.

Pingala contribution to mathematics

The formation of a Matrix.
Invention of the Binary Number System.
The concept of a Binary Code.
First use of the Fibonacci sequence, which he
refers to as Matrameru.
First use of Pascal's Triangle, which he refers to
as Meruprastara.
The discussion of the Combinatorics (Ankapasa)
of meter corresponds to the co-efficient of
Binomial Theorem and Fibonacci series.
Modern Day Binary (Base 2) Numerical System
In Mathematics and Digital Electronics, a binary number is a
number expressed in the binary numeral system or base-2
numeral system which represents numeric values using two
different symbols: typically 0 (Zero) and 1 (One). The base-2
system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Because of
its straight forward implementation in digital electronic
circuitry using On & Off logic gates, the binary system is
used internally by almost all modern computers and
computer-based devices. Each digit is referred to as a bit.

Book 1 of 2 — “A fun way to play and learn.” 17

 Curious & Recreational Math's

Gottfried Leibniz (1646 – 1716) refined the binary number

system, which is the foundation of virtually all digital
computers.
In 1854, British mathematician George Boole (1815 – 1864)
published a landmark paper detailing an algebraic system of
logic that would become known as Boolean algebra. His
logical calculus became instrumental in the design of digital
electronic circuitry.
Converting Decimal Number to Binary Number
Decimal to binary follows a straight forward method.
It involves dividing the number to be converted, say N, by 2
(since binary is in base 2), and making note of the
remainder. We continue dividing the quotient (N / 2) by 2,
until we reach the division of (1 / 2), also making note of all
remainders.

Example 1: Convert 201 from Decimal to Binary.

1) Divide 201 by 2, making note of the remainder, continue
dividing quotients by 2, making note of all the remainders.
Also note the star mark (*) beside the last remainder.
Division & Quotient Remainder = R

201 / 2 = 100 R=1

100 / 2 = 50 R=0
50 / 2 = 25 R=0
25 / 2 = 12 R=1
12 / 2 = 6 R=0
6/2=3 R=0
3/2=1 R=1
1/2=0 R = 1*
Table 01- 02 – Binary conversion of number 201

Book 1 of 2 - “A fun way to play and learn.” 18

 Curious & Recreational Math's

The sequence of remainders from bottom column gives the

answer. Starting from bottom i.e. 1* (because we write from
left to right) , we have 11001001. Therefore, in decimal 201
equal to in binary 11001001.
There is one easiest way to convert from decimal to binary.
It is very simple and fastest way.
The number to be converted, say N which is odd put 1 as
the remainder. If the N is even put 0 as the remainder, if any
odd number divided by 2 gives decimal point value 0.5
(neglect the decimal point), and take the whole number
value and proceed further and carry out the operation until
you reach 1.
Example 2: Convert 201 from Decimal to Binary
Odd/Even Quotient Division – Odd =1
(Neglect the number (Reminder)
after decimal point of &
the Quotient) Even = 0

Odd 201 201 / 2 = 100.5 1

Even 100 100 / 2 = 50 0

Even 50 50 / 2 = 25 0

Odd 25 25 / 2 = 12.5 1

Even 12 12 / 2 = 6 0

Even 6 6/2=3 0

Odd 3 3 / 2 = 1.5 1

Odd 1 1 / 2 = 0.5 1*

Table 01- 03 – Binary conversion by odd or even

Book 1 of 2 — “A fun way to play and learn.” 19

 Curious & Recreational Math's

Through practice we can eliminate the middle step and

directly write the remainder beside the number N.
The sequence of Odd/Even going up gives the answer.
Starting from 1*, we have 11001001. Therefore, 201 in
decimal equal to 11001001 in binary.
Converting binary number to decimal number
Example 3: Converting 11001001 from binary to decimal
tabling this figure in the first column considering from unit
place (reverse order).
A = Binary Number B=2^n AXB Answer
1 1x1 1
=1
0 0x2 0
=2
0 0x4 0
=4
1 1x8 8
=8
0 0 x 16 0
= 16
0 0 x 32 0
= 32
1 1 x 64 64
= 64
1 1 x 128 128
= 128
Total 201
Table 01 - 04 – Binary to Decimal Conversion
Binary number 11001001 is equal to 201 in decimal.

Book 1 of 2 - “A fun way to play and learn.” 20

 Curious & Recreational Math's

1.5 - Earliest Methods of Multiplication

Ancient Egyptians they don't know how to multiply two
numbers, but they know how to double the given number
using pebbles.
Egyptian multiplication is based on a property of the sequence
of integers 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, . . . . . .
It is the fact that any integer, not in this sequence, can be
written as the sum of two or more of these integers in this
sequence.
For example, to multiply 18 by 13 the scribe would write the
equivalent of the following. In the left hand side they write the
sequence and right hand side they double the number.

Halving-N1/2 Sequence Doubling (Neglect the

Remainder) 1 13 Dou-
bling N2 X 2
2 26
4 52
8 104
16 208

The figure 18 is to be arrived by the combination of numbers

in the sequence table and thus it is 2 and 16. The correspon-
dence doubling numbers of 2 and 16 are 26 and 208 and the
total of 26 + 208 is 234 which is equal to (18x13=234).
Since the terms of this sequence 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, ...….
are merely the powers of 2, it is the fact that every integer has
a binary representation. Whether the Egyptian scribes were
aware of this binary mathematical fact is not known, but it is
certain that they made use of the property well and did the
multiplication and division as well.

Book 1 of 2 — “A fun way to play and learn.” 21

 Curious & Recreational Math's

Russian Peasant Multiplication

Russian peasant multiplication, method may be called
mediation and duplation, where mediation means halving
one number and duplation means doubling the other
number.
Example 4: Product of 54 x 81 by Russian peasant method.
Take the smallest number is 54 as (N1), the other number
81 as (N2).
Odd/ Halving-N1/2 Doubling Select the Odd N2
Even (Neglect the N2 X 2 Doubled Answers and
Remainder) Add them all
Even 54 81 0
Odd 27 162 162
Odd 13 324 324
Even 6 648 0
Odd 3 1296 1296
Odd 1 2592 2592
Total 4374
Table 01 - 05 - Russian peasant multiplication
The logic behind the Russian peasant multiplication is
simply binary conversion of a LHS number dividing by 2 or
halving and at same time multiplying the RHS number by 2
or doubling. See the above table to understand the binary
logic behind the multiplication

= = 1x +1x +0x +1x +1x +

0x = 1x32 +1x16 + 0x8 + 1x4 +1x2 + 0x1

= 32 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 0 = 54

Book 1 of 2 - “A fun way to play and learn.” 22

 Curious & Recreational Math's

N1- 54 LHS N1/2 RHS 2^n 2^n x N2 Sum

in (Neglect N2 x 2
Binary the
Remainder)
0 54 81 0 x81 = 0
=1
1 27 162 2x81 = 162
=2
1 13 324 4x81 = 324
=4
0 6 648 0 x 81 = 0
=8
1 3 1296 16x81 = 1296
= 16
1 1 2592 32x81 = 2592
= 32
Total 4374

Table 01- 06 - Logic of Russian peasant multiplication

If the number N1 = 54 is converted in to a binary which is
= 110110 . At the same time the N2 = 81 multiplied by the
power 2^n corresponding times respectively.
The only numbers we have to consider and sum, are the
odd numbers corresponding N1 column to the numbers in
N2 column , which are 162+324+1296+2592 = 4374
So the product of 54 x 81 = 4374.

Book 1 of 2 — “A fun way to play and learn.” 23

 Curious & Recreational Math's

1.6 - Octal (Base 8) Number System

The word “Oct” means Eight. Octal is another number
system with fewer symbols to use than our conventional
number system. Octal is fancy for base Eight meaning Eight
symbols are used to represent all the quantities. They are
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. When we count up one from the 7,
we need a new placement to represent what we call 8 since
an 8 doesn't exist in Octal. so, after 7 is 10.
The number Decimal 201 in Octal is 311

1.7 – Hexadecimal (Base 16) Number System

The Hexadecimal system the base is Sixteen. As its base
implies, this number system uses Sixteen symbols to
represent numbers. Unlike binary and octal, Hexadecimal
has Six additional symbols that it uses beyond the
conventional ones found in decimal. But what comes after
9? 10 is not a single digit but two… Fortunately, the
convention is that once additional symbols are needed
beyond the normal ten, letters are to be used. So, in
Hexadecimal, the total list of symbols to use is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, and F
The Decimal number 201 in Hexadecimal is C9

Book 1 of 2 - “A fun way to play and learn.” 24

 Curious & Recreational Math's

1.8 - Representation of other Numeral Systems.

For example, decimal number 201 represented in other
numeral systems and the place value in decimal numeral
system, see the below given table

Other Base Numerals Numeral Base -

Numeral -n Range Representation 10
System
Ternary 3 0,1,2 (201)₃ 2x3² + 0x3¹ 19
+ 1x3⁰
Quaternary 4 0,1,2,3 (201)₄ 2x4² + 0x4¹ 33
+ 1x4⁰
Quinary 5 0,1,2,3,4 (201)₅ 2x5² + 0x5¹ 51
+ 1x5⁰
Senary 6 0,1,2,3,4, (201)₆ 2x6² + 0x6¹ 73
5 + 1x6⁰
Septenary 7 0,1,2,3,4, (201)₇ 2x7² + 0x7¹ 99
5,6 + 1x7⁰
Nonary 9 0,1,2,3,4, (201)₉ 2x8² + 0x8¹ 163
5,6,7,8 + 1x8⁰
Undecimal 11 0,1,2,3,4, (201)₁₁ 2x10² + 243
5,6,7,8,9, 0x10¹ +
10 1x10⁰
Dozenal 12 0,1,2,3,4, (201)₁₂ 2x11² + 289
5,6,7,8,9, 0x11¹ +
10,11 1x11⁰

Table 01- 07 – Representation of decimal number 201

in other numeral systems.

Book 1 of 2 — “A fun way to play and learn.” 25