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Simple
CHAPTER 2
strain

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Topic Outline:
a) Introduction
b) Stress-Strain Diagram
c) Hooke’s Law: Axial and Shearing Deformations
d) Poisson’s Ratio: Biaxial and Triaxial Deformation
e) Statically Indeterminate Members
f) Thermal Stresses

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Introduction
This chapter deals with the changes in shape, that is, the
deformations that accompany a loading. However, the discussion
here is limited to axially loaded bars, but the principles and
methods developed are equally applicable to a more complex
cases of twisting or bending. Particularly, the geometric relations
between elastic deformations that, in combination with the
conditions of equilibrium and the relations between the loads and
deformations, will be apply to solve statically indeterminate
problems.

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Stress-Strain Diagram
Properties of materials
• Strength – is the capacity to withstand destruction under the action of external loads.
• Stiffness - is often measured by the Young’s Modulus, which compares the relationship
between stress (the force applied) and strain (the resulting deformation).
• Hardness - is defined as a material’s ability to resist permanent indentation (that is
plastic deformation)
• Toughness - represents a material’s ability to absorb impact without fracturing at a
given temperature.
• Ductility - is the ability of a material to deform plastically (that is, stretch) without
fracturing and retain the new shape when the load is removed.

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Stress-Strain Diagram
Strain – is the unit deformation of a material
subjected to axial loading.
𝜖= eq. 21

𝜖= eq. 2.1a (strain at any position)

Where:
𝜖 = strain
𝛿 = deformation
𝐿 = length of member
+𝛿 = elongation
−𝛿 = shortening

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Stress-Strain Diagram
Conditions:
a) The specimen must be of constant
cross-section.
b) The material must be homogeneous.
c) The load must be axial, that is,
produce uniform stress.

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Stress-Strain Diagram
Proportial limit – the point up to which stress is
proportional to strain

Elastic limit – the stress beyond which the

material will not return to its original shape
when unloaded but will retain a permanent
deformation called permanent set.

Yield point – is the point at which there is an

appreciable elongation or yielding of the
material without any corresponding increase
of load; indeed, the load may decrease while
the yielding occurs.

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Stress-Strain Diagram
Yield strength – closely associated with yield
point. For materials that do not have a well-
defined yield point, yield strength is
determined by the offset method.

Ultimate strength – is the highest ordinate in

the stress-strain diagram.

Rupture strength – is the stress at failure

Necking – as failure occurs, the material

stretches very rapidly and simultaneously
narrows down

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Stress-Strain Diagram

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Hooke’s Law: Axial and Shearing Deformations

𝜎∝𝜖 Hooke’s Law 𝑃 = axial load

𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖 𝐿 = length of members
Where: 𝐴 = cross-sectional area of member
𝐸 = Young’s modulus (introduced by Restrictions:
Thomas Young in 1807) ; also a) The load must be axial.
called modulus of elasticity
b) The bar must have a constant
=𝐸  𝛿= cross-section and be
homogeneous.
Where:
c) The stress must not exceed the
𝛿 = axial deformation
proportional limit.

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Hooke’s Law: Axial and Shearing Deformations

 𝛾= angular deformation
 𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾 shearing stress
 𝛿 = shearing deformation

Where:
𝐺 = modulus of rigidity
𝑉 = shear force
𝐿 = length of member
𝐴 = shearing area

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An aluminum bar having a cross-sectional area of

𝟎. 𝟓 𝒊𝒏𝟐 carries the axial load applied at the positions
shown in the figure. Compute the total change in
Problem no. 1

length of the bar if 𝐄 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒑𝒔𝒊. Assume the bar is

suitably braced to prevent lateral buckling.

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A bronze bar is fastened between a steel bar and an

aluminum bar as shown in the figure. Axial loads are
applied at the position indicated. Find the largest value of P
Problem no. 2

that will not exceed an overall deformation of 𝟑. 𝟎 𝒎𝒎, or

the following stresses: 𝟏𝟒𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂 in the steel, 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂 in the
bronze, and 𝟖𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂 in the aluminum. Assume that the
assembly is suitably braced to prevent buckling. Use 𝑬𝒔𝒕 =
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑮𝑷𝒂, 𝑬𝒂𝒍 = 𝟕𝟎 𝑮𝑷𝒂, 𝑬𝒃𝒓 = 𝟖𝟑 𝑮𝑷𝒂.

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The rigid bar ABC shown in the figure is hinged at A and

supported by a steel rod at B. Determine the largest load
P that can be applied at C if the stress in the steel rod is
Problem no. 3

limited to 𝟑𝟎 𝒌𝒔𝒊 and the vertical movement of end C

must not exceed 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 𝒊𝒏.

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The rigid bars AB and CD shown in the figure are

supported by pins at A and C and the two rods.
Determine the maximum force P that can be applied
Problem no. 4

as shown if its vertical movement

is limited to 𝟓 𝒎𝒎.

Neglect weights of all

members.

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A uniform concrete slab of total weight W is to be attached,

as shown in the figure, to two rods, whose lower ends are on
Problem no. 5

the same level. Determine the ratio of the areas of the rods
so that the slab will remain level.

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Statically Indeterminate Members

General Principles:
1) To a free-body diagram of the structure, or a part of it, apply the
equations of static equilibrium.
2) If there are more unknowns than independent equations of
equilibrium, obtain additional equations from the geometric
relations between the elastic deformations produced by the
loads. To define these relations clearly, you will find it helpful to
draw a sketch that exaggerates the magnitudes of the elastic
deformations.

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A reinforced concrete column 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 in diameter is

designed to carry an axial compressive load of
𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑵. Determine the required area of reinforcing
Problem no. 6

steel if the allowable stresses are 𝟔 𝑴𝑷𝒂

and 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂 for the concrete
and steel respectively.
Use 𝑬𝒄𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏𝟒 𝑮𝑷𝒂 and 𝑬𝒔𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑮𝑷𝒂.

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A rigid block of mass 𝑴 is supported by three

symmetrically spaced rods as shown in the figure. Each
copper rod has an area of 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝟐 , 𝑬 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑮𝑷𝒂, and the
Problem no. 7

allowable stress is 𝟕𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂. The steel rod has an area of

𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝟐 , 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑮𝑷𝒂 and the allowable stress is
𝟏𝟒𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂.
Determine the largest mass 𝑴
which can be supported.

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The rigid platform in the figure has negligible mass and

rests on two steel bars, each 𝟐𝟓𝟎. 𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 long. The
center bar is aluminum and 𝟐𝟒𝟗. 𝟗𝟎 𝒎𝒎 long. Compute
Problem no. 8

the stress in the aluminum bar after the center load 𝑷 =

𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑵 has been applied. For each steel bar, the area
is 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝟐 and 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑮𝑷𝒂.
For the aluminum bar,
the area is 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝟐 and
𝑬 = 𝟕𝟎 𝑮𝑷𝒂.

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The composite bar in the figure is firmly attached to

unyielding supports. Compute the stress in each
Problem no. 9

material caused by the applications of the axial

load 𝑷 = 𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔.

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Shown in the figure is a section through a balcony. The

total uniform load of 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑵 is supported by three rods of
the same area and material. Compute the load in each
Problem no. 10

rod. Assume the floor to be rigid but note that it does not
necessarily remain horizontal.

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Thermal Stresses
Changes in temperature causes the Δ𝑇 = 𝑇 − 𝑇
body to expand or contract. 𝑇 = final temperature
𝛿 = 𝛼𝐿 Δ𝑇 𝑇 = initial temperature

Where: Procedure:
1) Imagine the structure relieved of
𝛿 = linear deformation due to
all applied loads and constraints
changes in temperature so that temperature deformations
𝛼 = coefficient of linear expansion can occur freely. Represent these
deformations on a sketch and
𝐿 = length of member
exaggerate their effect.
Δ𝑇 = change in temperature

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Thermal Stresses
2) Now, imagine sufficient loads 3) The geometric relations between
applied to the structure to restore the temperature and load
deformations on the sketch give
it to the specified conditions of
equations that, together with the
restraint. Represent these loads equations of static equilibrium,
and corresponding load may be solved for all unknown
deformations on the sketch for quantities.
step 1.

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Example No. 11
A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 𝑖𝑛 is stretched
between two fixed points. The tensile load at 70℉ is 1200 𝑙𝑏. What
will be the stress at 0℉? At what temperature will the stress be
zero? Assume 𝛼 = 6.5 𝑥 10 𝑖𝑛.⁄ 𝑖𝑛. ℉ and 𝐸 = 29 𝑥 10 𝑝𝑠𝑖.

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Example No. 12
Steel railroad rails 10 m long are
laid with a clearance of 3 mm at
a temperature of 15℃. At what
temperature will the rails just
touch? What stress would be
induced in the rails at that
temperature if there were no
initial clearance? Assume 𝛼 =
11.7 𝜇𝑚/ 𝑚 ℃ and 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎.

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Example No. 13
A bronze bar 3 𝑚 long with a cross-
sectional area of 320 𝑚𝑚 is placed
between two rigid walls as shown in the
figure. At a temperature of −20℃, the gap
∆= 2.5 𝑚𝑚. Find the temperature at which
the compressive stress in the bar will be
35 𝑀𝑃𝑎. Use 𝛼 = 18.0 𝑥 10 𝑚⁄ 𝑚 ℃ and
𝐸 = 80 𝐺𝑃𝑎.

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Example No. 14
The rigid bar ABC in the figure is
pinned at B and attached to the
two vertical rods. Initially, the bar is
horizontal, and the vertical rods are
stress-free. Determine the stress in the
aluminum rod if the temperature of
the steel rod is decreased by 40℃.
Neglect the weight of bar ABC.

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Example No. 15
As shown in the figure, there is a gap
between the aluminum bar and the
rigid slab that is supported by the two
copper bars. At 10℃ , ∆= 0.18 𝑚𝑚 .
Neglecting the mass of the slab,
calculate the stress in each rod when
the temperature in the assembly is
increased to 95℃. For each copper
bar, 𝐴 = 500 𝑚𝑚 , 𝐸 = 120 𝐺𝑃𝑎 , and
𝛼 = 16.8 𝜇𝑚/ 𝑚 ℃ . For the aluminum
bar, 𝐴 = 400 𝑚𝑚 , 𝐸 = 70 𝐺𝑃𝑎, and 𝛼 =
23.1 𝜇𝑚/ 𝑚 ℃ .

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Reference:
1) Hibbeler, Russel C., Mechanics of Materials 8th edition, Pearson
Prentice Hall, 2011
2) Beer, Ferdinand P. et. Al., Statics and Mechanics of Materials,
McGraw Hills Companies Inc., 2011
3) Pytel Andrew & Singer, Ferdinand L, Strength of Materials 4th
edition, Harper Collins Publishers Inc. 1987
4) Gere, James M. & Goodno, Barry J., Mechanics of Materials, 7th
edition, Cengage Learning Inc. 2009

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