Assignment 2

Subject: Applied Physics-I

Subject Code: BS-105
Class/Section: B.Tech/H

Q1->Derive Maxwell’s equations in differential and

integral forms
and give their physical significance.

Ans-> Physical Significance of Maxwell's Equations

Equation (i): ∇.E = ρ/ε₀ or ∇.D = ρ

 D: Electric Displacement Vector

This equation states that the net outward electric flux enclosed by a
surface S enclosing a volume V, in an electric field E, is equal to the total
charge enclosed by the surface divided by the permittivity of free space
ε₀.

In other words, the total electric displacement through the surface

enclosing a volume V is equal to the total charge within the volume.

Equation (ii): ∇.B = 0

This equation tells us that the total outward flux of magnetic induction B
through any closed surface S is equal to zero.

This equation also tells us that magnetic monopoles do not exist.

Equation (iii): ∇ x E = -∂B/∂t

This equation tells us that a magnetic field changing with time produces
an electric field.
Equation (iv): ∇ x B = μ₀(Jc + Jd)

where:

 J: Conduction current density

 Jd: Displacement current density (Jd = ε₀∂E/∂t)

This equation is known as the modified Ampere's law with Maxwell's

correction.

It tells us that electric fields changing with time and conduction currents
produce a magnetic field.

Maxwell’s Equations:

1. Gauss's Law for Electricity

Differential Form:

∇ · E = ρ / ε₀

Integral Form:

∮ E · dS = Q / ε₀

This law states that the electric flux through a closed surface is
proportional to the enclosed electric charge.

2. Gauss's Law for Magnetism

Differential Form:

∇·B=0

Integral Form:

∮ B · dS = 0

This law implies that there are no magnetic monopoles; the magnetic field
lines form closed loops.

3. Faraday's Law of Induction

Differential Form:

∇ × E = -∂B / ∂t
Integral Form:

∮ E · dl = -d/dt ∫ B · dS

This law describes how a time-varying magnetic field induces an electric

field.

4. Ampère’s Law (with Maxwell's Correction)

Differential Form:

∇ × B = μ₀J + μ₀ε₀ ∂E / ∂t

Integral Form:

∮ B · dl = μ₀ (I + ε₀ d/dt ∫ E · dS)

This law states that a circulating magnetic field is produced by an electric

current and a changing electric field.

Q2-> Explain Modified Ampere’s Law by introducing the idea of

displacement current.

Ans-> Modified Ampere's Law incorporates the concept of displacement

current, which was introduced by Maxwell to address the inconsistency in
Ampere's Law in cases where the electric field changes with time.
Traditional Ampere's Law is given by:

∮ B · dl = μ₀I

However, when the electric field changes over time, there can be a
current even without a physical flow of charges. This time-varying electric
field creates a 'displacement current' term, defined as:

Id = ε₀ ∂E / ∂t

Thus, Modified Ampere’s Law becomes:

∮ B · dl = μ₀ (I + ε₀ ∂E / ∂t)

This modification makes Ampere’s Law compatible with situations where

electric fields vary with time, allowing for the propagation of
electromagnetic waves.

Q3->Establish the equation of the propagation of electromagnetic

waves in free space. Also prove that E.M. waves in free space
travel with the velocity of light. How wave equation is modified in
medium.

Ans-> EM waves are solutions to Maxwell’s equations in free space. To

derive the wave equation, consider the modified Maxwell’s equations
where

∇ × E = -∂B / ∂t

∇ × B = μ₀ε₀ ∂E / ∂t

in free space.

By taking the curl of both equations and using vector identities, we get:

∇²E = μ₀ε₀ ∂²E / ∂t² [where, c = 1/√(μ₀ε₀)]

∇²B = μ₀ε₀ ∂²B / ∂t².

These wave equations suggest that both E and B propagate as waves with
speed

v = 1/√(μ₀ε₀), which is equal to the speed of light, c.

In a medium, the propagation speed is reduced by the medium’s

permittivity ε and permeability μ. The wave equation thus becomes:

Vm = 1/√(με).
Q4-> What is Poynting Vector? State and derive Poynting
Theorem.

Ans-> The Poynting vector S represents the rate of energy flow per unit
due to the electromagnetic fields. It is given by:

S=E×H

Where, E is the electric field and H is the magnetic field.

The direction of S indicates the direction of energy flow, and its magnitude
represents the power flow per unit area.

Poyinting Theorem states that the rate at which energy flows through a
given volume is equal to the decrease in electromagnetic energy within
that volume plus the energy dissipated as heat.

Derivation of Poynting's Theorem

We know that maxwell;’s equations are

∇ x E = -∂B/∂t

∇ x B = μ0( J + ε0∂E/∂t)

Where E is the electric field, B is the magnetic field, J is the current

density, μ0 is the magnetic permeability of free space, and ε0 is the
electric permittivity of free space.

Taking the dot product of the first equation with B and the second
equation with E, we get:

B · (∇ x E) = -B · (∂B/∂t)

E · (∇ x B) = E · (μ0J + ε0∂E/∂t)

Noww,

∇ · (E x B) = -∂(B^2/2)/∂t - J · E

∇ · (B x E) = ∂(ε0E^2/2)/∂t + J · E

Taking the difference of these two equations and substituting

μ0ε0=1/c^2, where c is the speed of light, we obtain:

∇ · S = -∂u/∂t

Where S is the Poynting vector and u is the electromagnetic energy

density.

Hence, proved.
Q5-> Derive equation of continuity. Show that equation of

continuity is contained in Maxwell equations.

∇.J +dρ/dt = 0

Ans-> The equation of continuity is based on the principle of conservation

of charge, which states that charge cannot be created or destroyed. If
charge density changes in a given volume, it must be due to the flow of
charge into or out of that volume.

Mathematically, it can be expressed as:

∇·J + ∂ρ/∂t = 0

where:

 J is the current density vector (A/m²).

 ρ is the charge density (C/m³).

 ∂ρ/∂t is the time rate of change of charge density.

Consider a small volume V with a surface area S. According to the

divergence theorem, the integral of the divergence of a vector field over a
volume is equal to the integral of that vector field over the surface
enclosing the volume:

∫(∂ρ/∂t) dV = -∫(∇·J) dV

Using the divergence theorem, we get:

∫(∇·J) dV = ∫(J·n) dS

where n is the outward normal vector to the surface.

By conservation of charge,

dQ/dt = -∫(J·n) dS

now, we get

∫(∂ρ/∂t) dV = -∫(J·n) dS

This means that for any chosen volume, the values inside the integrals
must be the same.

Hence, we have:
∇·J + ∂ρ/∂t = 0

Relation to Maxwell's Equations

Maxwell Equations:

1. Gauss's Law: ∇·E = ρ/ε₀

2. Gauss's Law for Magnetism: ∇·B = 0

3. Faraday's Law of Induction: ∇×E = -∂B/∂t

4. Ampere-Maxwell Law: ∇×B = μ₀J + μ₀ε₀∂E/∂t

From Gauss's Law, we can express charge density in terms of the electric
field:

ρ = ε₀∇·E

differentiating both sides with respect to time t, we get:

∂ρ/∂t = ε₀∂(∇·E)/∂t

Now on substituting this into the equation of continuity, we get:

∇·J + ε₀∂(∇·E)/∂t = 0

From the Ampere-Maxwell Law,

∇×B = μ₀J + μ₀ε₀∂E/∂t

These relationships show that the continuity equation is consistent with

Maxwell's equations. which confirms that conservation of charge is an
important part of electromagnetism.

Q6-> Show that in a given volume, the energy of an EM wave is

equally shared between the electric and magnetic fields.

Ans-> To demonstrate that electromagnetic (EM) energy is shared equally

between electromagnetic fields. We begin with an expression for the
energy density of an electromagnetic field

The energy density (u_E) of an electric field (E) is given as follows:

U_E = (1/2) * ε0 * E^2

where ε0 is the free space allowance and E is the electric field magnitude.

The energy density (u_B) of the magnetic field (B) is given as:

U_B = (1/2) * (B^2/µ₀)

where B is the magnitude of the magnetic field.

Relationship between electric and magnetic fields:

B = E/c where c is the speed of light.

c = 1 / √(ε * μ₀)

Substituting for B:
To express the magnetic energy density in terms of the electric field,
substitute B = E / c into the magnetic energy density equation:
U_B = (1/2) * ((E/c)² / μ₀) = (1/2) * (E² / (μ₀ * c²))

Using μ₀ * c² = 1 / ε₀:
We know from the relationship between μ₀, ε₀, and c that:
μ₀ * c² = 1 / ε₀
Therefore:
u_B = (1/2) * ε₀ * E²

Now, we have:
u_E = (1/2) * ε₀ * E²
u_B = (1/2) * ε₀ * E²
From this, it is clear that:
u_E = u_B

Total Energy Density:

The total energy density (u) of the electromagnetic wave is:
u = u_E + u_B = (1/2) * ε₀ * E² + (1/2) * ε₀ * E² = ε₀ * E²
Because u_E and u_B have the same energy density. We therefore
conclude that the energy of electromagnetic waves at a given magnitude
is shared equally among the electromagnetic fields. Therefore, the energy
of EM waves is divided equally.

Q7->If the earth receives 2 Cal/(min cm^2) solar energy. What are
the amplitudes of electric and magnetic fields of radiation?

Ans->

Given: Solar energy received (I) = 2 Cal/(min cm²)

2 Cal = 2 × 4.184 J = 8.368 J

1 min = 60 s

Therefore,
I = 8.368 J / (60 s × 1 cm²)
I = 8.368 J / (3600 s × 1 m²) = 8.368 / 3600 W/m²

This results in:

I ≈ 0.00232 W/m²

We know that,
I = (1/2) × ε₀ × c × E₀²

Therefore
E₀ = √(2I / (ε₀ × c))
E₀ = √(2 × 0.00232 / (8.854 × 10⁻¹² × 3 × 10⁸))
E₀ ≈ 1.32 V/m

The amplitude of the magnetic field

B₀ = E₀ / c

Substituting the values:

B₀ = 1.32 V/m / (3 × 10⁸ m/s)
B₀ ≈ 4.4 × 10⁻⁹

Hence, the amplitudes of the electric and magnetic fields of the radiation
are approximately: E₀≈ 1.32 V/m Magnetic Field Amplitude B₀≈ 4.4 × 10⁻⁹
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