Design of Pile Foundations

1. Introduction to Pile Foundations

 Definition: Pile foundations are deep foundations used to transfer
heavy loads from the structure to deeper, more competent soil or rock
layers when the surface layers are unsuitable.
 Purpose: Piles bypass weak or compressible soils near the surface and
transfer loads to a deeper, stronger soil or rock layer. They can also be
used in areas where there are large lateral forces, such as in coastal or
seismic regions.
2. Classification of Piles
Piles can be classified based on different criteria:
a. Based on Load Transfer Mechanism:
1. End-Bearing Piles: These piles transfer the load through their tips to
a strong, load-bearing stratum like rock or dense soil.
2. Friction Piles: The load is transferred through friction along the pile's
surface with the surrounding soil, suitable for soils without a strong
bearing layer at reasonable depths.
3. Combined Piles: These use both end-bearing and friction
mechanisms to transfer the load.
b. Based on Construction Method:
1. Driven Piles: Prefabricated piles driven into the ground using
hammers or vibratory methods.
2. Bored (Drilled) Piles: Holes are bored into the ground and then filled
with concrete.
3. Composite Piles: Made from different materials (e.g., a combination
of steel and concrete), providing specialized properties for specific
conditions.

3. Design of Pile Foundations

a. Pile Capacity
The design of a pile foundation begins with determining the pile's load-
bearing capacity. This can be estimated based on the following:
1. End-Bearing Capacity (Qb):
 Qb ​= A b × q b

Where:
o Ap = Cross-sectional area of the pile tip
o qb = Unit end-bearing resistance (depends on the bearing strata)
2. Frictional Capacity (Qs):
Qs=∑( A s × f s)

Where:
o As = Surface area of the pile shaft in contact with the soil
o fs = Unit skin friction along the shaft
The total capacity of the pile is:
Qtotal=Q b+Q s

b. Pile Group Efficiency

When piles are used in groups, the interaction between the piles affects the
overall capacity. The efficiency of the pile group (η\etaη) can be determined
using empirical formulas like the Efficiency Formula by Converse-
Labarre:
Qg
η=
n× Qs

Where:
 Qg = Capacity of the pile group
 n = Number of piles
 Qs = Capacity of a single pile
Adjustments must be made for group effects, such as spacing between piles
and the type of soil.
c. Settlement of Piles
The settlement of pile foundations should be limited to acceptable levels.
The total settlement (St) can be calculated by considering:
 Elastic shortening of the pile: Due to axial loads.
 Compression of the soil beneath the pile tip.
  Settlement due to skin friction.
These settlements are determined through soil properties (modulus of
elasticity and Poisson's ratio) and load tests.

4. Design of End-Bearing Piles

Key Design Considerations:
 Soil Investigation: It is critical to determine the depth at which
strong strata are located through a detailed soil investigation.
 Load Distribution: The load is concentrated at the pile tip. For
design, the safe bearing capacity of the stratum must be established.
Design Procedure:
1. Determine the depth to load-bearing strata: Based on soil test
results (e.g., Standard Penetration Test (SPT) or Cone Penetration Test
(CPT)).
2. Calculate the cross-sectional area of the pile: Based on the
required load capacity.
3. Check for lateral stability: Ensure that the pile has sufficient lateral
resistance to resist bending moments due to lateral forces such as
wind or seismic activity.
4. Evaluate the allowable pile settlement: Ensure that the settlement
is within the tolerable limits.

5. Design of Friction Piles

Key Design Considerations:
 Soil-Pile Interaction: Friction piles transfer loads via skin friction
along the length of the pile. The effective length of the pile depends on
the properties of the surrounding soil.
 Surface Area of the Pile: The larger the pile’s surface area, the more
load it can carry through skin friction.
Design Procedure:
1. Determine the frictional resistance of soil: Based on the results of
field and laboratory tests.
 2. Pile Length: Estimate the required pile length to develop sufficient
frictional resistance to support the applied loads.
3. Check for Buckling: Especially in soft soils, the pile may buckle.
Ensure the pile's slenderness ratio is adequate to avoid buckling.
4. Consider Negative Skin Friction: In some cases, the surrounding
soil may settle more than the pile itself, leading to negative skin
friction, which reduces the load-carrying capacity. This must be
factored into the design.

6. Pile Load Tests

To verify the design and capacity of pile foundations, load tests are often
conducted. These tests include:
1. Static Load Tests: Loads are applied gradually, and the settlement is
measured to evaluate the pile's performance.
2. Dynamic Load Tests: A pile is struck with a hammer, and the force
and velocity are measured to estimate the pile capacity.
3. Pile Integrity Tests: Non-destructive tests (e.g., low-strain integrity
tests) are performed to check for any defects or inconsistencies in the
pile structure.

7. Lateral Loads on Piles

Piles are often subjected to lateral loads from wind, waves, or seismic
activity, particularly in offshore and coastal structures. The design must
account for the pile's ability to resist these forces.
Design for Lateral Loads:
1. Evaluate the Lateral Capacity: Using methods like Broms’ Method
or p-y curve analysis.
2. Check Bending Stresses: Ensure the pile material can resist the
induced bending moments.
3. Deflection Control: The lateral deflection of the pile should be within
acceptable limits.
8. Group Pile Design
When piles are used in groups, the design must account for:
 1. Pile Spacing: Adequate spacing to avoid interaction between adjacent
piles. Typically, a center-to-center spacing of 2.5 to 3 times the pile
diameter is recommended.
2. Group Capacity: The group capacity is generally less than the sum of
individual piles due to interaction effects.
3. Pile Cap Design: The cap distributes the structural loads to the pile
group. The thickness and reinforcement of the pile cap must be
adequate to transfer loads safely.
For pile foundation designs, various detailed drawings and considerations are
required to ensure proper implementation. Key elements include the pile
cap, pile group layouts, reinforcement details, and checking for load-bearing
capacities. You can find sample designs and illustrations of pile layouts,
which include specifications like pile cap dimensions and spacing of piles, in
several technical resources.
Pile Cap Design:
Pile caps are typically designed to distribute the load from a column onto the
piles. The pile cap size and thickness are determined based on the pile
arrangement, which is usually laid out as per the loading conditions of the
column. The critical shear and flexural reinforcements are calculated to
handle both one-way and two-way shear forces within the pile cap. Diagrams
often show the layout of multiple piles beneath a column, with specific
dimensions for reinforcement placement, spacing of piles, and thickness of
the cap.

Pile Foundation Layouts:

Drawings typically include pile spacing (recommended to be 2.5-3 times the
diameter of the pile) and reinforcement details. The arrangements ensure
that loads from columns are effectively distributed among the piles. For
example, for a pile-supported foundation, drawings show the structural
layout, pile cap design, and reinforcement details, which are essential for
effective load transfer and ensuring the pile group’s stability.

Construction Tolerances and Deviations:

Drawings also specify construction tolerances. For example, tolerances in
pile positioning (generally within 75 mm) and alignment are critical to ensure
that the piles function as designed. These tolerances are often listed in codes
such as ACI and IS standards, which guide the allowable deviations during
pile installation.
For further insights and to access detailed design examples with illustrations,
you can refer to various technical manuals or engineering websites like CED
Engineering and Structville.