27

Ray Optics
Light
Light is a form of energy which produces the sensation of sight on our
eyes.
Sources of light are of three types-thermal sources, gas discharge
sources and luminescent sources.
Photometry is a branch of ray optics which deals with the
measurement of light energy.

Characteristics of Light
Light waves are electromagnetic waves, whose nature is transverse.
The speed of light in vacuum is 3 ! 108 m/s but it is different in
different media.
The speed and wavelength of light change when it travels from one
medium to another but its frequency remains unchanged.

Important Terms
(i) Luminous Objects The objects which emits its own light are
called luminous objects, e.g. sun, other stars, an oil lamp etc.
(ii) Non-Luminous Objects The objects which do not emit its
own light but become visible due to the reflection of light falling on
them are called non-luminous objects, e.g. moon, table, chair,
trees etc.
(iii) Ray of Light A straight line drawn in the direction of
propagation of light is called a ray of light.
280 Handbook of Physics

(iv) Beam of Light A bundle of the adjacent light rays is called a

beam of light.

Parallel beam of light Divergent beam of light Convergent beam of light

(v) Image If light ray coming from an object meets or appear to

meet at a point after reflection or refraction, then this point is
called image of the object.
(vi) Real Image The image obtained by the real meeting of light
rays is called a real image.
Real image can be obtained on a screen.
Real image is inverted.
(vii) Virtual Image The image obtained when light rays are not
really meeting but appears to meet only, is called a virtual image.

Reflection of Light
The rebouncing back of light rays into the same medium on striking a
highly polished surface such as a mirror is called reflection of light.

Laws of Reflection
There are two laws of reflection
Normal
Incident ray Reflected ray

Angle of incidence Angle of reflection

i r
Point of incidence

Plane surface

(i) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point
of incidence all three lie in the same plane.
(ii) The angle of incidence ( i ) is always equal to the angle of
reflection (r ).
 Ray Optics 281
Types of Reflection
(i) Regular Reflection When a parallel beam of reflected light
rays is obtained from a parallel beam of incident light rays after
reflection from a plane reflecting surface, then such type of
reflection is called regular reflection.
Incident rays Reflected rays

(ii) Irregular or Diffused Reflection When a non-parallel

beam of reflected light rays is obtained from a parallel beam of
incident light rays after reflection from a surface, then such type
of reflection is called irregular or diffused reflection.
Incident rays Reflected rays

Mirror
A smooth and highly polished reflecting surface is called a mirror.
(i) Plane Mirror A highly polished plane surface is called a plane
mirror.
Different properties of image formed by plane mirror are given
below
! Size of image " Size of object
Magnification " Unity
! Distance of image from the mirror
" Distance of object from the mirror
! A plane mirror may form a virtual as well as real image.
! A man may see his full image in a mirror of half height of man.
282 Handbook of Physics

! When two plane mirror are held at an angle #, the number of

images of an object placed between them is given as below
& 360$ ) 360$
(a) n " ( % 1 +, if is an even integer.
' # * #
360$ 360$
(b) n " integral part of , when is an odd integer.
# #
! If keeping an object fixed, a plane mirror is rotated in its plane
by an angle #, then the reflected ray rotates in the same
direction by an angle 2 #.
! Focal length as well as radius of curvature of a plane mirror is
infinity. Power of a plane mirror is zero.
! In the image formed by a plane mirror, the right side of the
object appears as left side and vice-versa. This phenomena is
called lateral inversion.
(ii) Spherical Mirror A highly polished curved surface whose
reflecting surface is a cut part of a hollow glass sphere is called a
spherical mirror. Spherical mirrors are of two types
(a) Concave Mirror A spherical mirror whose bent in surface
is reflecting surface, is called a concave mirror.
(b) Convex Mirror A spherical mirror whose buldging out
surface is reflecting surface, is called a convex mirror.

Concave Convex
mirror mirror

Some Terms Related to Spherical Mirrors

are Given Below
(i) Centre of Curvature (C) It is the centre of the sphere of
which the mirror is a part.
(ii) Radius of Curvature ( R ) The radius of the hollow sphere of
which the mirror is a part is called radius of curvature.
(iii) Pole (P) The central point of the spherical mirror is called its
pole ( P ).
 Ray Optics 283
(iv) Focus (F) When a parallel beam of light rays is incident on a
spherical mirror, then after reflection it meets or appears to meet
at a point on principal axis which is called focus of the spherical
mirror.
(v) Focal Length (f) The distance between the pole and focus is
called focal length ( f ).
Relation between focal length and radius of curvature is given by
R
f"
2
1
The power of a mirror is given as P " (metre)
f
1 1 1
(vi) Mirror formula " ,
f v u
where, f " focal length of the mirror, u " distance of the object
and v " distance of the image.

Focus Pole
Pole R
P Radius of curvature
C F P
Centre F C
of curvature R Focus Centre of curvature

Radius of curvature
Convex mirror

Newton’s formula for a concave mirror,

f " x1x2

- f 2 " x1x2
where, x1 and x2 are the distances of object and image from the
focus.

Linear Magnification
The ratio of height of image ( I ) formed by a mirror to the height of the
object (O ) is called linear magnification ( m ).
I v
Linear magnification ( m ) " " %
O u

Areal and Axial Magnification

The ratio of area of image to the area of object is called areal
magnification.
284 Handbook of Physics

Area of image v 2
Areal magnification " m 2 " "
Area of object u 2
When a small sized object is placed linearly along the principle axis,
then its longitudinal or axial magnification is given by
2 2 2
dv & v ) & f ) & f % v )
Axial magnification " % "( + "( + "( +
du ' u * (' f % u +* ' f *

Sign Convention for Spherical Mirrors

(i) All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror.
(ii) Distances measured in the direction of incident light rays are
taken as positive.
(iii) Distances measured in opposite direction to the incident light
rays are taken as negative.
(iv) Distances measured above the principal axis are positive.
(v) Distances measured below the principal axis are negative.
Note The focal length of concave mirror is taken negative and for a convex mirror
taken as positive.

Rules for Image Formation in Spherical Mirrors

In ray optics, to locate the image of an object, tracing of a ray as it
reflects is very important.
Following four types of rays are used for image formation
Ray 1. A ray through the centre of curvature which strikes the mirror
normally and is reflected back along the same path.
Concave Convex

C C

Ray 2. A ray parallel to principal axis after reflection either

actually passes through the principal focus F or appears to diverge
from it.

F F
 Ray Optics 285
Ray 3. A ray passing through the principal focus F or a ray which
appears to converge at F is reflected parallel to the principal axis.

F F

Ray 4. A ray striking at pole P is reflected symmetrically back in

the opposite side.

P
P

Image Formation by Spherical Mirrors

1. Image formation by concave mirror
In case of a concave mirror, the image is erect and virtual when the
object is placed between F and P. In all other positions of object, the
image is real and inverted as shown in the table given below.

Image Formation by Concave Mirror

S.No. Position of Object Ray Diagram Properties of Image
M

Real, inverted, very small

1. At infinity P
C F at F

M.
M
O

P Real, inverted, diminished

2. Between infinity and C
C F between F and C

M.
286 Handbook of Physics

S.No. Position of Object Ray Diagram Properties of Image

M
O

Real, inverted, equal in

3. At C P
C F size at C

M.

M
O
Real, inverted and very
4. Between F and C P large between 2 F and
C F
infinity
I
M.

M
O
Real, inverted, very large
5. At F P
C F at infinity

M.

O P Virtual, erect, large in size

6. Between F and P
behind the mirror
C F

M.

2. Image formation by convex mirror

Image formed by convex mirror is always virtual, erect and
diminished no matter where the object is. All the images formed by
this mirror will be between pole and focus as shown in the table given
below.
 Ray Optics 287
Image Formation by Convex Mirror
Position of
S.No. Ray Diagram Details of Image
Object
1. At infinity M Virtual, erect, very small in size at F

P F C

M.
2. In front of Virtual, erect, diminished between P
M
mirror and F

F
O P I C

M.

Refraction of Light
The deviation of light rays from its path when it travels from one
transparent medium to another transparent medium is called
refraction of light.
Normal
Incident ray

Incident angle i Interface of two media

r Refracted angle

Refracted ray

! When a ray of light goes from a rarer medium to a denser medium,

it bends towards the normal.
! When a ray of light goes from a denser medium to a rarer medium,
it bends away from the normal.

Cause of Refraction
The speed of light is different in different media.
288 Handbook of Physics

Laws of Refraction
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point
of incidence, all three lies in the same plane.
(ii) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of
refraction is constant for a pair of two media,
sin i
i.e. " constant ( 1/ 2 )
sin r
where 1/ 2 is called refractive index of second medium with
respect to first medium. This law is also called Snell’s law.

Refractive Index
The ratio of speed of light in vacuum ( c) to the speed of light in any
medium ( v ) is called refractive index of the medium.
c
Refractive index of a medium, / "
v
4
Refractive index of water " " 1.33
3
3
Refractive index of glass " " 1.50
2
When light is reflected by a denser medium, phase difference of 0
1 T
radian or path difference of or time difference is produced. This is
2 2
known as Stoke’s law. Distance x travelled by light in a medium of
refractive index / is equal to distance (/x ) travelled in vacuum.
/x
Time taken by light to transverse a thickness x "
c
where c " velocity of light in vacuum.
Relative Refractive Index
The refractive index of second medium with respect to first medium
v1
1/ 2 "
v2
where, v1 is the speed of light in medium 1 and v2 is the speed of light
in medium 2.
Cauchy’s Formula
B C +. ....
Refractive index of a medium, / " A , 42 ,
1 1
where, 1 " wavelength of light and A, B, C . are constants.
2 Refractive index, /
1
3 12
 Ray Optics 289
Refraction through a Glass Slab
When a glass slab is placed in the path of a light ray it produces a shift
& 1)
in the position of object when viewed through it, which is " ( 1 % +t.
' n *
When object is in denser medium and seen from rarer medium
normally through the plane surface, then apparent depth of object
& 1)
" ( 1 % + ! actual depth of object in denser medium.
' n*

Critical Angle
The angle of incidence in a denser medium for which the angle
of refraction in rarer medium becomes 90° is called critical angle (C ).
Critical angle for diamond " 24$ Rarer medium
Critical angle for glass " 42$
Critical angle for water " 48$
Refractive index of denser medium,
1 C
/"
sin C
Denser medium
Critical angle increases with temperature.
The refractive index is maximum for violet colour of light and
minimum for red colour of light, i.e. / V 4 / R , therefore critical angle is
maximum for red colour of light and minimum for violet colour of
light, i.e. CV 5 CR .

Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

When a light ray travelling from a denser medium towards a rarer
medium is incident at the interface at an angle of incidence greater
than critical angle, then light rays are totally reflected back in to the
denser medium. This phenomena is called TIR.
Rarer medium

Denser medium

For total internal reflection to take place following set conditions

must be obeyed
290 Handbook of Physics

(i) The ray must travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
(ii) The angle of incidence ( 6i ) must be greater than critical angle
( 6C ).
Mirage is an optical illusion observed in deserts and roads on a hot
day which is an application of TIR.

Optical Fibres
Optical fibres are also based on the phenomenon of total internal
reflection. Optical fibres consist of several thousands of very long fine
quality fibres of glass or quartz. The diameter of each fibre is of the
order of 10%4 cm with refractive index of material being of the order of
1.5. These fibres are fabricated in such a way that light reflected at
one side of the inner surface strikes the other at an angle larger than
critical angle. Even, if fibre is bent, light can easily travel along the
length. Thus, these are used in transmission and reception of
electrical signals by converting them first into light signals.

Refraction at Spherical surfaces

When two transparent media are separated by a spherical surface,
light incident on the surface from one side get refracted into the
medium on the other side. Spherical surfaces are of two types as shown
in figure.
1
/1 /2 1
O I 2 O KR I 2
P C C P /2
/1
u R u v
v
(i) (ii)
Spherical surface (i) convex (ii) concave
For both surfaces refraction formula is given by
/ 1 (/ % 1)
% "
v u R
where, / " refractive index, u " distance of object, v " distance of
image and R " radius of curvature of the spherical surface.

Lens
A lens is a uniform transparent medium bounded between two
spherical or one spherical and one plane surface.
 Ray Optics 291
Convex Lens
A lens which is thinner at edges and thicker at middle is called a
convex or converging lens.

Convex Lens Concave Lens

Concave Lens
A lens which is thicker at edges and thinner at middle is called a
concave or diverging lens.

Lens Formula
1 1 1
" %
f v u
where, f " focal length of the lens, u " distance of object
and v " distance of image.
Lens Maker’s formula
1 & 1 1 )
" (/ % 1) (( % ++
f ' R1 R2 *
where, / " refractive index of the material of the lens and R1 and R2
are radii of curvature of the lens.

Power of a Lens
The reciprocal of the focal length of a lens, when it is measured in
metre is called power of a lens.
1
Power of a lens, ( P ) "
f ( metre)
Its unit is diopter (D).
The power of a convex (converging) lens is positive and for a concave
(diverging) lens it is negative.

Laws of Formation of Images by Lens

The position and nature of the image by lens, in any case can be
obtained either from a ray diagram or by calculation.
To construct the image of a small object perpendicular to the axis
of a lens, two of the following three rays are drawn from the top of
the object.
292 Handbook of Physics

(i) A ray parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes through
the principal focus or appears to diverge from it.

F2 F2

(a) (b)
Path of incident ray parallel to principal axis for
(a) convex lens (b) concave lens

(ii) A ray through, the optical centre P passes undeviated because the
middle of the lens acts like a thin parallel-sided slab.

Path of incident ray passing through centre for convex lens

(iii) A ray passing through, the first focus F1 become parallel to the
principal axis after refraction.

F1 F1

(a)
(b)
Path incident ray passing through the focus for
(a) convex lens (b) concave lens

Image Formation by Lens

1. Image Formation by Convex lens
The image formed by convex lens depends on the position of object.
Formation of image by convex lens for different positions of object is
shown in the table given below.
 Ray Optics 293

Formation of Image by Convex Lenses

Position Position Nature and
S.No. Ray Diagram
of Object of Image Size of Image

At the Real, inverted

F2 2F2 principal and extremely
1. At infinity focus (F2 ) or diminished
2F2 F1 in the focal
plane

A
F2 B. 2F2 Between F2 Real, inverted
2. Beyond 2 F1
B 2F F1 and 2 F2 and diminished
1
A.

B F2 2F2 Real, inverted

3. At 2 F1 At 2 F2
2F1 F1 B. and of same
A. size as the
object

Between F1
4. 2F F F 2F Beyond 2 F2 Real, inverted
and 2 F1
and highly
magnified

5. At F1 At infinity Real, inverted

2F2 F1 F2 2F2
and highly
magnified

Between F1 On the same Virtual, erect

F2 2F2
6. and optical side as the and magnified
centre 2F1 F1 object
294 Handbook of Physics

2. Image Formation by Concave lens

The image formed by a concave lens is always virtual, erect and
diminished ( like a convex mirror). The image formation by concave
lens for different positions of object is shown in the table given below.

Formation of Image by Convex Lenses

S. Position Position Nature and
Ray diagram
No. of object of image size of image

F Virtual erect and

1. At infinity 2F At the focus
2F point size

2. Anywhere F1 2F1 Between the Virtual, erect,

except on the lens and F2 diminished
principal axis 2F2 F2

Focal Length of a Lens Combination

(i) When lenses are in contact
1 1 1
" ,
F f1 f2
Power of the combination, P " P1 , P2
(ii) When lenses are separated by a distance d
1 1 1 d
" , %
F f1 f2 f1 f2
Power of the combination, P " P1 , P2 % dP1P2

Linear Magnification
I v
" m"
O u
For a small sized object placed linearly along the principal axis, its
axial (longitudinal) magnification is given by
2 2 2
dv & v ) & f ) & f % u )
Axial magnification " "( + "( + "( +
du ' u * (' f , u +* ' f *
 Ray Optics 295
Focal Length of a Convex Lens by Displacement Method
Focal length of the convex lens
a2 % d 2
f"
4a
where, a " distance between the image pin and object pin
and d " distance between two positions of lens.
The distance between the two pins should be greater than four times
the focal length of the convex lens, i.e. a 4 4 f .
Height of the object, O " I1I 2 .

Cutting of a Lens
(i) If a symmetrical convex lens of focal length f is cut into two parts
along its optic axis, then focal length of each part (a plano-convex
lens) is 2f.
However, if the two parts are joined as shown in figure, the focal
length of combination is again f.
f 2f 2f f f

(ii) If a symmetrical convex lens of focal length f is cut into two parts
along the principal axis, then focal length of each part remains
unchanged as f. If these two parts are joined with curved ends on
f
one side, focal length of the combination is . But on joining two
2
parts in opposite sense, the net focal length becomes
7
7.
f f
f/2

Aberration of Lenses
The image formed by the lens suffer from following two main
drawbacks
296 Handbook of Physics

(i) Spherical Aberration Aberration of the lens due to which all

the rays passes through the lens are not focussed at a single point
and the image of a point object placed on the axis is blurred is
called spherical aberration. It can be reduced by using
(a) lens of large focal lengths (b) plano-convex lenses
(c) crossed lenses
(d) combining convex and concave lens
(ii) Chromatic Aberration Image of a white object formed by
lens is usually coloured and blurred. This defect of the image
produced by lens is called chromatic aberration.

Prism
Prism is uniform transparent medium bounded between two
refracting surfaces inclined at an angle.
A

A K

N T 8
i Q e
r1 r2
R
S
P
O
B C

Angle of Deviation
The angle subtended between the direction of incident light ray and
emergent light ray from a prism is called angle of deviation ( 8).

Prism Formula & A , 8m )

sin ( +
The refractive index of material of prism, / " ' 2 *
& A)
sin ( +
' 2*
where, A " prism angle and 8m " minimum angle of deviation.
8

8m

i1
i1 = i2
r1 = r2
 Ray Optics 297
For very small angle prism
8m " (/ % 1) A
Note The angle of emergence of the ray from the second face equals the angle of
incidence of the ray on the first face, then deviation produced is minimum.

Dispersion of Light
The splitting of white light into its constituent colours in the
sequence of VIBGYOR, on passing through a prism is called
dispersion of light.
The refractive index / V 4 / R , therefore violet colour deviates most
and red colour deviates least, i.e. 8V 4 8R .

8R
A
8V
Red Screen
ite
Wh Viol
et R

Angular Dispersion
The angle subtended between the direction of emergent violet and red
rays of light from a prism is called angular dispersion.
Angular dispersion ( # ) " 8V % 8R " (/ V % / R ) A
where, 8V and 8R are angle of deviation.
Dispersive Power
# (/ V % / R )
w" "
8Y (/ Y % 1)
/V , / R
where, / Y " is mean refractive index.
2

Scattering of Light
When light passes through a medium in which particles are
suspended whose size is of the order of wavelength of light, then light
on striking these particles, deviated in different directions. These
phenomena is called scattering of light.
According to the Lord Rayleigh, the intensity of scattered light
1
I3 4
1
298 Handbook of Physics

Therefore, red colour of light is scattered least and violet colour of

light is scattered most.

Daily Life Examples of Scattering of Light

(i) Blue colour of sky.
(ii) Red colour of signals of danger.
(iii) Black colour of sky in the absence of atmosphere.
(iv) Red colour of sky at the time of sun rise and sun set.
(v) The human eye is most sensitive to yellow colour.

Human Eye
Human eye is an optical instrument which forms real image of the
objects on retina.
A human eye has the following main parts
Cornea It is the transparent spherical membrane covering the front
of the eye. Light enters the eye through this membrane.
Crystalline lens The eye lens is a convex lens made of a
transparent, soft and flexible material like a jelly made of proteins.
Iris It is a dark muscular diaphragm between the cornea and the
lens. It controls the size of the pupil.
Pupil It is a small hole between the iris through which light enters
the eye.
Ciliary muscles They hold the lens in position and help in
modifying the curvature of the lens.
Retina It is the light sensitive surface of eye on which the image is
formed. It contains light sensitive cells rods and cones.
Optic nerve It transmits visual information from the retina to the
brain.
Sclera It is an opaque, fibrous, protective, outer layer of an eye
containing collagen and elastic fibre. It is also known as white of
the eye.
Blind spot It is the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye. It
contains no rods and cones, so an image formed at this point is not
sent to the brain.
 Ray Optics 299
Ciliary muscles
Crystalline Sclera
lens
Aqueous Retina
humour
Blind spot
Pupil
Iris Optic nerve
Cornea

Vitreous humour

Aqueous humour Behind the cornea, we have a space filled with a

transparent liquid called the aqueous humour.
Vitreous humour The space between eye lens and retina is filled
with another liquid called vitreous humour.
Accommodation of eye It is the ability of eye lens, to change its
focal length to form sharp images of objects at different positions from
the eye on the retina of the eye.
Range of vision It is the distance between near point and the far
point of an eye. For normal eye, the range of vision is 25 cm to
infinity.
Near point It is the nearest position of an object from human eye, so
that its sharp images is formed on the retina.
Different defects of vision of human eye are described below
(i) Myopia or Short-Sightedness It is a defect of eye due to
which a person can see near by objects clearly but cannot see far
away objects clearly.
In this defect, the far point of eye shifts from infinity to a nearer
distance.
This defect can be removed by using a concave lens of appropriate
power.

(a) R

Normal eye
300 Handbook of Physics

(b) F R
P

Myopic eye

(c) F R
P

Corrected eye
(ii) Hypermetropia or Long-Sightedness In this defect, a
person can see far away objects clearly but cannot see near by
objects clearly.
In this defect, the near point of eye shifts away from the eye.
This defect can be removed by using a convex lens of appropriate
power.

(a) N R
P

Normal eye

(b) N N R P'

Hypermetropic eye

(c) N' N R

Corrected eye
 Ray Optics 301
(iii) Astigmatism In this defect, a person cannot focus on horizontal
and vertical lines at the same distance at the same time.

This defect can be removed by using suitable cylindrical lenses.

(iv) Colour Blindness In this defect, a person is unable to
distinguish between few colours.
The reason of this defect is the absence of cone cells sensitive for
few colours.
(v) Cataract In this defect, an opaque white membrane is
developed on cornea due to which person losts power of vision
partially or completely.
This defect can be removed by removing this membrane through
surgery.

Simple Microscope
It is used for observing magnified images of objects. It consists of a
converging lens of small focal length.
A'

A
A1

–
B' F B 9: C F

u
d

Magnifying Power
(i) When final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision ( D ),
D
then M " 1 ,
f
where, f " focal length of the lens.
D
(ii) When final image is formed at infinity, then M " .
f
302 Handbook of Physics

Compound Microscope
It is a combination of two convex lenses called objective lens and eye
piece separated by a distance. Both lenses are of small focal lengths
but fo 5 fe , where fo and fe are focal lengths of objective lens and eye
piece respectively.
E
O
A A1

B'' B' :
B Fo C1 Fo Fe 9 C2 Fe

A' I

A"
d

Magnifying Power
(i) When final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision ( D ),
then
v & D)
M " o (( 1 , ++
uo ' fe *
where, vo " distance of image formed by objective lens
and u o " distance of object from the objective.
v D
(ii) When final image is formed at infinity, then, M " o ;
u o fe

Astronomical Telescope
It is also a combination of two lenses called objective lens and
eyepiece, separated by a distance. It is used for observing distinct
images of heavenly bodies like stars, planets etc.
O
E

Fo B' Fe
:
C1 : 9 C2 Fe

A'
o m
Fr

fo fo
 Ray Optics 303
Objective lens is a convex lens of large aperture and large focal
length while eyepiece is a convex lens of small aperture and small
focal length.

Magnifying Power
(i) When final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision
f & D)
( D ), then M " o (( 1 , ++, where fo and fe are focal lengths of
fe ' fe *
objective and eyepiece respectively.
Length of the telescope ( L ) " ( fo , u e )
where, u e " distance of object from the eyepiece.
fo
(ii) When final image is formed at infinity, then M " .
fe
Length of the telescope, ( L ) " fo , fe
Note For large magnifying power of a telescope fo should be large and fe should be
small.
For large magnifying power of a microscope fo 5 fe but fe should be small.

Reflecting Telescope
Reflecting telescope are based upon the same principle except that
the formation of images takes place by reflection instead of by
refraction. It consists of concave mirror of large aperture and large
focal length (objective). A plane mirror is placed between the concave
mirror and its focus. A small convex lens works as eye-piece.

Eye-piece
M1 = Parabolic mirror

Rays arrive
parallel from
very distant
object

M2 = Plane mirror
If f0 is focal length of the concave spherical mirror and fe the focal
length of the eye-piece, the magnifying power of the reflecting
telescope is given by
f
m" o
fe
304 Handbook of Physics

Resolving Power
The ability of an optical instrument to produce separate and clear
images of two nearby objects is called its resolving power.

Limit of Resolution
The minimum distance between two nearby objects which can be just
resolved by the instrument is called its limit of resolution ( d ).
1 2 / sin #
Resolving power of a microscope " " .
d 1
where, d " limit of resolution, 1 " wavelength of light used,
/ " refractive index of the medium between the objects
and objective lens
and # " half of the cone angle.
1 d
Resolving power of a telescope " "
d# 1.22 1
where, d# " limit of resolution, 1 " wavelength of light used
and d " diameter of aperture of objective.
 28
Wave Optics
Wave optics describes the connection between waves and rays of
light. According to wave theory of light, the light is a form of energy
which travels through a medium in the form of transverse wave
motion. The speed of light in a medium depends upon the nature of
medium.

Newtons’ Corpuscular Theory of Light

Light consists of very small invisible elastic particles called
corpuscles, which travel in vacuum with a speed of 3 ! 108 m/s.
The size of corpuscular of different colours of light are different.
The theory could explain reflection and refraction.
But it could not explain interference, diffraction, polarisation,
photoelectric effect and Compton effect.
The theory failed as it could not explain why light travels faster in a
rarer medium than in a denser medium.

Huygens’ Wave Theory of Light

Light travel in the form of waves. These waves travel in all direction
with the velocity of light.
The waves of light of different colours have different wavelengths.
Huygens’ theory could explain reflection, refraction interference,
diffraction, polarisation but could not explain photoelectric effect and
compton’s effect.
Wave theory introduced the concept of wavefront.
306 Handbook of Physics

Wavefront
A wavefront is defined as the continuous locus of all the particles
of a medium, which are vibrating in the same phase.
A P

Rays
S Q

B R

S = source of light, AB = wavefront and SP, SQ

and SR are rays of light.

These are three types

(i) Spherical Wavefront
When source of light is a point source, the wavefront is spherical.
1
Amplitude (A) is inversely proportional to distance (x) i.e. A " .
x
#
Intensity (I) "
(Amplitude) 2
(ii) Cylindrical wavefront
When source of light is linear, the wavefront is cylindrical.
1
Amplitude (A) "
x
1#
Intensity " (Amplitude) 2 " x
(iii) Plane wavefront
" x0
When the source of light is very far off, the wavefront is plane.
I )) " x 0
Intensity ((A
Amplitude
Huygens’ Principle
(i) Every point on given wavefront (called primary wavefront) acts as
a fresh source of new disturbance called secondary wavelets.
(ii) The secondary wavelets travels in all the directions with the
speed of light in the medium.
(iii) A surface touching these secondary wavelets tangentially in the
forward direction at any instant gives the new (secondary) wave
front of that instant.
 Wave Optics 307
Superposition of Waves
When two similar waves propagate in a medium simultaneously,
then at any point the resultant displacement is equal to the vector
sum of displacement produced by individual waves.
y $ y1 % y2

Interference of Light
When two light waves of similar frequency having a zero or constant
phase difference propagate in a medium simultaneously in the same
direction, then due to their superposition maximum intensity is
obtained at few points and minimum intensity at other few points.
This phenomenon of redistribution of energy due to superposition of
waves is called interference of light waves.
The interference taking place at points of maximum intensity is
called constructive interference.
The interference taking place at points of minimum intensity is called
destructive interference.

Conditions for Constructive and Destructive Interference

For Constructive Interference
Phase difference, & $ 2n'
Path difference, (x $ n) where, n $ 0, 1, 2, 3, *
For Destructive Interference
Phase difference, & $ ( 2n + 1) '
( 2n + 1) )
Path difference, (x $ where, n $ 1, 2, 3, *
2
If two waves of exactly same frequency and of amplitude a and b
interfere, then amplitude of resultant wave is given by
R $ a 2 % b2 % 2ab cos &
where, & is the phase difference between two waves.
Rmax $ ( a % b)
Rmin $ ( a + b)
Intensity of wave,
# I $ a 2 % b2 % 2ab cos &
$ I1 % I 2 % 2 I1I 2 cos &
where, I1 and I 2 are intensities of two waves.
308 Handbook of Physics

Coherent Sources of Light

The sources of light emitting light of same wavelength, same
frequency having a zero or constant phase difference are called
coherent sources of light.

Young’s Double Slit Experiment (YDSE)

The arrangement of YDSE to produce interference is shown below
Screen
P

y
S1
-
d O
S2
D

n)
Position of bright fringe, y bright $ D
d
( 2n + 1))D
Position of dark fringe, ydark $
2d
Fringe Width
The distance between the centres of two consecutive bright or dark
)
fringes is called the fringe width, , D
$
d
) $ ,.
The angular fringe width is given by - d d
where, ) is the wavelength of light d $is the distance between two
coherent sources.

Important Points Related with Fringe Width

As we know that fringe width (,) is the distance between two
successive maxima or minima. It is given by
)D
,$ or , " )
d
Two conclusions can be drawn from this relation
(i) If YDSE apparatus is immersed in a liquid of refractive index .,
then wavelength of light and hence fringe width decreases .
times.
 Wave Optics 309
(ii) If white light is used in place of a monochromatic light, then
coloured fringes are obtained on the screen with red fringes of
larger size than that of violet because ) red / )violet .
But note that centre is still white because path difference there is
zero for all colours. Hence, all the wavelengths interfere
constructively. At other places light will interfere destructively for
those wavelengths for whom path difference is )/ 2 , 3 )/ 2 , …, etc, and
they will interfere constructively for the wavelengths for whom path
difference is ) , 2) , *, etc.
Note Shape of fringes on the screen is hyperbolic. But, if the screen is placed at very
large distance from slits, then the hyperbola nearly looks straight line in shape.

Angular Width of Fringes

Let angular position of nth bright fringe is - n and because of its small
value tan - n 0 - n
Y nD)/ d n)
# -n $ n $ $
D D d
Similarly, if angular position of ( n % 1 )th bright fringe is - n %1, then
Y n % 1 ( n % 1 ) D )/ d ( n % 1 ) )
- n %1 $ $ $
D D d
# Angular width of a fringe,
( n % 1)) n) )
- $ -n % 1 + -n $ + $
d d d
D
Also, ,$ )
d
) ,
# -$ $
d D
It is independent of n, i.e. angular width of all fringes are same.

Intensity of Fringes
Intensity of bright frine $ 4I [as I1 $ I 2 $ I is YDSE]
Intensity of dark fringe $ 0
I1 a 2 W1
Also, $ $
I 2 b2 W 2
where, W1 and W 2 are width of slits, which emanates light of intensity
I1 and I 2.
310 Handbook of Physics

Maximum Intensity
From above expression, we can see that intensity is maximum at
points, where
& &
cos $ 1 1 or $ n', n $ 0, 1 1, 1 2,...
2 2
2'
or & $ 2n' or (x $ 2n'
)
or (x $ n), we know that this path difference is for maxima.
Thus, intensity of bright points are maximum and given by
I max $ 4I 0
&
Therefore, we can write I $ I max cos2
2

Minimum Intensity
Minimum intensity on the screen is found at points, where
& & 2 15
cos $ 0 or $ 4 n + 7 '
2 2 3 26
(where, n $ 1 1, 1 2, 1 3, …)
or & $ ( 2n + 1) '
2'
or (x $ ( 2n + 1) '
)
)
8 (x $ ( 2n + 1)
2
We know that this path difference corresponds to minima. Thus,
intensity of minima are minimum and given by
I min $ 0
Note If both the slits are of equal width, I1 0 I2 $ I0 and in that cases,
Imax $ 4I0 and Imin $ 0
If the slits are of unequal width, then I1 9 I2 Imin 9 0

Insertion of Transparent Slab in YDSE

When a transparent slab (sheet) of refractive index . and of thickness
t is introduced in one of the path of interfering waves, then fringe
pattern shifts in that direction by a distance Y
D ,
Y $ ( . + 1) t $ ( . + 1) t
d )
where, , $ fringe width.
 Wave Optics 311
Interference in Thin Flim
Interference effects are commonly observed in thin films, such as thin
layers of coil on water or the thin surface of a soap bubble.
The varied colours observed when white light is incident on such
films as the result of the interference of waves reflected from the two
surfaces of the film.
Let us assume that the light rays travelling in air are nearly normal
to the surfaces of the film. Then
(i) The wavelength of light in a medium whose refractive index is .
)
is ). $
.
(ii) If wave is reflected from a denser medium, then it undergoes a
phase change 180:.
The path difference betwen the two rays 1 and 2 is 2t.
Hence, condition of constructive interference will be
180° phase
change No phase
change
1
2
Air .air < .film

A
Film
t

B
Air
).
2 t $ ( 2 n + 1)
2
where, n $ 1 , 2 , 3 , *
2 15 )
or 2 .t $ 4 n + 7 ) as ). $
3 2 6 .
Similarly, condition of destructive interference will be
2.t $ n), where n $ 0 , 1 , 2 , *
! A soap bubble or oil film on water appears coloured in white light
due to interference of light reflected from upper and lower surfaces
of soap bubble or oil film.
! In interference fringe pattern, all bright and dark fringes are of
same width.
312 Handbook of Physics

Fresnel’s Biprism
It is a combination of two prisms of very small refracting angles
placed base to base. It is used to obtain two coherent sources from a
single light source.

Llyod’s Mirror
The shape of interference fringes P
obtained from Llyod’s mirror are
usually hyperbolic. S1
Screen
When screen is held at 90° to the d O
line joining foci of the hyperbola, S2
the fringes are circular.
When distance of screen ( D ) is very
large compare to the distance between the slits ( d ), the fringes are
straight.

Diffraction
The bending of light waves around the corners of an obstacle or
aperture of the size of the wavelength is called diffraction of light. The
phenomenon of diffraction is divided mainly in the following two classes
(a) Fresnel class (b) Fraunhofer class
S.No. Fresnel Class Fraunhofer Class
1. The source is at a finite distance. The source is at infinite distance.
2. No opticals are required. Opticals in the form of collimating lens
and focusing lens are required.
3. Fringes are not sharp and well defined. Fringes are sharp and well defined.

Fraunhoffer Diffraction at a Single Slit

For Secondary Minima
nD) nf)
(a) Path difference $ n) (b) Linear distance $ $
a a
where, ) $ wavelength of light, a $ width of single slit,
D $ distance of screen from the slit and f $ focal length of
convex lens.
n)
(c) Angular spread $ where, n $ 1, 2, 3, *
a
For Secondary Maxima
( 2n % 1) )
(a) Path difference $
2
 Wave Optics 313
( 2n % 1) D) ( 2n % 1) f)
(b) Linear distance $ $
2a 2a
( 2n % 1) )
(c) Angular spread $
2a
For Central Maxima
2D) 2 f)
Linear width of central maximum $
a a
2)
Angular width of central maximum, 2- $
a

Fresnel’s Distance
a2
It is given as, Z F $, where, is a is the size of slit or hole.
)
Image formation can be explained by ray optics for distance less than
ZF .

Diffraction Grating
It consists of large number of equally spaced parallel slits. If light is
incident normally on a transmission grating, then the direction of
principal maxima is given by d sin - $ n)
Here, d is the distance between two consecutive slits and is called
grating element. n $ 1 , 2 , 3 , * is the order of principal maxima.
Note Diffraction grating is based on combined phenomena of interference and
diffraction. It is the results of interference in diffracted waves.

Important Points
! In diffraction fringe pattern central bright fringe is brightest and widest and
remaining secondary maximas are of gradually decreasing intensities.
! The difference between interference and diffraction is that the interference is
the superposition between the wavelets coming from two coherent sources
while the diffraction is the superposition between the wavelets coming from
the single wavefront.

Polarisation
The phenomenon of restricting of electric vectors of light into a single
direction is called polarisation. Ordinary light has electric vectors
in all possible directions in a plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of light.
314 Handbook of Physics

When ordinary light is passed through a tourmaline, calcite or quartz

crystal the transmitted light will have electric vectors in a particular
direction parallel to the axis of crystal. This light is then known as
plane polarised light.
A plane containing the vibrations of polarised light is called plane of
vibration. A plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration is called
plane of polarisation. Polarisation can take place only in
transverse waves.
Nicol Prism
A nicol prism is an optical device which is used for producing plane
polarised light and analysing light the same.
The nicol prism consists of two calcite crystal cut at 68° with its
principal axis joined by a glue called Canada balsam.
Law of Malus
When a beam of completely plane polarised light is incident on an
analyser, the intensity of transmitted light from analyser is directly
proportional to the square of the cosine of the angle between plane of
transmission of analyser and polariser, i.e. I " cos2 -
When ordinary light is incident on a polariser the intensity of
transmitted light is half of the intensity of incident light.
When a polariser and a analyser are perpendicular to each other,
then intensity of transmitted light from analyser becomes 0.
Brewster’s Law
When unpolarised light is incident at an angle of polarisation ( i p ) on
the interface separating air from a medium of refractive index ., then
reflected light becomes fully polarised, provided
. $ tan i p
Here, i p % r $ 90:
Unpolarised Light Reflected light

ip ip

Refracted light
 Wave Optics 315
Double Refraction
When unpolarised light is incident on a calcite or quartz crystal it
splits up into two refracted rays, one of which follows laws of
refraction, called ordinary ray (O-ray) and other do not follow laws
of refraction, called extraordinary ray (E-ray). This phenomenon is
called double refraction.

Polarisation of Light by Scattering

The scattering of light can be demonstrated by a simple experiment.
A few drops of dilute sulphuric acid is added to a dilute solution of
hypo (sodium thiosulphate) prepared in a glass tank.
A precipitate of fine sulphur particles is formed, the particles grow in
size with time. Now, a beam of light from a bright source is sent
through the tank. The light scattered by the sulphur particles in a
direction at right angles to the incident light appears bluish shown in
figure below.

Nicol

When the scattered bluish light is seen through an analyser (for

example, a rotating Nicol) a variation in intensity with minimum
intensity zero is found. This shows that the light scattered in a
direction perpendicular to the incident light is plane polarised.

Dichroism
Few double refracting crystals have a property of absorbing one of the
two refracted rays and allowing the other to emerge out. This
property of crystal is called dichroism.

Polaroid
It is a polarising film mounted between two glass plates, which is
used to produce polarised light.
316 Handbook of Physics

Uses of Polaroid
(i) Polaroids are used in sun glasses. They protect the eyes from
glare.
(ii) The pictures taken by a stercoscopic camera. When seen with
the help of polaroid spectacles, it helps in creating three
dimensional effect.
(iii) The wind shield of an automobile is made of polaroid. Such a
wind shield protects the eyes of the driver of the automobile
from the dazzling light of the approaching vehicles.

Doppler’s Effect in Light

The phenomenon of apparent change in frequency (or wavelength) of
the light due to relative motion between the source of light and the
observer is called Doppler’s Effect in Light.

Doppler’s Shift
Apparent wavelength > actual wavelength
So spectrum of the radiation from the source of light shifts towards
the red end of spectrum. This is called red shift.
However, when waves are received from a source moving towards the
observer, there is an apparent decrease in wavelength, this is reffered
as blue shift
v
Doppler’s shift, () $ ) ;
c
where, v $ speed of source w.r.t. stationary observer
and c $ speed of light.