Food Drying , and Dehydration : principle, methods and equipment (L 14 –L16)

Drying Drying is one of the oldest and the simplest method of preserving food. It refers to removal of
water from the food. Dried foods are preserved because the available moisture level is so low that the
microorganisms cannot grow and the enzyme activity is also controlled. Drying can be accomplished by
a number of methods viz. sun drying, mechanical/ artificial drying and freeze drying etc. Dried foods
are compact and lightweight; do not require refrigeration and last much longer than the fresh foods.
Dried foods should be stored in airtight containers to prevent moisture from rehydrating them and
allowing microbial growth.

Food Dehydration food dehydration refers to the nearly complete removal of water from foods under
controlled conditions that cause minimum or ideally no other changes in the food properties. Such
foods, depending on the item, commonly are dried to final moisture within the range of about 1-5%.
Examples are dried milk and eggs, potato flakes, instant coffee, and orange juice crystals. Such
products will have storage stability at room temperature of a year or longer. A major criterion of the
quality of dehydrated foods is that when reconstituted by the addition of water they be very close to,
or virtually indistinguishable from, the original food material used in their preparation.

In food dehydration, preservation is the principal reason but not the only reason for dehydrating foods.
Foods may be dehydrated to decrease weight and bulk . Since orange juice contains approximately
12% solids, removal of all the water leaves one-eighth the weight; that is, 237 ml of orange juice yield
approximately 28 g of solids. To reconstitute, 207 ml of water are added prior to consumption. In the
case of juices, the volume of the powders is less than the original juices, although rarely are the
powders decreased in volume to the same extent that they are reduced in weight. These reductions
can result in lower shipping and container cost, but this is not always the case with dehydrated foods.

Smoking Smoking has been used as a method of food preservation from time immemorial. In this
method, foods are exposed to smoke by burning some special kinds of wood, which has two main
purposes, adding desired flavouring and preserving. Smoke contains chemicals like formaldehyde,
which is bactericidal. And also the dehydration occurring due to smoking is responsible for its
preservative action. The smoke is obtained by burning wood like oak, maple, walnut and mahogany
under low breeze/ wind. Most meat is smoked after curing to aid their preservation. Examples of
smoke preserved foods are smoked beef, ham, bacon, fish and meat.

Difference Between Drying and Dehydration

Both the terms ‘drying’ and ‘dehydration’ mean the removal of water. But the former term is generally used
for drying under the influence of non-conventional energy sources like sun and wind whereas dehydration
means the process of removal of moisture by the application of artificial heat under controlled conditions of
temperature, humidity and air flow. The Table 1 illustrates the differences between drying and dehydration.

Table 1. Differences between drying and dehydration processes:

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Drying Dehydration

Cheaper Costlier process.

Colour of dried product is superior when compared

to dehydrated product. Quality is better.

Not practicable unless favourable conditions prevail. Yield is higher. Microclimate can be
controlled. Easy to maintain sanitary conditions.
Cooking and keeping quality is better.Requires less
floor area and fewer trays.

Difference Between Drying/ Dehydration and Concentration

Drying refers to the removal of relatively low amounts of water from a material as vapour by passing hot air
while concentration/ evaporation refers to removal of relatively large amount of water as vapour at its boiling
temperature. Concentration is not as effective as drying. Foods are concentrated or dehydrated for the same
purpose. Concentration is applicable in case of liquid foods only.

Principle of Preservation by Drying/ Dehydration/ Concentration

The principle behind drying is that sufficient moisture is removed, which is essential for growth of
microorganisms and for enzyme activity. Removal of moisture increases the storage life of the product due to
reduced water activity. If the moisture content is reduced to 1 to 5 per cent then the product can be stored for
more than a year. The processing should be done in such a way that the food value, natural flavour and
characteristic cooking quality of the fresh material are retained after drying. A good dried product on
reconstitution with water should resemble the original product.

Advantages of Drying Preservation is the main reason but not the only reason for dehydrating foods.
Food may be dehydrated for other reasons also viz. to decrease weight and bulk; to retain size and shape of
original food; to produce convenience items. Dehydration/ drying is advantageous for being cheaper than the
other methods of preservation with less requirement of equipments. Storage of dried food products does not
require special facilities like refrigeration etc. Dried food products are simple to store and pack because of
their low volume. Dehydrated foods however, are less popular because of some undesirable changes in
colour, taste and flavour during storage and distribution. Dehydration techniques have been improved to
overcome most of these defects.

Factors in control of drying: Various factors affecting rate of drying in a fresh produce include the following:

1 Composition of raw materials: Foods containing high amount of sugar or other solutes dry slowly.

2 Size, shape and arrangement of stacking of produce: Greater the surface area greater is the rate of
drying.

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3 Temperature as well as humidity and velocity of air: Greater is the temperature differential between
the product and the drying medium faster the product dries. Lower the humidity of environment the faster
the drying will be.

4 Pressure (atmospheric or under vacuum): Lower the atmospheric pressure the lower the temperature
required to evaporate water.

5 Heat transfer to surface (conductive, convective and radiative): The fastest method of heat transfer is
radiation consecutively followed by convection and conduction.

Types of Drying

Basically, drying can be done by two processes viz. natural drying and mechanical dehydration or artificial
drying based on source of energy. Natural drying takes place under the influence of sunlight and wind and is of
three types viz. sun, solar and shade drying. In natural drying there is no control over temperature, air flow
and humidity whereas in artificial drying, these conditions are well controlled.

Mechanical dehydration or artificial dehydration can be further classified into atmospheric and sub-
atmospheric types based on the conditions employed in drying process. On the basis of mode of drying
process, drying at atmospheric pressure conditions can be further divided in batch and continuous types.
Mechanical drying includes the methods of drying by (1) heated air, (2) direct contact with heated surface e.g.
drum drying and (3) application of energy from a radiating microwave or dielectric source.

Commercial dehydrators are generally large in size and various types of dehydrators can be based on
circulation of air as (1) Natural and (2) Forced draught. In natural draught, the rising of heated air brings about
drying of food in the natural draught method. Examples include kiln, tower and cabinet driers. Forced draught
employ currents of heated air that move across the food usually in tunnels. An alternative method is to move
the food or a conveyor belt or trays through heated air. Examples include tunnel or belt drier. In forced
draught drier, the temperature and humidity can be carefully controlled to get a good dehydrated product but
are not in general use because of the cost.

Sun drying:

Drying the food product under natural sunny conditions is called as sun drying. No energy is required for the
drying process. To practice sun drying of foods, hot days are desirable with minimum temperatures of 35°C
with low humidity. Poor quality produce can not be used for natural drying to achieve good quality dried
product. The lower limit of moisture content by this method is approximately 15 per cent. Problems of
contamination and intermittent drying are generally encountered with sun drying. It is only possible in areas
of low humidity.

Simple equipments are required such as knives, peelers, trays etc. Plastic sheets are also used. Process
consists of washing, peeling and preparation of fruit or vegetables. Fruits are generally sulphured whereas
vegetables are blanched before drying to prevent enzymatic browning. Fruits are seldom blanched. Fruits are
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considered to be dry when they show no signs of moisture or stickiness when held firmly in the hand.
Vegetables are considered to be dry when they become brittle. At this stage, they should be removed from
the dehydrator. The residual moisture in the vegetables should not be more than 6-8 per cent and in fruits 10-
20 per cent. Dried fruits can be used as such after soaking, while dried vegetables are usually soaked in water
overnight and then cooked. The Table 2 shows the advantages and disadvantages associated with the sun
drying of food products.

Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages of sun drying:

Advantages Disadvantages

No energy is required Slow drying process, Time taking Molding of food may occur due to slow drying
Cannot be carried out in dust, cloudy &rainy weather.
Solar drying:

Solar drying uses designed structures to collect and enhance solar radiation. Solar driers generate high air
temperature and low humidity which results in faster drying. This drier is faster than sun-drying, and also
requires less drying area. But it cannot be used on cloudy days. Generally, three types of solar driers are used,
as (1) the absorption or hot box type driers in which the product is directly heated by sun, (2) the indirect or
convection driers in which the product is exposed to warm air which is heated by means of a solar absorber or
heat exchanger and (3) drier, which is combination of first and second type.

Shade drying:

This kind of method is used for foods which lose their colour when exposed to direct sunlight for drying.
Generally herbs, green and red chillies, okra and beans etc. are dried under shaded area with good air
circulation.

A home scale dehydrator or drier:

It consists of a small galvanized box having dimensions of 90x90x60 cm. The lower portion consists of
perforated iron tray. The box is fitted on to a wooden frame which is kept about 2-3 feet above ground. At the
top there are two slits which can be closed by shutters. About seven trays can be kept in the drier. The
material to be heated is kept on trays and heating source can be a gas stove or any other source. The initial
temperature of the dehydrator is usually is 43°C which is gradually increased to 60-66°C in the case of
vegetables and 66-71°C for fruits. For a home scale drier 100-200 g of sulphur is required for 25 kg fruit. Time
required for drying is generally ½ hour to 2 hours.

Oven drying: A conventional oven with a thermostatic setting of 60°C is suitable for oven drying of fruits,
vegetables, fruit leathers and meats . This is a kind of cabinet drier

Kiln Drier. One of the simplest kinds of air convection drier is the kiln drier. Kiln driers of early design were
two-story constructions. A furnace or burner on the lower floor generated heat, and warm air would rise
through a slotted floor to the upper story. Foods such as apple slices would be spread out on the slotted floor
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(On the top floor) and turned over periodically. This kind of drier will not reduce moisture to below about 10%.
It is still in use for apple slices or for large pieces of food.

Tower drier:
It is also called as stack type drier. This drier consists of a furnace room containing the furnace, heating pipes
and cabinet in which fruits are kept in perforated trays. Heated air from the furnace rises through the trays.
Heating is through steam coils placed between the trays. The trays are interchanged as drying progresses.

Tunnel belt drier:

It consists of several parallel sloping and narrow chambers above a furnace room. Trays are passed on a
conveyor belt at upper end and removed at the lower end. Air for drying is circulated by a fan. Humidity is
controlled by occasionally letting in air. Heating can be direct or by radiation. Indirect heating– heat is passed
over material and it is sufficient, but there is risk of overheating. By radiation air is heated over pipes carrying
hot gases from furnace. Steam pipes may also be used.

Belt Trough Drier A special kind of air convection belt drier is the belt trough drier in which the belt forms
a trough. The belt is usually of metal mesh, and heated air is blown up through the mesh. The belt moves
continuously, keeping the food pieces in the trough in constant motion to continuously expose new surface.
This speeds drying, and with air of about 135°C, vegetable pieces may be dried to 7-5% moisture in about 1 h.

Fluidized-Bed Drier Another type of pneumatic conveyor drier is the fluidized-bed drier. In fluidized-bed
drying (Fig.1), heated air is blown up through the food particles with just enough force to suspend the particles
in a gentle boiling motion. Semidry particles such as potato granules enter at the left and gradually migrate to
the right, where they are discharged dry. Heated air is introduced through a porous plate that supports the
bed of granules. The moist air is exhausted at the top. The process is continuous and the length of time
particles remain in the drier can be regulated by the depth of the bed and other means. This type of drying can
be used to dehydrate grains, peas, and other particulates.

Fluidized bed drier

Foam mat drying:

Pulps and concentrates are dried by this method. Small amounts of a foaming agent are mixed with the fluid
food material and whipped to form low density stable foam. Foams are cast in thin layers onto trays or belts.
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Foaming is done to expose enormous surface area for quick moisture escape resulting in rapid atmospheric
drying at somewhat lower temperature. This is dried by spreading foam on trays as a mat at low temperature.
Such dehydration method is known as foam mat drying.
This process takes less time to dry and the dried product can be easily reconstituted. This method is
comparatively cheaper than drum drying, spray drying and puffing methods. Orange, tomato, pineapple, and
lemon juice powder, apple sauce, baby foods are the products made using this drying technology. The foaming
agents used are glycerol monostearate (GMS), egg albumin, guar gum, groundnut protein isolate, carboxy
methyl cellulose.

Spray drying:
Spray drier is used to dry purees, low viscosity pastes and liquids, which can be atomized. The material is
sprayed in a rapidly moving current of hot air. The dried product drops to the bottom of the drying chamber
and is collected. Atomization into minute droplets results in drying in a matter of seconds with common inlet
air temperature of about 200°C and properly designed system quickly removes the dried particles from heated
zones. This method of dehydration can produce exceptionally high quality with many highly heat sensitive
materials including milk and coffee. Disadvantages include the size of the equipment required to achieve
drying is very large and very oily materials might require special preparation to remove excessive levels of fat
before atomization.

Drum or roller drying:

Foods in the form of puree and liquid are dried using this method. This kind of processing is used for
preparation of mango flakes, orange flakes, baby foods etc. The pulp of fruit is blended with a small quantity
of edible starch and then the blend is adjusted for acidity. The mixture is poured little by little on to heated
drum which are made of stainless steel. Drums are revolving at a slow speed. The product dries in the form of
a continuous thin sheet or powder. This is broken into small pieces which are then collected in a tin container.
Lid has to be placed immediately because the flakes are highly hygroscopic. Drum drying is one of the most
energy efficient drying methods and is particularly effective for drying high viscous liquid or pureed foods.

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 Fig. 2 Different types of Drum or roller dryers

Vacuum Drying Vacuum drying of food involves subjecting the food to a low pressure and a
heating source. The vacuum allows the water to vaporize at a lower temperature than at atmospheric
conditions, thus foods can be dried without exposure to high temperature. In addition, the low level of oxygen
in the atmosphere diminishes oxidation reactions during drying. In general, color, texture, and flavor of
vacuum-dried products are improved compared with air-dried products. In some cases, the product is
comparable to the quality of freeze-dried foods.

Vacuum puffing : Puffing of food is obtained by sudden application of vacuum. Generally used for preparation
of orange juice powder or preparation of potato pieces with porous structure. Potato pieces are cooked and
while hot they are subjected to vacuum for a short period and then dried. The instant flashing of water vapour
from inside leaves the texture porous and also facilitates quick drying.

Freeze Drying In freeze drying, frozen material is subjected to a pressure below the triple point (at 0°C,
pressure: 610 Pa) and heated to cause ice sublimation to vapor. A schematic diagram of the different states
of water with triple point is shown in Figure.3. This method is usually used for high-quality dried products,
which contain heat-sensitive components such as vitamins, antibiotics, and microbial culture. The virtual
absence of air and low temperature prevents deterioration due to oxidation or chemical modification of the
product. It also gives very porous products, which results in high rehydration rates. However, freeze drying is a
slow and expensive process. A long processing time requires additional energy to run the compressor and
refrigeration units, which makes the process very expensive for commercial use. Thus, it is mainly used for
high-value products. Freeze-drying is a form of dehydration in which the product is first frozen and then water
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is removed under vacuum as vapour by sublimation. The principle behind freeze drying is that under certain
conditions of low vapour pressure, water in the form ice evaporates as water vapour directly without turning
into liquid phase. The advantage is that the food structure and nutritional properties are better conserved but
the equipment and its maintenance is costly.
Foods in the pieces and liquids are dried by this method. Fruit juice concentrates are manufactured using
freeze drying. The material is frozen on trays and then dried under vacuum. Due to vacuum drying, the
material dries directly without passing through the intermediate liquid stage. The principle behind freeze
drying is that under certain conditions of low vapour pressure, water can evaporate from ice without the ice
melting. Freeze drying is generally used to dry sensitive and high value liquid as well as solid foods such as
juices, coffee, strawberries, chicken dice, mushroom slices etc. The dried product is highly hygroscopic and
reconstitutes readily. Taste, flavour and reconstitution property of fruit juice concentrates is excellent.
Method is costly because of the equipment cost. Freeze drying in combination with air drying is advantageous
in reducing cost of drying. For example- vegetables pieces may be air dried to about 50 per cent moisture and
then freeze dried down to 2-3 per cent moisture.

Accelerated freeze drying (AFD):

This is used for drying pieces of food material without disturbing their shape and texture. Product has good
reconstitution property, taste and flavour. The pieces of material are kept pressed between two perforated or
wire mesh trays inside a cabinet freeze drier. As the material dries, the bulk of the pieces is gradually reduced
by decreasing the clearance between the trays is reduced. The dried material retains its shape and regains it
on rehydration. Meat etc. are dried using this technique.

Heat Pump Drying The heat pump dryer is a further extension of the conventional convection air dryer with
an inbuilt refrigeration system (Figure. 4). Dry heated air is supplied continuously to the product to pick up
moisture. This humid air passes through the evaporator of the heat pump where it condenses, giving up its
latent heat of vaporization to the refrigerant in the evaporator. This heat is used to reheat the cool dry air
passing over the hot condenser of the heat pump. Thus, the latent heat recovered in the process is released at
the condenser of the refrigeration circuit and used to reheat the air within the dryer. The use of the heat
pump dryer offers several advantages over conventional hot air dryers for drying food products, including
higher energy efficiency, better product quality, the ability to operate independent of outside ambient
weather conditions, and zero environmental impact. In addition, the condensate can be recovered and
disposed of in an appropriate manner, and there is also the potential to recover valuable volatile components
from the condensate. One of the main reasons of quality improvements in heat pump dried products is due to
its ability to operate at low temperatures. If a heat pump dryer is used at low temperatures (10°C–60°C) for
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highly perishable food products, adequate precautions need to be taken. There is also potential to use heat
pump drying with modified atmospheres to obtain better quality products.

Figure 4: Schematic diagram of operation of a typical heat pump dryer. (1) Vapor – scaled & insulated
structure; (2) Humidifier; (3) Over heat vent; (4) External condenser; (5) Heat pump dehumidifier; (6)
Condensate; (7) Product tray; (8) Primary sir circulation fan & (9) Air distributor

Modified Atmosphere Drying This is a new concept of drying foods using heat pump dryers, which uses
modified atmospheres such as nitrogen and carbon dioxide, for better quality and preservation of
constituents of foods, prone to oxidation. Technologies to create the modified atmosphere drying are now
evolving. Modified atmosphere heat pump dehumidifier (MAHPD) drying is a relatively new development.
The fact that heat pump dehumidifier (HPD) drying is conducted in an enclosed, insulated chamber is made
use of in the development of the MAHPD drying system. The air in the dehumidifier chamber is replaced with
an inert atmosphere such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, or their mixtures. Replacement of the air inside the
chamber is easily carried out by exhausting the chamber using a vacuum pump and then breaking the
vacuum using an inert gas. Vacuum exhaustion is a more cost-effective way to replace air than by direct
purging with the specific inert gas. Replacement of air with carbon dioxide or nitrogen by purging requires
over 50 volumes to achieve an oxygen level of less than 0.5%. Schematic diagram of the MAHPD drying
system is shown in Figure.5. This consists of a sealed drying vessel connected to the heat exchanger unit.
The drying vessel has provision for introduction of nitrogen or for evacuation through a valve connection.
The MAHPD system shown also has provisions for introducing microwave energy for heating the product,
through a slotted waveguide running down the wall of the chamber parallel to the axis of the chamber. A PLC
control panel connected to a remote PC and monitor controls the whole system. The product is carried on
microwave-transparent plastic trays stacked vertically on a rotating platform, which is mounted on a load
cell, so that weight loss can be monitored and recorded on the PC.

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Figure.5. Schematic diagram of the MAHPD drying system .

Pretreatments
Pretreatments are common in most of the drying processes in order to improve product quality, storage
stability, and process efficiency. In recent years, an improvement in quality retention of the dried products by
altering processing strategy and pretreatment has gained much attention.

1) Blanching: Blanching is a process of preheating the product by immersion in water or steam. The main
purpose of blanching is to inactivate the naturally occurring enzymes present in foods, since enzymes are
responsible for off-flavor development, discoloration or browning, deterioration of nutritional quality, and
textural changes in food materials. Other advantages are that it removes air bubbles from vegetable surfaces
and from intercellular spaces, reduces the initial microbial load, cleans raw food materials initially, facilitating
preliminary operations such as peeling and dicing, and improving color, texture and flavor under optimum
conditions. Blanching may have disadvantages, for example, it may change the texture, color, and flavor
because of the heating process; it increases the loss of soluble solids, such as vitamins, especially in the case of
water blanching; it may change the chemical and physical states of the nutrients and vitamins; and it has
adverse environmental impacts, such as large water and energy usage, and problems of effluent disposal.

2) Sulfur Dioxide Treatment: Sulfur dioxide preserves the texture, flavor, vitamin content, and color that make
food attractive to the consumer. Sulfur dioxide treatment is used widely in the food industry to reduce the
fruit-darkening rate during drying and storage, and preserves ascorbic acid and carotene. Sulfur dioxide taken
up by the foods displaces air from the tissue in plant materials, softens cell walls so that drying occurs more
easily, destroys enzymes that cause darkening of cut surfaces, shows fungicidal and insecticidal properties,
and enhances the bright attractive color of dried fruits. Permitted levels of sulfur dioxide and other additives
(solutes) in dried foods vary from country to country.
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3) Salting or Curing: Salting or curing is a natural type of osmotic dehydration. Curing was originally developed
to preserve certain foods by the addition of sodium chloride. In the food industry, the application of curing is
related only to certain meat, fish, and cheese products. Today sodium chloride, and sodium and potassium
nitrite (or nitrates) are considered as curing salts. Salting is one of the most common pretreatments used for
fish products. It converts fresh fish into shelf-stable products by reducing the moisture content and acting as a
preservative. In combination with drying, these processes contribute to the development of characteristic
sensory qualities in the products, which influence their utilization as food

4) Freezing Pretreatment: Freezing treatment affects the drying process. The rehydration rate of air- and
vacuum-dried fruits and vegetables subjected to freezing treatment increased to a level comparable with that
of freeze-dried products. It is also noticed that the longer the duration of freezing, the better the rehydration
kinetics of dried products. This is due to the formation of large ice crystals by slow freezing.

5) Cooking: Cooking at different pressure levels before drying can destroy microorganisms and affect the
physicochemical properties of dried products. The bacterial load on the final product can thus be reduced
considerably, and the cooked product can be minced and spread evenly on drying trays with much less trouble
than the raw material. Precooking is usually used for rice, beef, fish, and beans. Formation of superficial
pellicle (case-hardening) may be avoided by precooking, which considerably retards drying. It is clear that the
more severe the initial conditions of cooking, the more stable is the subsequently dehydrated product.
Generally, cooked vegetable, meat, or fish is dried more easily than their fresh counterparts, provided that the
cooking does not cause excessive shrinkage or toughening. Cooking also results in a decrease in water-holding
capacity of meat products.

6) Other Dipping Pretreatments: Dipping treatment with chemicals is also used in addition to blanching or
sulfite treatment. The dipping treatment is a process of immersion of foods in a solution containing additives.
Usually, the concentration level is below 5% and the dipping time below 5 minutes, whereas osmotic
dehydration is carried out at higher concentrations and for long processing times. The main purpose of the
dipping treatment is to improve the drying characteristics and quality. Certain chemicals are used to enhance
the rate of dehydration. Among these compounds, methyl and ethyl oleate, or olive oil are the most common.

Quality changes during drying

1) Selection of Variety: Optimum freshness plays an important role in determining the quality and stability
of dried foods; fresher the raw material, more stable and better is the quality of the product. Suitable varieties
of produce with the desired maturity should be used to achieve a product that is best in quality. The quality
characteristics of dried foods can be grouped as microbial, chemical, physical, and nutritional (Table.2).

2) Microflora in Dried Foods: Multiplication of microorganisms should not occur in properly processed
dehydrated foods, but they are not immune to other types of food spoilage. If dried foods are safe in terms of
pathogenic microbial count and toxic or chemical compounds, then acceptance depends on the flavor or
aroma, color, appetizing appearance, texture, taste, and nutritional value of the product. Microbial standards
are usually based on the total number of indicator organisms or number of pathogens. The microbial load and
its changes during drying and storage are important for establishing a standard that will ensure food safety.

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3) Browning Reactions: Browning reactions change color, decrease nutritional value and solubility, create off-
flavors and induce textural changes. Browning reactions can be classified as enzymatic or non-enzymatic, with
the latter being more serious as far as the drying process is concerned. The two major types of non-enzymatic
browning are caramelization and Maillard browning. In addition to moisture level, temperature, pH, and
composition are the other parameters that affect the rate of non-enzymatic browning. The rate of browning is
most rapid in the intermediate moisture range and decreases at very low and very high moistures. Browning
tends to occur primarily at the center of the drying period. This may be due to the migration of soluble
constituents toward the center. Browning is also more severe near the end of the drying period, when the
moisture level of the sample is low and less evaporative cooling is taking place that causes the product
temperature to rise.

4) Lipid Oxidation: Dehydrated foods containing fats are prone to develop rancidity after a period, particularly
if the water content is reduced too much. Fish oils or fats are more unsaturated than beef or butter, and they
are usually classified as drying oils because they contain considerable proportions of highly unsaturated acids.
The behavior of drying oils toward atmospheric oxygen is well known, and oxidation is a serious problem for
commercial drying of fatty fish and seafood. The flesh of some fatty fish, such as herrings, contains a fat pro-
oxidant that is not wholly inactivated by heat. Lipid oxidation is responsible for rancidity, development of off-
flavors, and the loss of fat soluble vitamins and pigments in many foods, especially in dehydrated foods.
Factors that affect oxidation rate include moisture content, type of substrate (fatty acid), extent of reaction,
oxygen content, temperature, presence of metals and natural antioxidants, enzyme activity, UV light, protein
content, free amino acid content and other chemical reactions. Moisture content plays a big part in the rate of
oxidation. At water activities around the monolayer (aw 0.3), resistance to oxidation is greatest. The
elimination of oxygen from foods can reduce oxidation, but the oxygen concentration must be very low.

5) Changes in Proteins: The protein matrix in muscle has a marked effect upon its functionality and properties.
The non-fatty part of fish is very susceptible to changes caused by the high temperature of initial cooking, as
well as drying and storage. Every process involved in the conversion of muscle to meat alters the
characteristics of the structural elements. Heating is believed to cause the denaturation of the muscle proteins
even below 60°C but not enough to greatly shear resistance.

6) Structural Changes: Structural changes in food during drying are usually studied by microscopy. Microscopy
provides a good tool to study this type of phenomenon as well as other types of physical and chemical

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changes during the drying of food materials. Shrinkage occurs first at the surface and then gradually moves to
the bottom as the drying time increases. The cell walls become elongated. As drying proceeds at high
temperature, cracks are formed in the inner structure. Rehydration is maximized when cellular and structural
disruption such as shrinkage is minimized.

7) Case Hardening or Crust Formation: During drying, the concentration of moisture in the outer layers of
foods is less than in the interior, since the outer layers necessarily lose moisture before the interior. This
surface shrinkage causes checking, cracking, and warping. This type of shrinkage causes moisture gradient and
resistance near the surface. In extreme cases, shrinkage and drop in diffusivity may combine to yield a skin
practically impervious to moisture, which encloses the volume of the material so that the interior moisture
cannot be removed. This is called case hardening. In food processing, case hardening is also commonly known
as crust formation. The extent of crust formation can be reduced by maintaining flattening moisture gradients
in the solid, which is a function of drying rate. The faster the drying rate, the thinner the crust. Crust (or shell)
formation may be either desirable or undesirable in dried food products.

8) Shrinkage or Collapse and Pore Formation: Two types of shrinkage are usually observed in the case of food
materials––isotropic and anisotropic shrinkage. Isotropic shrinkage can be described as the uniform shrinkage
in all geometric dimensions of the materials. Anisotropic shrinkage is described as the non-uniform shrinkage
in the different geometric dimensions. Shrinkage is an important phenomenon impacting dried food product
quality by reducing product wet ability, changing product texture, and decreasing product absorbency.
Depending on the end use, crust and pore formation may be desirable or undesirable. If a long bowl life is
required for a cereal product, a crust product that prevents moisture re-absorption may be preferred. If a
product (such as dried vegetables in instant noodles) with good rehydration capacity is required, high porosity
with no crust is required.

9 ) Stress Development and Cracking or Breakage: During air drying, stresses are formed due to non-uniform
shrinkage resulting from non-uniform moisture and temperature distributions. This may lead to stress crack
formation when stresses exceed a critical level. Crack formation is a complex process influenced interactively
by heat and moisture transfer, physical properties, and operational conditions. The relative humidity of air and
temperature are the most influential parameters that need to be controlled to eliminate the formation of
cracks. Checking and breakage of dried foods has two undesirable consequences––loss of valuable product
and loss of consumer satisfaction.

Drying Curve Drying curve usually plots the drying rate versus drying time or moisture contents. Three major
stages of drying can be observed in the drying curve (Figures 1 and 2):

1. Transient early stage, during which the product is heating up (transient period)

2. Constant or first period, in which moisture is comparatively easy to remove (constant rate period)

3. Falling or second period, in which moisture is bound or held within the solid matrix (falling rate period)

The moisture content at which the change from the first to the second period occurs is known as the critical
moisture content. Typically, two falling rate periods are observed for both hygroscopic and nonhygroscopic
solids. The first falling rate period is postulated to depend on both internal and external mass transfer rates;

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while the second period, during which drying is much slower, is postulated to depend entirely on internal mass
transfer resistance. The slower rate may be due to the solid–water interaction or glass–rubber transition. The
drying behaviors of food materials depend on the porosity, homogeneity, and hygroscopic properties. The
immediate entrance into the falling rate is characteristic of hygroscopic food materials. The drop in the
drying rate was significant due to the decrease of surface vapor pressure and the change of liquid
surface curvature due to meniscus effects by surface tension.

Osmotic Dehydration There are several solutions used for this process. The main kind is a sugar syrup
treatment. This causes removal of moisture by placing the food in contact with the sugar solution. The
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 product slices are immersed in the concentrated sugar solutions for a range of 4 to 24 h, depending
upon the food being dried. This will reduce the moisture content about 50% and then the product can
be dried further by another conventional method. The other agents involved are sugars, sugar-starch
mixtures, and sugar syrups. This candying leaves a product with a porous, crisp texture while retaining
most of its original flavor.

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