PAKISTAN NAVY ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCES AND

TECHNOLOGY, KARACHI
PNEC NUST

LINEAR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

EE-111

Lab Manual

UNIFIED CURRICULA 2012

 LIST OF PRACTICALS
S. PRACTICAL TITLE
No
1. Introduction to Lab Volt Console & Safety Precautions.

Introduction to Schematic diagrams and symbols.

Rules for safe practice to avoid Electric Shock.
Description on Lab Volt Console.
2. Measurement of Resistance using Color Coding.
Use of Multimeter.
Resistance color code.
Resistance measurement by meter for verification
3. Measurement of DC voltage & DC Current.
Using Voltmeter.
Measuring voltage and current.
Control of current by Resistance & Voltage.
Ohm’s Law.
Experimental analysis of Ohm’s Law.
4. Series Circuits.
Characteristics of series circuits.
5. Voltage –Current Characteristics

6. Parallel Circuits.
Characteristics of parallel circuits.
7. Kirchhoff’s Laws.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.
8. Kirchhoff’s Laws.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law.
9. Power Supplies, Instruments and equipment.

10. Power.
Measuring power in a DC Load.
Maximum power transfer.
11. Thevenin’s Theorem.
Experimental verification of Thevenin’s Theorem.
12. Norton’s Theorem.
Experimental verification of Norton’s Theorem.
13. Capacitors.
Capacitor testing & Identification.
Capacitor charge and Discharge (RC Time Constants).
14. Measuring AC with the Oscilloscope.
Measuring ac and dc voltages and frequency.
15. AC Voltage & Current Measurement.
AC analysis of series RC circuit
To learn the use of AC voltmeters & ammeters.
To measure the effective value of an alternating voltage.
To verify Ohm’s Law for AC circuits.
 National University of Sciences & Technology- Pakistan Navy Engineering College
(Group-1): Engineering Lab Rubric
Skill Level
Rubric BT
Rubrics Indicator Needs Work Developing Competent Exemplary
s Code Domain
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Experimental R1 P Ability to gather materials, follow All required materials are Most required All required materials are Materials are gathered
Methods experimental procedure, control not gathered, procedure materials are gathered, selected with clarity and
variables, present data/ evidence is inadequately followed, gathered, procedure materials are suitable, precision, procedure is
using charts/ tables/graphs to inattentive to safety could be better procedures are well efficiently followed,
enable comprehension/interpret measures. followed, mostly followed, and limitations limitations are analyzed,
findings, compare these values in attentive to safety. are considered, attentive demonstrates exemplary
literature, error analysis, identify to safety. safety.
limitations and attentive to comply
safety procedures.
☐ ☐
☐
☐ ☐

Tool R2 P Ability to identify, understands, Demonstrates minimal or Demonstrates some Demonstrates skillful Demonstrates excellent
Handling and uses relevant tools to carry no ability to identify or ability to identify and ability to identify and use ability to identify and use
out experiment task/activity. use tools for an use tools for an relevant tools for an the most relevant tools
engineering activity. engineering activity. engineering activity. for a range of
engineering activities.
☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

Individual R3 A Ability to carry out individual Rarely performs given Sometimes performs Exhibits an ability to Shows an excellent
and Team responsibilities, and participate as task individually and no a given task perform a given task ability to perform a given
Work an active team member to active contribution as a individually and individually. Provides an task individually.
accomplish milestones within a team member. Shows provides some active contribution as a Provides dynamic
specified time. poor ability to manage contribution as a team member to contribution as a team
time. team member. Shows accomplish a task in member /leader to
little ability to specified time. accomplish a given task
manage time. within specified time.
☐ ☐
☐ ☐
☐
Lab R4 A Ability to record and analyze the The required data is not The required data is The required data is The required data is
Report acquired data, and conclude the recorded and analyzed in recorded but not properly recorded, recorded, analyzed and
results in a form of a report. the lab report. properly analyzed in analyzed and concluded concluded in the lab
the lab report. in the lab report. report with exemplary
clarity and correctness.
☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
 Assessment Record
Session: __________________ Lab Venue: _______________________

Course Title CMS ID Student Name Department

EE/ME/IME

Marks Obtained Total Teacher

S Experiment
Date R1 R2 R3 R4 Marks Initial
No Title/Experiment Number
(20)
1

10

11

12

13

14
 EXPERIMENT # 1
Title

Introduction to Schematic diagrams and symbols, Power sources and supplies, Instruments,
Tables and reports

Objectives

a. To identify electrical and electronics components from their physical appearance.

b. To draw the circuit symbols for each of the observed components.
c. To familiarize with schematic diagram and breadboards
d. To familiarize with dc power sources and supplies.
e. To familiarize with dc meters.

Materials Required

a. Electric components: Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors, Transformers, Transistors

b. Breadboard
c. Power Supplies
d. Ammeter, Voltmeter, Multimeter

Procedure

Part 1 Identification and understanding of Electric Components

Study a relevant book and describe physical features of the components available in lab. Draw
the circuit symbol for each part. In describing the part, give its shape, approximate size,
characteristic markings (including value, if given), and facilities for mounting (number of leads
or lugs). Identify the components physically.

Part II Schematic Diagram and Breadboard

The schematic diagram is an electronic blue print which tells how the electronic parts are
connected in a circuit while a breadboard is a device which allows rapid connection and
disassembly of the circuit using the guidelines of schematic diagrams.

a. Breadboard the circuit shown in the figure 1.1 and get it graded by the instructor:

Figure 1.1

b. Get another circuit from the instructor and Breadboard it and get it graded by the
instructor.

Part III Familiarization with Laboratory Meters and Power Supplies

The most frequent measurements required in the laboratory are resistance, voltage and current.
The meters that will be used during the experiments in this course will be ohmmeter for
measuring resistance, voltmeter for voltage, ammeter for current and digital multimeter (DMM)
for all the above.
To have meters with long range, multiple scales are available for selection by the user. The use
of multiple scale metre will be demonstrated by the instructor in the class.

By using the LABVOLT test bench, select a resistor and measure its value, then set different
values on the power supply and measure the value of voltage under the supervision of the lab
demonstrator.
 EXPERIMENT # 2
Title

Measurement of resistance using Color Code and Ohmmeter

Objectives

a. To interpret and record the ohmic value of a resistor when given a colour-coded resistor.
b. To measure the ohmic value of a resistor using an analogue ohmmeter.
c. To measure the ohmic value of a resistor using a digital multimeter.
d. To determine whether a resistor is within its coded tolerance.

Materials Required

a. 05 assorted colour-coded resistors

b. One potentiometer

Digit Colour
Resistance 0 Black
Value, first 1 Brown 1st digit 2nd digit Multiplier Tolerance
three bands 2 Red
3 Orange
4 Yellow
5 Green
6 Blue
7 Violet
8 Grey
9 White

Tolerance, 5% Gold Red Black Orange Silver

fourth band 10% Silver 2 0 0 ±10%
20% No Band
Resistor is 20,000 Ω ± 10%

Procedure
a. Take a resistor from the sample tray provided.

b. Record its COLOUR CODE in column 1 of the table.

c. Determine, using a colour code chart, its Coded Resistance, in units of ohms (the symbol
for which is ). Write this coded resistance in column 2.

d. Determine, using the colour code chart, the Tolerance (in percent) of the resistor, and
record this tolerance in column 3.

e. Using the Coded Resistance and the Tolerance, find the Maximum Coded Resistance,
and record this value in column 4.

f. Using the Coded Resistance and the Tolerance, find the Minimum Coded Resistance,
and record this value in column 5.

g. Using the digital multimeter, set to the Ohms function, measure the resistance of the
resistor. Note that you should always adjust the multimeter to obtain as many significant digits as
possible. Record the Measured Resistance (using proper , k or M notation) in column 6.
The symbol k = kilo = 1,000; the symbol M = mega = 1,000,000.

h. By comparing the measured resistance with the maximum and minimum coded
resistances, decide if the resistor is within tolerance. Record the result (YES or NO) in column 7.

j. Now, repeat steps A through H (on page 1), for 19 other resistors. Choose resistors so that
you get several from each of the possible third band colors (gold, black, brown, red, orange,
yellow, green).
 Measure Is the
Resistor’s Colour Code Coded
Tolerance Maximum Coded Minimum Coded d Resistor
(Record four colour Resistance
(%) Resistance ( ) Resistance ( ) Resistan Within
bands) ( )
ce ( ) Tolerance?
Red-Violet-Orange-
27K 10% 27k+2.7k = 29.7k 27k-2.7k=24.3k 25.1 kΩ YES**
Silver

**YES because: 24.3 k

LABORATORY REPORT:

25.1k
29.7k
 EXPERIMENTS # 3
Title

Measurement of DC Voltage, Current and verification of Ohm’s Law

Objectives

a. Understand use of multimeter to measure dc voltage and current

b. Verify Ohm’s Law by calculating, and then by measuring voltage, current and resistance,
and then comparing the calculated and measured results.

c. Verify Ohm’s Law relationships by increasing one quantity while holding the second
quantity constant, then measuring and calculating the effect on the third quantity.

Materials Required

a. LABVOLT test bench

b. Digital multimeter
c. Power Supplies

Procedure

1. Perform the following steps to verify that:

CURRENT = VOLTAGE DIVIDED BY RESISTANCE

a. Measure the resistance of the selected resistor with the DMM.

R1measured:
b. Connect the circuit in Figure 1 below:

c. Adjust the power supply voltage to 15.0 V using the DMM set on its DC voltage
mode.

d. Measure and record the voltage across the resistor R1 using the procedure of Figure 1
and record.

VR1 :
e. Look carefully at Figure 2: the multimeter is incorrectly measuring VR1, since it will
read both the voltage across R1 AND the voltage across the ammeter.

f. Figure 3 shows the correct way to measure VR1. Make sure that the voltage across R1 is
still 15.0 V (it MAY have dropped slightly due to the milli-ammeter).

g. Measure and record the current through R1. IR1 =

h. Using the measured values of voltage and resistance, calculate the current through R1
using Ohm’s Law. Show calculations in the space below.
(I = V/R) IR1 =

i. What conclusion can you make from these procedures?

2. Perform the following steps to verify that:

RESISTANCE EQUALS VOLTAGE DIVIDED BY CURRENT

a. Connect the same circuit as in Figure 3, except change the resistor to R2

b. Measure and record the voltage across R2 and the current flow through R2.

VR1 = IR1 =
c. Calculate the resistance of R2 using the measured values of ER1 and IR1 with Ohm’s
Law. Show calculation.
R2 =

d. Remove R2 from the circuit. Measure and record the resistance of R2 using the
multimeter.
R2 =

e. What conclusion can you make from these procedures?

3. Perform the following procedures to verify that:

VOLTAGE EQUALS CURRENT TIMES RESISTANCE

a. Connect the circuit in Figure 3, except change the resistor to R3.

b. Measure the resistance of this resistor making sure that the resistor is removed from
the circuit.
R3 =

c. Reinsert the resistor into the circuit and measure the current through the resistor.

I R3 =
d. Calculate, using Ohm’s law, the resistor voltage using the measured values of
resistance and current. Show calculation below.

VR1 =
e. Measure the resistor voltage. Record
ER1 =

f. What conclusion can you make from these procedures?

4. Perform the following procedures to verify that:

IF THE RESISTANCE IS HELD CONSTANT, INCREASING THE VOLTAGE WILL
INCREASE THE CURRENT

a.
V.

b. Measure the current through the resistor. Record:

I=

c. Increase the voltage source to 20 volts and again measure the current through the
resistor. Record.
I=
d. Based on the results of this procedure, what conclusion can be made about the
relationship between voltage and current for a fixed value of resistance?

5. Perform the following procedures to verify that:

IF THE VOLTAGE IS HELD CONSTANT, INCREASING THE RESISTANCE WILL
DECREASE THE CURRENT

a. Connect the circuit in Figure 3, using resistor R2. Set the voltage source to 10.0 volts.

b. Measure the current through the resistor. Record.

I=

c. Change the resistor to R1 and again measure the current through the resistor. Record.
I=

d. Based on the results of this procedure, what conclusion can be made about the
relationship between resistance and current for a fixed value of voltage?
 EXPERIMENT # 4
Title

Series Circuits

Objectives

For the student to investigate the characteristics of a series circuit.

For the student to verify experimentally, using measured and calculated values, the following
series circuit rules:

Total circuit resistance equals the sum of the individual resistances.

The current is the same at all points in a series circuit.
The sum of the voltage drops equals the source voltage.

Materials Required

a. LABVOLT test bench

b. Digital multimeter
c. Power Supplies
d. Resistors of various values

Information

1. NEVER use an ohmmeter on a live circuit. Voltage from a circuit can damage an
ohmmeter.
2. Always use the measured value of resistance for all calculations.
3. Always adjust the power supply voltage with the circuit connected.
4. When measuring voltage, the voltmeter must be connected across the circuit.
5. When measuring current, you must break the circuit and the current meter must be
inserted into the circuit (in series).

Procedure
PART ONE
Total resistance in a series circuit

1. Select any 3 resistors and without connecting them into any circuit, measure each
individual resistor and record below.

R1 =

R2 =

R3 =

2. Now connect the circuit as shown in Figure 6.1 below. Note that there is no applied voltage.
3. Measure the total resistance.

Rtotal =

4. Add the measured values of R1 , R2 , and R3 recorded in step 1 together and record.

R1 + R2 + R3 =
PART TWO
Current relationship in a series circuit

1. Connect the circuit in Figure 6.2. Set the voltage source to 15.0 volts.

2. Break the circuit at point a. Insert the milli-ammeter. Measure and record the current flow
through point a.

Ia =

3. Break the circuit at point b. Insert the milli-ammeter. Measure and record the current flow
through point b.

Ib =

4. Break the circuit at point c. Insert the milli-ammeter. Measure and record the current flow
through point c.

Ic = _______________________________

5. Break the circuit at point d. Insert the milli-ammeter. Measure and record the current flow
through point d.

Id = _________________________________
 PART THREE
Voltage relationships in a series circuit

1. Connect the circuit of Figure 6.2. Set the DC supply voltage to 15.0 volts.

2. Measure the voltage drop across each resistor. Record:

Vab =

Vbc =

Vcd =

3. Add the voltage drops together and record.

Total of voltage drops =

4. What conclusions can be made from the results of the previous procedures?
 EXPERIMENT# 5

Title

Voltage Divider Rule for Series Circuits

Objectives

Understand & apply Voltage divider rule to series resistive circuits.

Materials Required

a. LABVOLT test bench

b. Digital multimeter
c. Power Supplies
d. Resistors of various values

Information

1. NEVER use an ohmmeter on a live circuit. Voltage from a circuit can damage an ohmmeter.
2. Always use the measured value of resistance for all calculations.
3. Always adjust the power supply voltage with the circuit connected.
4. When measuring voltage, the voltmeter must be connected across the circuit.
5. When measuring current, you must break the circuit and the current meter must be inserted
into the circuit (in series).
Procedure
1. Verify by measurement, the voltages between various points in a series circuit:
a. Connect the circuit in Figure 7.1.
b. Measure and record the voltage drop across each resistor. When measuring VAB, the
voltmeter probe should be connected to point A and the common lead to point B. This would be
expressed as VAB. Therefore, the expression VAB means the voltage at point “A” in respect to

point “B”.

VR1 = VAB = VR2 = VBC =

VR3 = VCD = VR4 = VDE =

VR5 = VEF = VR6 = VFG =

c. Properly label these measured voltage drops on each resistor in Figure 7.1. Mark the
polarity (use a + and a - to indicate polarity) of the voltage drop on each resistor.

d. Measure the voltage, VCE, between point C and point E. When measuring, the voltmeter
probe should be connected to point C and the common lead to point E. This would be expressed
as VCE. Note that in the subscript “CE”, the first letter “C” is the point to which the probe is
connected and the second letter “E” is the point to which the common lead is connected.
Therefore, the expression VCE means the voltage at point “C” in respect to point “E”. Record this
voltage.

VCE =

Does VCD + VDE = VCE?

VCD + VDE = VCE

e. In a like manner, measure and record the following:

VAC = VCA = (note opposite polarity!)

VDG = VEA = VBF = VCG =

 EXPERIMENTS # 6
Title

Investigation of Parallel Circuits

Objectives

To investigate the characteristics of a parallel circuit.

To verify experimentally, using measured and calculated values, the following parallel circuit
rules:
The voltage is the same across each branch of a parallel circuit.
The sum of the individual branch currents equals the total current in a parallel circuit.
The reciprocal of the total resistance equals the sum of the reciprocals of the individual branch
resistances.
To determine the effects of changing a single resistor value, upon total resistance, total current
and the distribution of branch currents.

Materials Required

a. LABVOLT test bench

b. Digital multimeter
c. Power Supplies
d. Resistors of various values

Information

1. Always use the measured value of resistance for all calculations.

2. Always adjust the power supply voltage with the circuit connected.
3. When measuring voltage, the voltmeter must be connected across the circuit element of
interest.
4. When measuring current, the current meter must be inserted into the “break” in the circuit
(in series).

Procedure

PART ONE
VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTIC IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT

1. Connect the circuit in Figure 8.1. Adjust the voltage source to a value of 12 volts (with the
circuit connected).
2. Using the DMM, measure the voltage across each resistor. Record below.

VR1 =

VR2

VR3

3. What conclusion can be made from these procedures?

PART TWO
CURRENT RELATIONSHIPS IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT

1. Connect the circuit in Figure 8.2. Make sure that the source voltage is properly set to 12
volts with the circuit connected.
2. Using a current meter, measure the current through each resistor and the total current.
Record below.

IR1 =

IR2 =

IR3 =

Itotal =

3. Add the measured currents through R1 , R2 , and R3 together and compare with the
measured total current. Record the sum of measured currents.

Itotal

4. What conclusions can be made from the above procedures?

PART THREE
RESISTANCE RELATIONSHIP IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT

1. Connect the circuit in Figure 8.3. Note that there is no source voltage connected.
2. Using a DMM, measure the total resistance. Record.

R T otal

3. Remove each resistor from the circuit. Using the DMM, individually measure, R1 , R2 , and
R3 . Record each value below.

R1 =

R2 =

R3 =
 EXPERIMENT # 7

Title

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, Subscripted Voltages

Objectives

For the student to be able to measure the voltage across a circuit element, using a doubly-
subscripted notation for that voltage.
For the student to assign a doubly-subscripted voltage to a circuit element.

Materials Required

a. LABVOLT test bench

b. Digital multimeter
c. Power Supplies
d. Resistors of various values

Information:
In the circuit 10.1 below, it is totally obvious that the voltage across R1 is positive on top,
negative on bottom. But, the polarity of voltage across resistor R2 in the circuit 10.2 depends on
the relative size of the voltage sources, and the resistors, in the circuit.

Procedure
PART ONE

DOUBLY-SUBSCRIPTED VOLTAGES

1.1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 10.3. The circuit has only
one element, a voltage source. Point A & B are the positive and
negative ends of the battery respectively.

1.2. Measure the voltage of this voltage source by connecting the

RED lead of your DMM to point A, and the BLACK lead to point B.
This is measuring VAB, the voltage at point A compared to the
voltage at point B. Record VAB below:
VAB =
This result should tell us that “The voltage at point A is _____ volts more positive than the
voltage at point B.”

1.3. Measure the voltage by connecting the RED lead of your DMM to point B, and the
BLACK lead to point A. This is measuring VBA, the voltage at point B compared to the
voltage at point A. Record VBA below:

VBA =

This result should tell us that “The voltage at point B is ________ volts more negative than the
voltage at point A.”

In the figure 10.4, VAB is the voltage across the resistor,

expressed as “the voltage at node A compared to the voltage at
node B.” It’s actually unnecessary to have the + and - signs
shown, since VAB says it all.

Now V1 is the voltage of the source, but since it is not a

doubly-subscripted voltage (VAB), V1 must have the + and -
signs to tell us how to measure V1 with a voltmeter.

PART TWO

KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

(Two-Element Circuit)

Information

KVL is commonly stated several ways:

the algebraic sum of the voltage drops around a closed loop equals zero
the algebraic sum of the voltage rises around a closed loop equals zero
the algebraic sum of the voltage rises around a closed loop equals the algebraic sum of the
voltage drops around the loop

Sign Convention

If we enter a component’s voltage at its negative sign, and go through the element to its positive
sign, it is considered a positive voltage rise, and recorded as positive.

If we enter a component’s voltage at its positive sign, and go through the element to its negative
sign, it is considered a negative voltage rise (or, a voltage drop), and is recorded as negative.
Procedure

Clockwise

2.1. In the figure 10.5, start at point B, and go around the loop in a clockwise (CW) direction.
Notice that we enter the negative end of each element. The KVL equation, done this way, is:

EAB + VBA = 0 volts

Verify this using the measured values of EAB and VBA from steps 1.2 and 1.3, above:
EAB + VBA = + =

2.2. In the figure 10.6, start at point B, and go around the loop in a clockwise (CW) direction.
Notice that we enter the negative end of the battery, and the positive end of the resistor. The KVL
equation, done this way, is:

EAB - VAB = 0 volts

Verify this using the measured values of EAB and VAB from steps 1.2 and 1.3, above:

EAB + VAB = - =

Counter-Clockwise

2.3. In the figure 10.5, start at point B, and go around the loop in a counter-clockwise (CCW)
direction. Now, we enter the positive end of each element. The KVL equation, done this way, is:

-VBA - EAB = 0 volts

Verify this using the measured values of EAB and VBA from steps 1.2 and 1.3, above:

-VBA - EAB = - =

2.4. In the figure 10.6, start at point B, and go around the loop in a counter-clockwise (CCW)
direction. Now we enter the negative end of the resistor, and the positive end of the battery. The
KVL equation, done this way, is:

VAB - EAB = 0 volts

Verify this using the measured values of EAB and VAB from steps 1.2 and 1.3, above:

VAB - EAB = - =
 PART THREE

KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

(Three Element Circuit – One Loop)

3.1. In the figure 10.7, start at point C, and go around the loop in a clockwise (CW) direction.
This is loop CABC. The KVL equation should be:

VAC - VAB - VBC = 0 volts

Verify that the equation above is true by measuring values of VAC, VAB and VBC, and writing the
KVL equation with measured voltage values substituted (in box below).

VAC = VAB = VBC =

3.2. Repeat step 3.1, except start at point C and go CCW around the loop. This is loop CBAC.
Write the KVL equation with measured voltage values substituted (in box below).
 EXPERIMENT # 8
Title
Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Objectives
For the student to be able to measure the current through a circuit element.
For the student to demonstrate the KCL.

Materials Required
a. LABVOLT test bench
b. Digital multimeter
c. Power Supplies
d. Resistors of various values

Information:

Sum of all currents entering a node is zero

Sum of currents entering node is equal to sum of currents leaving node

i1(t) i5(t)

i2(t) i4(t)
n
i j (t ) 0
i3(t) j 1

Procedure
11.1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure 11.1 below:

KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

11.2. Applying KCL at node A.

11.3. Measure the current entering the node 'A' and the current leaving node B and record it.

I1 :

I5 :

11.4. The current is leaving the node 'A' through 3 paths (R1 , R2 and R3 ). Measure the current
passing through each resistor and record it.
 I2 :

I3 :

I4 :

11.5. Apply KCL to figure 11.1 and write down the KCL equation at node 'A' (in box below).

11.6. Now write the KCL equation for node B with measured current values substituted (in box
below).

11.7. Again apply KCL to figure 11.1 and write down the KCL equation at node B (in box
below).

11.8. Now write the KCL equation for node B with measured current values substituted (in box
below).
 EXPERIMENT # 9
Title:

Power Supplies, Instruments & Equipment’s.

Objective:

To learn how to use the power supplies, instruments & related equipment’s.

Materials Required:
Power supply.
Function Generator
Oscilloscope
DMM
 EXPERIMENT # 10
Title

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Objectives

To verify by measurement, that maximum power is developed in a load when the load
resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the source.
To construct a graph, using measured values of voltage, current and load resistance and
calculated power to verify graphically Objective 1 above.

Materials Required

a. LABVOLT test bench

b. Digital multimeter
c. Power Supplies
d. Resistors of various values
e. Breadboard

Information

The maximum power transfer theorem states that when the load resistance is equal to the source's
internal resistance, maximum power will be developed in the load. Since most low voltage DC
power supplies have a very low internal resistance (10 ohms or less) great difficulty would result
in trying to affect this condition under actual laboratory experimentation. If one were to connect a
low value resistor across the terminals of a 10 volt supply, high power ratings would be required,
and the resulting current would probably cause the supply's current rating to be exceeded. In this
experiment, therefore, the student will simulate a higher internal resistance by purposely
connecting a high value of resistance in series with the DC voltage supply's terminal. Refer to
Figure 13.1 below. The terminals (a & b) will be considered as the power supply's output voltage
terminals. Use a potentiometer as a variable size of load resistance. For various settings of the
potentiometer representing RL, the load current and load voltage will be measured. The power
dissipated by the load resistor can then be calculated. For the condition of RL = Ri, the student
will verify by measurement that maximum power is developed in the load resistor.

Procedure
1. Refer to Figure 13.1, select Rin equal to 1 KΩ representing the internal resistance of the
power supply used and select a 10 KΩ potentiometer as load resistance RL.

a. Using the DMM set the potentiometer to 500 ohms.

b. Connect the circuit of Figure 13.1. Measure the current through and the voltage across
RL. Record this data in Table 13.1.
c. Remove the potentiometer and set it to 1000 ohms. Return it to the circuit and again
measure the current through and the voltage across RL. Record.
d. Continue increasing the potentiometer resistance in 500 ohm steps until the value 10 k
ohms is reached, each time measuring the current and voltage and recording same in Table 1. Be
sure the applied voltage remains at the fixed value of 10 volts after each adjustment in
potentiometer resistance.

2. For each value of RL in Table 13.1, calculate the power input to the circuit using the formula:
Pinput = Vinput x IL
= 10 x IL,
since Vinput is always a constant 10 volts.

3. For each value of RL in Table 13.1, calculate the power output (the power developed in
RL) using the formula:
Pout = VRL x IL.

4. For each value of RL in Table 13.1, calculate the circuit efficiency using the formula:

% efficiency = Pout /Pin x 100.

5. On linear graph paper, plot the curve of power output vs. RL. Plot RL on the horizontal
axis (independent variable). Plot power developed in RL on the vertical axis (dependent variable).
Label the point on the curve representing the maximum power.
Table 13.1
R L (Ω) IL (mA) VRL (V) Pinput (mW) Poutput % eff.
(mW)
500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

9,000

10,000
 EXPERIMENT # 11

Title

Thevenin theorem

Objectives

To calculate the current through (or the voltage across) any one of several resistors in any
circuit by using Thevenin Theorem, and verifying results by measurement.

Materials Required

a. LABVOLT test bench

b. Digital multimeter
c. Power Supplies
d. Resistors of various values
e. Breadboard

Information
Thevenin Theorem can be used for two purposes:

a. To calculate the current through (or voltage across) a component in any circuit,
b. To develop a constant voltage equivalent circuit, this may be used to simplify the
analysis of a complex circuit.

This means that any linear, bilateral network can be “replaced with” a single voltage source in
series with a single resistor as shown in Figure 15.1.

Figure 15.1: Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

The voltage source is called the Thevenin equivalent voltage, and the resistor is called the
Thevenin equivalent resistance. The steps used for Thevenin Theorem are listed below:

Step 1 Remove the resistor (R) through which the current or across which the voltage is
required to be measured. Label these terminals (where the resistor was removed) “a” and “b”.
Calculate the voltage across these open terminals. This is VT H.

Step 2 From the open terminals, (“a” and “b”) calculate the resistance “looking back” from
the open terminals with all voltage sources removed and replaced by their internal resistances (if
Rinternal is 0 Ω, then replace the voltage source with a short). This resistance is RT H.

Step 3 The current (through R) and the voltage across it can be calculated by:

VTH
I
RTH R
 VTH
VR I R R
RTH R

Where VT H is from Step 1, RT H is from Step 2, and R is the value of the resistor removed in step
1.

Procedure
1. The purpose of this procedure is to practice the procedural steps of Thevenin Theorem
and compare the resultant calculations with measured values.

2. Obtain four different valued resistors each with a value in the range 100 - 1 k .
Randomly designate the resistors R1 , R2 , R3 , and R4 . Measure and record the value of each
resistor in table 15.1.
Table 15.1: Selected resistors for the lab work

Component Measured Value

R1
R2
R3
R4

3. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 15.2 on the breadboard, using the DC power supply
as v s. Once you have built the circuit, set the value of Vs to 10 V. Be sure to use the multimeter to
make sure the terminal voltage produced by the power supply is 10V

Figure 15.2: Five Elements Circuit

4. Measure the current through R4 and the voltage across R4 . Record them:

IR4 = (meas) VR4 = (meas)

5. Use Thevenin Theorem to calculate the current through R4 , by following the 3 steps
outlined in the information section.

6. Verify Step 1 by measurement: Connect Figure 15.3, measure and record VT H.

VT H = (meas)

7. Verify Step 2 by measurement: Connect Figure 15.4, measure and record VT H.

RT H = (meas)

8. Next, label the Thevenin equivalent circuit shown in Figure 15.5, using your calculated
values for VT H = VOC and RT H.
 Figure 15.5: Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

9. Calculate IR3 using the Thevenin equivalent circuit (the VT H and RT H you found above).
VTH
I
RTH R
10. Compare the current measured in Para 4 (original circuit) and the current calculated in
Para 9 (which used Thevenin Theorem). If they are not reasonably close, find the reason for the
discrepancy).

11. Build the circuit of Figure 15.5. Obtain a resistor for RT H as close as possible to its
calculated value (or use a potentiometer, whose value you can set equal to RT H.

12. Measure the current through R4 and the voltage across R4 in the circuit of Figure 15.5.
Record them:

IR4 = (Meas) VR4 = (Meas)

13. Compare the measured results of Para 9 (using the Thevenin equivalent circuit) with the
measured results of Para 4 (the original circuit). If the results are not close, find the reason for the
discrepancy.
 EXPERIMENT # 12

Title

Norton theorem

Objectives

To calculate the voltage across any one of several resistors in any circuit by using Norton’s
Theorem, and verify the results by measurements.

Materials Required

a. LABVOLT test bench

b. Digital multimeter
c. Power Supplies
d. Resistors of various values
e. Breadboard

Information

Norton’s Theorem can be used for two purposes:

a. To calculate the voltage across (or current through) any component in any circuit.
b. To develop a constant current equivalent circuit, which may be used to simplify the
analysis of a complex circuit.

The steps used for Norton’s Theorem are listed below:

Step 1 Remove the resistor (R) across which you desire to calculate the voltage. Label
these terminals “a” and “b”. Short these terminals together and determine the current that flows
through this short. Call this short-circuit current In .

Step 2 With the terminal “opened” and sources replaced with their internal resistances (if
any), calculate the resistance “looking back” from the open terminals. This resistance is Rn .

Step 3 The voltage you wish to calculate will be:

Rn R
V In
Rn R
Where: In is from Step 1, Rn is from Step 2, and R is the value of the resistor removed in Step 1.

The constant current equivalent circuit is developed from the values calculated in the above
steps. See Figure 16.1.
 Rn is Norton's Equivalent Resistance & In is the Norton's
Constant Current Source

In Rn R

Figure 16.1: Norton's Constant Current Equivalent Circuit

Procedure

R1 = 1K

12 V V
R2 = 10K R3 = 3K

Figure 16.2: Four Element Circuit

1. The Norton’s Theorem will be used to find the voltage across R3 . Connect the circuit of
Figure 16.2.
2. Measure the voltage across R3 and the current through R3 . Record.

VR3 = (meas) IR3 = (meas)

3. To apply Norton’s Theorem to calculate the voltage across R3 the steps enumerated in the
Information part on page 1 are to be followed.

Step 1

4. Calculate (do not measure) , I repeat do not measure the short-circuit current, In , when R3
is replaced by a short circuit:

In = (calc)

R1 = 1K a

In

12 V V
R2 = 10K mA

Figure 16.3: One Element Short Circuited

5. Connect the circuit of Figure 16.3 (this is the circuit of Figure 16.2, with R3 removed and
replaced by a short circuit, the ammeter). Make sure to use a current range higher than the
calculated In above. This measurement is the “short-circuit” current.

In = (meas)

Step 2

R1 = 1K

R2 = 10K Rn

Figure 16.4: Circuit for calculating Rn = Rth

6. Refer to Figure 16.4, which is Figure 16.2 with R3 removed and the 12 V source replaced
by a short circuit (a dead voltage source). Calculate Rn from Figure and record.

Rn = (calc)

7. Connect the circuit of Figure 16.4. Use the DMM to measure Rn . This measurement is the
“back resistance” = Norton resistance = Rn .

Rn = (meas)

Step 3

8. Use Norton’s Theorem (Ohm’s Law) to calculate the voltage (VR3 ) across R3 and record.
Rn R3
VR 3 In
Rn R3

VR3 = (Calc)

9. Compare the measured voltage from Para 2 with the calculated voltage in Para 8 above. If
they are not close, do both over again until the error is found.

10. Draw below a schematic diagram of the Norton’s Theorem equivalent circuit and label all
values. This is Figure 16.5.
Figure 16.5: Norton’s constant current equivalent circuit.
 EXPERIMENT # 13

Title
Capacitor Identification, Charging & Discharging.

Materials Required
Polar & Non Polar Capacitors
Oscilloscope
Breadboard

Theory:

A device used to store charge in an electrical circuit. A capacitor functions much like a
battery, but charges and discharges much more efficiently (batteries, though, can store much
more charge).

A basic capacitor is made up of two conductors separated by an insulator, or dielectric.

The dielectric can be made of paper, plastic, mica, ceramic, glass, a vacuum or nearly any
other nonconductive material. Some capacitors are called electrolytic, meaning that their
dielectric is made up of a thin layer of oxide formed on a aluminum or tantalum foil
conductor.

Capacitor electron storing ability (called capacitance) is measured in Farads. One Farad
is actually a huge amount of charge (6,280,000,000,000,000,000 electrons to be exact), so
we usually rate capacitors in micro farads (uF = 0.000,001F) and pico farads (pF =
0.000,000,000,001F ). Capacitors are also graded by their breakdown (i.e., smoke) voltage.
Capacitors rated for lower voltages are generally smaller in size and weight; you don't want
to use too low a voltage rating, though, unless you enjoy replacing burnt-out capacitors in
your creation.For BEAMbots, you'll need to know about 2 main types of capacitors:

Non-polarized fixed capacitor

A non-polarized ("non polar") capacitor is a type of capacitor that has no implicit polarity
-- it can be connected either way in a circuit. Ceramic, mica and some electrolytic capacitors
are non-polarized. You'll also sometimes hear people call them "bipolar" capacitors.

Polarized fixed capacitor

A polarized ("polar") capacitor is a type of capacitor that have implicit polarity -- it can
only be connected one way in a circuit. The positive lead is shown on the schematic (and
often on the capacitor) with a little "+" symbol. The negative lead is generally not shown on
the schematic, but may be marked on the capacitor with a bar or "-" symbol. Polarized
capacitors are generally electrolytes.

How to read Capacitor Codes

Large capacitor have the value printed plainly on them, such as 10.uF (Ten Micro
Farads) but smaller disk types along with plastic film types often have just 2 or three
numbers on them?

First, most will have three numbers, but sometimes there are just two numbers. These are
read as Pico-Farads. An example: 47 printed on a small disk can be assumed to be 47 Pico-
Farads (or 47 puff as some like to say)
 Now, what about the three numbers? It is somewhat similar to the resistor code. The first two
are the 1st and 2nd significant digits and the third is a multiplier code. Most of the time the last
digit tells you how many zeros to write after the first two digits.

Multiplier (this times the first two digits

Third digit
gives you the value in Pico-Farads)

0 1

1 10

2 100

3 1,000

4 10,000

5 100,000

6 not used

7 not used

8 .01

9 .1

Now for an example: A capacitor marked 104 is 10 with 4 more zeros or 100,000pF
which is otherwise referred to as a .1 uF capacitor. Just to confuse you some more there is
sometimes a tolerance code given by a single letter. So a 103J is a 10,000 pF with +/-5%
tolerance
Table 2 Letter tolerance code

Letter symbol Tolerance of capacitor

B +/- 0.10%

C +/- 0.25%

D +/- 0.5%

E +/- 0.5%

F +/- 1%

G +/- 2%

H +/- 3%

J +/- 5%

K +/- 10%

M +/- 20%

N +/- 0.05%

P +100% ,-0%

Z +80%, -20%
Procedure:

1. Take different polar and non-polar capacitors from the Lab components tray and determine
their capacitance in micro Farads.
2.Now construct a series RC circuit and apply 10VSquare wave from function generator. Using
T=RC calculate time constant and charging discharging time for it.
3. Now experimentally observe the result using an oscilloscope.

Calculations:
 EXPERIMENT # 14

Title
Measurement of AC Using Oscilloscope.

Objectives
To become familiar with the use of an oscilloscope.

Materials Required

a. Oscilloscope
b. Digital multimeter
c. Power Supplies
d. Resistors of various values
e. Breadboard

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in fig.

R1 = ___________

R2 =___________

R3 =___________

R4 =___________

2. The input is sine wave provided from function generator of amplitude 5V.

3. Using oscilloscope determine the voltages across each resistor and verify your
readings with the help of DMM.
 EXPERIMENT # 15

Title
AC analysis of Series RC Circuit

Objectives
To study the steady state response of series RC circuit with AC supply and to determine the
power, power factor and Impedance of the circuit.

Materials Required
Resistor
Capacitor
Function Generator
Oscilloscope
DMM

Theory:

Series RC circuit contains both resistance (R) and reactance (XC). This is neither a pure
resistance or a pure reactance.; the combined characteristic is named impedance, and is
represented by the letter Z. To calculate Z, we must first note that, in accordance with Ohm's
Law, R = vR/I and XC = vC/I. But we already know that the voltages are 90° out of phase. Since
the circuit current, i, is the same everywhere, then R and XC must be 90° out of phase as well

Mapping Voltages with Vectors

The real problem here is that 90° phase shift between vC and vR. Since they are not in
phase and some voltage is dropped across each component, the phase relationship between
generator voltage and generator current must be somewhere between the two extremes. We
need to be able to determine that relationship, as well as to determine the combined effect of
R and XC in this circuit.

One solution is to map the component voltages graphically, as shown to the right. Using
X-Y coordinate axes, the positive X axis is defined as the zero-degree reference, and
counter-clockwise rotation is defined as the direction of increasing positive angles.

Since the circuit current is necessarily the same throughout the circuit, it is used as the
reference phase angle. Resistive voltage, Vr is in phase with the current as shown in red.
Capacitive voltage, vC, is at -90° as shown in blue. In this way, we can represent the
voltages across R and C as vectors, having direction as well as magnitude. Now it is clear
that the composite voltage comprising both vR and vC must be the vector sum of the two, as
shown in violet.

To find the composite voltage, we must apply the formula for the diagonal of a rectangle,
and find the square root of the sum of the squares:

Vs2 = Vr2 + Vc2

Formulae:

1. Tan θ=Vc/Vr
2. Power factor=Cosø=Vs/Vr
3. Active Power= VsIsCosø
4. Impedence=Z2 = R2 + Xc2

Observations:

Input voltage Vs =
Frequency =
R=
C=

S.No Vs(volts) Vr(volts) Vc (volts) Is (A) Ir (A)

Procedure:

Connect the circuit on bread board as shown in figure.

Using Oscilloscope and DMM measure the different quantities for the circuit and verify your
result with your calculation work.

Circuit Diagram: