Journal of Media Literacy Education, 14(2), 27-43, 2022

https://doi.org/10.23860/JMLE-2022-14-2-3
ISSN: 2167-8715

Analysis of definitions of media literacy

W. James Potter
University of California at Santa Barbara, USA
OPEN ACCESS

Peer-reviewed article ABSTRACT

Citation: Potter, W. J. (2022). This study provides an analysis of how the term “media literacy” has been
Analysis of definitions of media
defined by authors of articles published in the Journal of Media Literacy
literacy. Journal of Media Literacy
Education, 14(2), 27-43. Education. It generates answers to two questions: (1) To what extent does
https://doi.org/10.23860/JMLE-2022- there appear to be a shared meaning for the term “media literacy” across
14-2-3 authors who publish articles on this topic, and (2) When authors cite
definitions of media literacy, which sources do they use most often? The
Corresponding Author:
findings of this content analysis reveal that there are a great many definitions
Jim Potter
[email protected] being used for media literacy as well as a large number of sources being cited
for those definitions. This study uncovered more than 400 definitional
Copyright: © 2022 Author(s). This is elements, which were then organized into a six-category scheme that reflects
an open access, peer-reviewed article the full span of thinking exhibited by authors of the 210 articles published in
published by Bepress and distributed
this journal.
under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License, which Keywords: media literacy, defining key terms, meaning analysis, citation
permits unrestricted use, distribution,
and reproduction in any medium, analysis.
provided the original author and
source are credited. JMLE is the
official journal of NAMLE.

Received: April 5, 2021

Accepted: June 5, 2021
Published: July 29, 2022

Data Availability Statement: All

relevant data are within the paper and
its Supporting Information files.

Competing Interests: The Author(s)

declare(s) no conflict of interest.

Editorial Board

Journal of Media Literacy Education

THE OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR MEDIA LITERACY EDUCATION (NAMLE)
Online at www.jmle.org
 INTRODUCTION reported a significant amount of disagreement about
which topics those scholars regarded as being relevant
The term “media literacy” appears frequently in the to a media literacy course. The authors said, “Practically
communication literature as consumer activists, parents, each topic was ranked ‘zero’ by some participants and
policymakers, journalists, educators, and scholars across ‘ten’ by others” which “means that the same item was
the full gamut of academia publish their ideas about often perceived as relevant to media literacy education
what the term means. With so many different kinds of courses by some respondents and as being completely
people using the term, a question arises about whether unrelated by others” (p. 138). There were no differences
the term has a meaning that is shared across people who in the pattern of ratings between Israeli scholars and U.
publish scholarly articles on this topic. S. scholars, which indicates that differences were due to
There are some scholars who believe that there is a individual preferences rather than cultural differences.
high degree of agreement about what media literacy In a narrative review of the literature of media
means (Aufderheide, 1997; Livingstone, 2003; literacy education, Martens (2010) demonstrated that
Redmond, 2012; Scharrer, 2009; Scharrer & Cooks there were a great many ideas that scholars have been
2006; Schmidt, 2013; Torrent, 2011). Scholars who using to characterize what media literacy education has
argue that there has been a growing acceptance of been or should be. Despite the diversity of ideas that he
meaning for media literacy over the past two decades identified in the literature, he argued that there was a fair
point to two definitions made popular by the National amount of agreement at a very general level with his
Association of Media Literacy Education. One of these conclusion that “Most scholars agree that, at its core,
definitions was crafted by 25 scholars who were invited media literacy depends on both knowledge and skills. In
to the 1992 National Leadership Conference on Media particular, individuals need to acquire knowledge about
Literacy (NLCML). After deliberating for two days, key facets of the mass media phenomenon, such as
they settled on the following definition: “the ability of a media industries, media messages, media audiences, or
citizen to access, analyze, and produce information for media effects” (p. 14). He also concluded that scholars
specific outcomes.” The second of these definitions is agreed that people needed to employ skills in order to
the National Association of Media Literacy Education’s use this knowledge both to protect themselves from
six Core Principles for Media Literacy Education potentially negative effects as well as to empower them
(CPMLE), which was developed in November of 2007. to use the mass media more self-consciously and make
In contrast, there are other scholars who claim choices that can improve their lives in many ways.
that there is great diversity in what people mean when Claiming that “Large numbers of scholars have been
they use the term (Brown, 1998; Christ, 2004; Fedorov creating a wide variety of definitions since the 1970s”
2003; Hobbs & Jensen 2009; Iaquinto & Keeler, 2012; (p. 314), Rosenbaum, Beentjes, and Konig (2008)
Lantela, 2019; Maksl, Ashley, & Craft, 2015; Martens, analyzed how authors of media literacy books and
2010; Palsa & Ruokamo, 2015; Potter 2010; Rogow, articles were defining the term. These researchers
2004). Perceptions of diversity of meaning are not gathered ideas about media literacy from the literature
limited to the United States but instead seem to be the in order to fulfill their purpose of fitting those
case globally (Hipeli, 2019; Parola & Ranieri, 2010; definitional ideas into an organizational scheme that was
Zylka, Müller, & Martins, 2011). developed from their belief that all of media literacy
scholarship featured two key concepts, which were
Research into shared meaning media production and media use. The authors claimed
these concepts worked together in several reciprocal
A few scholars have conducted research to try to processes: the media influenced how producers of
determine whether there is a shared meaning for media content worked and the content they produced;
literacy and if so, what that meaning is. For example, producers of content reciprocated by influencing the
Turin and Friesem (2020) invited media literacy practices of the media; the media influenced individual
scholars in Israel and the United States to participate in users; and users reciprocated by influencing the
an online survey. The participants were shown 32 practices and products of the media. The researchers
potential titles for a final paper in an undergraduate translated these two reciprocal processes of influence
media literacy course and were asked to rate each for into four categories of knowledge that they refer to as
relevancy on a 10-point scale. After analyzing the dimensions. One dimension was used as a category to
ratings from their 69 respondents, Turin and Friesem organize knowledge about how the media influence the

Potter ǀ Journal of Media Literacy Education, 14(2), 27-43, 2022 28

producer’s ideas about media production. The second The meaning analysis involves the examination of
dimension contains ideas about how stakeholders the definitions of media literacy that authors offer in
construct media content as a result of influence by their articles in order to identify the component elements
professional activities and production contexts (cultural, that make up those definitions. Those definitional
economic, and political). The third dimension is elements are then organized in a way to determine how
concerned with ideas about how the media influence frequently they appear across all the definitions being
users both at the societal level as well as the individual examined. If there is a substantial sharing of meaning
level. And the fourth dimension contains knowledge across authors, then there should be a high prevalence of
about how people handle the media (selection, certain elements appearing in definitions across a large
managing media use, mobilizing media, and interpreting proportion of the examined articles. The citation
media content). analysis examines how the authors of articles
acknowledge the source of the definitional ideas that
Study design they present in their articles. If there is a high degree of
sharing of meaning, then there should be a pattern of a
It is the purpose of the current study to build on the large proportion of authors citing the same sources.
work of Turin and Friesem (2020), Martens (2010), and Both of these analyses are needed in order to
Rosenbaum, Beentjes, and Konig (2008) by conducting generate the kind of patterns needed to determine the
a systematic analysis of the published literature in order degree to which authors exhibit a common meaning for
to identify how the authors of those articles have defined media literacy. That is, many authors may cite the same
media literacy. It extends previous analyses of meanings source but unless we also examine how authors report
for media literacy in several ways. First, this current the definition of media literacy from that source, we
study updates previous analyses by focusing on articles cannot know if authors are really sharing the same
published in the most recent decade. Second, it does not meaning. Perhaps the many scholars who cite the same
start with an a priori model and attempt to fit the source exhibit different interpretations of what that
definitions into it. Instead, it allows categories to form source says, in which case a high frequency of using a
as the analysis progresses. And third, while the current particular source is misleading evidence that many
study attempts to organize the definitional ideas that are scholars are sharing the same meaning. Also, many
found in the content analysis of the published literature, scholars may report the same meaning, but unless we
it uses the patterns found in the organization to draw analyze the sources they report for those ideas, we
conclusions about the degree to which there is a cannot determine whether that meaning flows from a
common meaning for media literacy that is widely small number of influential sources or if that meaning is
shared. the same across many different sources so that it does
In order to fulfill this purpose, this study conducts a not matter as much which sources are cited by authors.
meaning analysis and a citation analysis. A meaning
analysis is a form of explication where a scholar METHOD
analyzes the way authors convey their meaning for key
concepts in their research (Chaffee, 1991). It differs Data Base
substantially from the social science method of content
analysis because meaning analysis focuses on how The data base for this study is the set of all articles
authors construct and convey meaning rather than published in the Journal of Media Literacy Education.
focusing on counting the frequency of occurrence of This journal was selected because of its ability to attract
various clearly manifested characteristics in texts. An the writings of scholars who are most concerned about
example of a meaning analysis, in contrast to a content media literacy and most interested in sharing their ideas
analysis, is Potter’s An Analysis of Thinking and with other like-minded scholars. From its initial issue in
Research about Qualitative Methods (1996) where he 2009 until the end of 2020, the Journal of Media
examined how scholars wrote about the qualitative Literacy Education has published a total of 259
method in their theory writings as well as their empirical manuscripts, which include 210 scholarly articles with
publications and drew conclusions about how they the other 49 being reviews of books, websites, apps, and
distinguished qualitative methods from quantitative films. The data base for this study is the set of 210
methods. articles.

Potter ǀ Journal of Media Literacy Education, 14(2), 27-43, 2022 29

Procedure credited it to Aufderheide (1993), many others did not;
if it was clear that the authors were sourcing the
The first step in this study was to download a pdf file definition from the 1992 NLCML, then the citation was
for each of the 210 articles. Then an electronic search credited to that institutional source rather than to the
was performed on each pdf by using the search phrase individual scholar who was named in the citation.
“media literacy.” Each time the term was found, its Meaning analysis. A meaning analysis was used to
appearance was examined to determine if the authors gather all the definitions of media literacy that authors
were providing a definition for the term, and if they did, present in their articles then analyze each of those
a definitional entry was recorded. Thus, the appearance definitions to identify the component elements that
of the term was ignored if it appeared in headings, tables, make up those definitions. Those definitional elements
figures, and reference lists; and when the term was were then organized in a way to determine how
presented in a non-definitional manner. Each frequently they appear across all the definitions being
definitional entry included the author’s full expression examined. The first step in the meaning analysis was to
of their meaning for media literacy along with their examine each entry to identify its individual definitional
citation of sources for those definitions. If the authors elements. Almost all entries were composed of multiple
mentioned more than one definition, each with a definitional elements. For example, if authors said
separate source, then an entry was created for each of something like “media literacy requires skills and
these. The entries were then subjected to two kinds of knowledge” the analysis of that entry would break it
analysis: Citation analysis and meaning analysis. down into two definitional elements – skills and
Citation analysis. The purpose of the citation knowledge. In the second step, each definitional element
analysis is to generate patterns that reveal the degree to was examined for salient characteristics which were
which authors were relying on a few classic sources or then used to place them tentatively into categories
whether they were drawing from a wide range of through a process of classification. The challenge of
scholars and institutions for their definitions. All using classification inductively was to identify the
definitions credited to a particular source were grouped characteristics of the elements that were most useful in
together, either by individual scholars as sources or by organizing them into useful groupings. This was an
institutions as sources. This distinction was made in iterative process of trial and error designed to (a)
order to assign credit either to the individual who increase the homogeneity of elements within each
presumably generated the definitional information group, (b) maximize the differences across the groups,
reported or to an organization where individuals worked and (c) create sub-groupings in order to respect and
together to generate a definition that was the product of highlight the smaller differences among elements within
a group working under the auspices of the identified a larger grouping.
organization. When authors presented a definition that This meaning analysis generated a structure of six
came from an institution but was reported by an major categories along with some sub-categories: Skills,
individual scholar, then the name of the cited scholar Knowledge, Beliefs, Behaviors, Motivations, and Macro
was recorded as the cited source, but the definitional elements. Table 1 displays the key classification
entry was placed in the institutional category during the characteristics for each of these six general categories.
citation analysis. For example, many authors provided a The term “competency” appears quite frequently in
definition for media literacy that came out of the 1992 these analyzed articles, but its use typically indicated
National Leadership Conference on Media Literacy. The that it was a synonym for skills. This is seen in the way
rapporteur of the conference was Patricia Aufderheide many authors switch back and forth between the two
who made this conceptualization widespread in 1993 by terms. Naiditch (2013) illustrates this point when he
publishing Media literacy: A report of the National writes, “media literacy, therefore, includes a series of
Leadership Conference on Media Literacy, through The general competencies, but also a set of sub-skills that are
Aspen Institute. The definition developed at this developed in particular contexts, depending on the tasks
conference has been mentioned with a variety of in which people engage. For example, the ability to
citations, so all references to this definition (or its analyze is a general competency, but the abilities to
various permutations) were grouped under the problem-solve, examine, and scrutinize can be
institutional source of National Leadership Conference considered sub-skills of analyze, as they usually refer to
on Media Literacy. That is, while many authors who specific aspects included in an analysis” (p. 339). There
cited this source (1992 NLCML) of the definition were also times when authors used competencies to refer

Potter ǀ Journal of Media Literacy Education, 14(2), 27-43, 2022 30

to knowledge that they regarded as essential for media authors treated competency as an ability to do
literacy. Therefore, in this meaning analysis, when something, it was regarded as a skill; when authors
authors used the term “competencies,” that usage was treated competency as a need to acquire some kind of
analyzed to determine whether those authors were factual information, it was treated as knowledge.
referring to a skill or some kind of knowledge. When

Table 1. Criteria for each of the six categories of definitional elements in meaning analysis

Element Definition
Skills A cognitive ability that humans use to perform a particular task relevant to media use (e.g., evaluating the
credibility of a news story, creating an alternative meaning, producing a media message).
Knowledge Some kind of factual information that authors claim is important for people to acquire in order to be media
literate; factual information has a truth value, which means it can be checked for accuracy.
Beliefs A statement about the nature of things that people regard as true; beliefs do not have an identifiable truth
value so they cannot be objectively checked for a truth value; instead, they reflect personal interpretations
and subjective perceptions.
Behaviors A statement about observable actions that people need to perform either once or habitually over time in
order to be considered media literate.
Motivations Drives and desires that were expressed as being relevant to media literacy.
Macro ideas Statements that authors make about broad characteristics, trends, or patterns that they use to define media
literacy; these are typically statements about the purpose of media literacy, how it is organized, and its
general nature.

RESULTS for 30 of those entries (one each), 5 scholars accounting

for a total of 15 entries, and the remaining 4 scholars
Of the 210 articles that were analyzed, authors of 134 accounting for 49 of those entries.
(63.8%) of those articles provided some form of The 111 citations credited to institutional sources
definition for media literacy. In many articles, the came from 19 different organizations, but almost all of
authors reported several definitions, each attributed to a these citations were for either the National Association
different source. Some of those definitions were very of Media Literacy Education Core Principles (n = 53) or
short while others extended over paragraphs. Some of the National Leadership Conference on Media Literacy
those definitions were quoted verbatim from a source, (n = 45). Thus, when we use the 258 entries as a base,
which was either another scholar or an institutional the 53 NAMLE Core Principles entries accounted for
source (such as a professional society, a governmental 20.5% of all definitional entries, and the 45 NLCML
body or the like). Some of the definitions were not entries accounted for another 17.4% of the entries.
attributed to any source, so they were assumed to be the Let’s take a closer look at the citation patterns of
article authors’ personal meaning. The 134 articles that these two popular institutional sources. The most
provided a definition of media literacy generated 258 popular single source of definitional elements was the
definitional entries. Thus, authors who defined media NAMLE Core Principles for Media Literacy. Notice that
literacy provided an average of two definitions. in Table 2, not all of the six core principles were
mentioned when authors used this citation. For example,
Citation analysis within those 53 articles where authors cited NAMLE
Core Principles, authors of 22 of those articles told
Of the 258 definitional entries, 111 (43.0%) were readers what the first of those principles was. That is, it
attributed to an institutional source, 103 (39.9%) were was common for authors who cited NAMLE Core
attributed to a named scholar (or list of individual Principles to present only a partial list of those six
scholars who shared authorship on the source), and 44 principles; in only 5 articles that used this citation did
(17.1%) were presented with no attribution. The 103 authors mention all six principles. Typically, authors
entries attributed to an individual author were spread mentioned only one (n = 17 articles) or two (13 articles)
over 39 scholars with 30 of those scholars accounting principles.

Potter ǀ Journal of Media Literacy Education, 14(2), 27-43, 2022 31

 Table 2. Frequency of citing NAMLE Core Principles for media literacy education

Frequency The Six Core Principles

22 1. Media literacy education requires active inquiry and critical thinking about the messages we receive and create.
8 2. Media literacy education expands the concept of literacy to include all forms of media (i.e., reading and writing).
7 3. Media literacy education builds and reinforces skills for learners of all ages. Like print literacy, those skills
necessitate integrated, interactive, and repeated practice.
12 4. Media literacy education develops informed, reflective and engaged participants essential for a democratic society.
10 5. Media literacy education recognizes that media are a part of culture and function as agents of socialization.
8 6. Media literacy education affirms that people use their individual skills, beliefs and experiences to construct their
own meanings from media messages.

Table 3. Citations of the definition of media literacy

developed by the 1992 National Leadership Conference on Media Literacy (n = 45)

Frequency Definition of media literacy

12 AAEC: access, analyze, evaluate, and communicate (Aufderheide, 1993, n = 7; Aufderheide & Firestone, 1993; Hobbs,
2008; Hobbs, 2010; NAMLE, 2012; no citation of source)
5 AAECr: access, analyze, evaluate, and create (Aufderheide, 1993; Ashley, Maksl, & Craft, 2013; Aspen Media
Literacy Leadership Institute, 1992; Livingstone, 2003; Thoman & Jolls, 2006)
5 AAECA: access, analyze, evaluate, create, and act (The NAMLE, 2019, n = 2; NAMLE, 2020; NAMLE, n.d. , n = 2)
4 AACRA: access, analyze, create, reflect, and act (Hobbs, 2010, n = 3; NAMLE 2007; Hobbs 2011)
3 AAEP: access, analyze, evaluate, and produce (Aufderheide, 1993, n = 2; Aufderheide, 2001)
2 AAE: access, analyze, and evaluate (Aufderheide 1997; Scharrer & Cooks 2006; NAMLE, n.d.)
1 AAECrCA: access, analyze, evaluate, create, communicate, and act (Aufderheide & Firestone, 1992; NAMLE, 2018)
1 AAECrD: access, analyze, evaluate, create, and distribute (National Council for the Social Studies, n.d.)
1 AAECrRA: access, analyze, evaluate, create, reflect, and act (Hobbs, 2010)
1 AAEPC: access, analyze, evaluate, produce, and communicate (Aufderheide, 1998)
1 AACR: access, analyze, create, and reflect (Hobbs, 2011)
1 AAP: access, analyze, and produce (Aufderheide, 1993)
1 AAPP: access, analyze, process, and produce (Aufderheide, 1993)
1 AE: analyze and express (NAMLE, 2007)
1 AP: analyze and produce (no citation)
1 ARCDA: analyze, reflect, create, disseminate, and act (Tulodziecki, 2012)
1 AUAP: access, understand, analyze, and produce (Aufderheide, 1993; Livingstone, Van Couvering, & Thumim, 2005)
1 AUPC: access, understand, produce, and communicate (Buckingham, 1998)
1 DEA: decode, evaluate, and analyze (Aufderheide, 1993; Center for Media Literacy, 2015)
1 UAECr: understand, analyze, evaluate, and create (Aufderheide 1993; Buckingham 2003; Thoman 2003)
Note. The headings display the 20 configurations of elements that authors attributed to the definition of media literacy that was developed by the 1992
National Leadership Conference on Media Literacy. The citations under each heading display the source that authors attributed to that definition. While
most authors cited one source, there were other authors who cited two or three sources for the definition they were reporting.

In 9 articles, authors cited the Core Principles as a Leadership Conference on Media Literacy. Notice in
source of information for their definition of media Table 3 the variation both tin he configuration of
literacy but did not articulate what any of those core elements in the entry as well in the sources cited. There
principles were. were 20 different configurations attributed to the
The next most popular source of definitional conceptualization that came out of the 1992 National
elements was some form of the definition of media Leadership Conference on Media Literacy. There was
literacy that was formulated in 1992 at the National also considerable variation in reporting the source of this

Potter ǀ Journal of Media Literacy Education, 14(2), 27-43, 2022 32

definition developed by the 1992 National Leadership The 249 elements in the Skills category are
Conference on Media Literacy. The citation with the organized into six sub-categories: General Skills,
most appearances was Aufderheide (1993) which was Exposure Skills, Information Processing Skills,
used in 13 entries with other publications by her being Production Skills, Social Skills, and Reflection Skills
reported in an additional four more entries. (see Table 4). The Information Processing grouping
contains the majority of skills elements (n =144, 57.8%).
Meaning analysis This large group was then further broken down into five
sub-categories of Meaning Matching Skills, Analysis
Each of the 258 definitional entries were analyzed to Skills, Critical Analysis Skills, Evaluating Skills, and
identify the individual ideas that authors put into those Meaning Construction Skills. The simplest of these
definitions. A total of 434 individual definitional Information Processing Skills is Meaning Matching (n =
elements were found in this meaning analysis. Thus, 11) which refers to the ability of people to recognize
across the 134 articles that provided a definition of symbols (e.g., words, images, sounds, motion) in media
media literacy, the average was about 3.2 definitional texts and being able to recall the denoted meaning they
elements per article. For example, an average entry have stored in their memories. This skill is often referred
would be something like: Media literacy requires to as decoding. The skill of analysis grouping contained
analysis and evaluation of media messages in the so many entries that it was broken into two separate sub-
context of understanding how messages are produced. categories. One sub-category is Analysis Skills (n = 37),
When analyzing this entry, we find that it mentions two which contains elements where authors described the
skills elements (analysis and evaluation) and one skill in terms of the generic meaning of analysis, such as
element of knowledge (about how messages are digging below the surface of something or breaking a
produced). message down into components. The other sub-category
As explained in the Methods section, the individual – Critical Analysis Skills – includes those elements (n =
definitional elements were arranged into groupings 40) where authors attached the word critical to analysis;
when they were found to share some significant the authors of these 40 elements typically talked about
characteristic relevant to media literacy. For example, why critical analysis (or its apparent synonym critical
all skills-type elements were put into one group and all thinking) were important to media literacy without
knowledge-type elements were put into another group. explaining what makes an analysis “critical” in their
This was an iterative process where the groupings were minds.
continually refined. For example, a definitional element The Evaluating Skills group includes 27 elements.
that might at first appear to belong in knowledge-type The skill of evaluating involves comparing a message
category during an early round in this iterative process element to a standard then making a judgment about
might later be regarded as belonging in a belief-type whether the message element meets the standard, falls
category because it referred less to factual information short of it, or exceeds it. Commonly cited standards are
and more to a social norm. Also, the iterations served to accuracy of news stories, truthfulness of facts, reality of
refine the categories themselves. For example, portrayals, aesthetic quality, and usefulness of
something that might at first look like a skill upon closer information). The Meaning Construction Skills group
examination be found to be more like a behavior, if the includes 29 elements. Meaning construction skills are
wording of the item indicated authors characterized the abilities that people use to move beyond the simple
idea more by what people were expected to do rather acceptance of denoted meanings in order to construct
than an ability they had; in this case there was reason to their own alternative meanings by using inference,
create a new category of behavior. personal interpretations, and prediction.
The resulting organizational scheme has six broad There were also a lot of entries (n = 53) in the
categories of Skills, Knowledge, Beliefs, Behaviors, Production Skills grouping, which was further broken
Motivations, and Macro elements. The largest of these down into four sub-categories of Production Message
categories is Skills which contains 249 elements that Skills in General, Technical Production Skills,
account for 57.4% of all the definitional elements. The Conceptual Production Skills, and Creative Production
Knowledge category contains 74 elements (17.1%); Skills. The sub-category of Producing Message Skills in
Macro, 76 elements (17.5%); Behaviors, 20 elements General includes those elements where authors defined
(4.6%); Motivation, 8 elements (1.8%); and Beliefs, 7 media literacy with production skills but did not specify
elements (1.6%). any particular skill. The next sub-category includes

Potter ǀ Journal of Media Literacy Education, 14(2), 27-43, 2022 33

technical skills, such the ability to send text messages, how to structure information in the message, as well as
upload images to websites, write a coherent news story, how to make it clear, coherent, and persuasive.). The
etc. The Conceptual Production Skills sub-category Creative Production Skills sub-category includes
includes abilities to think about what to communicate, abilities to produce novel messages.

Table 4. Organization of the 249 skills elements found in definitions of media literacy

Category Findings
Media literacy Authors of 6 articles said that media literacy required skills without naming any specific skills.
skills in general

Exposure skills 17 elements referred to some type of exposure skill as follows:

 Selection skills: 9 elements were concerned with the abilities to make selections of media and/or
messages.
 Searching skills: 3 elements mentioned the abilities needed to search for particular messages in the media.
 Accessing skills: 5 elements focused on the abilities to achieve access to particular media and/or messages.

Information 144 elements addressed some type of information processing skill as follows:
processing skills  Meaning matching skills: 11 elements described an ability to recognize symbols in media messages (such
as decoding) and attach denoted meaning (such as required in for basic reading, listening, watching
videos, etc.).
 Analysis skills: 37 elements articles mentioned the importance of analysis skills (of these 15 simply
mentioned that the skill of analysis in general was important to media literacy, 11 specified a purpose for
using the skill of analysis, 11 specified a particular too of analysis, such as taking message apart to
recognize components; deconstructing; digging below surface meanings).
 Critical analysis skills: 40 elements highlighted the importance of “critical analysis” (of these 10
elements provided an argument for why critical analysis was important to media literacy in general, 12
elements provided an argument for why critical thinking was important to media literacy in general, 11
elements showcased an argument that critical thinking and active inquiry were both important, 7 elements
mentioned a related skill that needed to be critical, such as critical viewing, critical reading).
 Evaluating skills: 27 elements mentioned the skill of evaluation (of these 11 elements mentioned that the
skill of evaluation was important to media literacy, 16 elements clarified a purpose for using the skill of
evaluation  critiquing, criticizing, challenging).
 Meaning construction skills: 29 elements mentioned a meaning construction type skill (of these 9
elements specified a purpose for using the skill, 20 elements specified a particular tool  creating
alternative meanings, personalizing meanings, synthesizing).

Production skills 53 elements mentioned some type of message production skill as follows:
 Producing message skills in general: 22 elements mentioned that media literacy required the general
ability to produce media messages without providing any more details.
 Technical production skills: 14 elements specified a technical type skill about how to create and share
messages using media platforms either digital (e.g., blogs, SNS) or traditional (writing).
 Conceptual production skills: 8 elements specified a conceptual type skill required in producing media
messages (e.g., using own experience or a fresh perspective to create messages alternative to what the
media provide).
 Creative production skills: 9 elements argued for the ability to be creative when producing messages (e.g.,
ability to be fresh, novel, provide alternatives).

Social skills 19 elements mentioned the ability to develop one’s social skills (e.g., abilities to be more aware of self and
others as they use the media to communicate, play, interact, negotiate, perform, simulate, and multitask; to
use the media to manage self and develop relationships with others).

Skills of reflection 10 elements mentioned the ability to engage in reflective thinking about the media and one’s own use of media
(thinking about (e.g., to think more systematically about their own experiences as consumers and contributors to the media).
messages)

Potter ǀ Journal of Media Literacy Education, 14(2), 27-43, 2022 34

 Authors of the 19 elements in the Social Skills themselves, and the possible effects those exposures
grouping argued that people need abilities to use the may have been generating. A small number of these
media in their interactions with others as they build and items (n = 6, 2.4%) indicated that media literacy needed
maintain relationships; collaborate with others on skills, but the authors did not specify which skills were
projects and activities; and manage impressions of self needed.
in social situations. Authors of the 17 (6.8%) elements The 74 knowledge elements are spread out over six
in the Exposure Skills category argued that media sub-categories (see Table 5). They generally follow
literacy required an ability involved with being able to Potter’s (2004) organization of knowledge areas – about
expose oneself successfully to the media, either by using the media industries, media content, and media effects.
an ability to make good selections, an ability to conduct In this study there was also a sub-category about
a successful search to find a desired content in the media Knowledge about the World where authors specified
(e.g., using keywords to search on the internet), or an knowledge areas that help people use their skills better
ability to get access to that content (e.g., using the to understand and judge media messages. Table 6
appropriate technology successfully). The 10 elements displays the definitional elements categorized as
in the Skills of Reflection category involve abilities to behaviors, beliefs, and motivation.
think about one’s exposure patterns, the messages

Table 5. Organization of the 74 knowledge elements found in definitions of media literacy

Category Findings
Knowledge in 9 elements mention that media literacy requires the acquisition of knowledge in general
general

Sets of knowledge 6 elements reference a set of knowledge areas that authors argued were necessary for media literacy.

Knowledge about 31 elements mention particular areas of knowledge about media industries as commercial businesses and
the media organizations as follows:
industries  Knowledge about media industries in general: 3 elements reference knowledge areas about media
industries in general.
 Knowledge about structural factors: 5 elements mention structural factors (the way the industry is
organized and especially ownership patterns).
 Knowledge about economics: 2 elements argue that knowledge of economic factors are necessary for
media literacy.
 Knowledge about industry values: 7 elements argue that media literate people need to have knowledge
about the values, motives, and goals of people running the media industries.
 Knowledge about technology of media: 4 elements claim that media literacy relies on knowledge about
how technologies shape media content.
 Knowledge about cultural factors: 5 elements argue that media literacy relies on knowledge about the
influence of cultural factors
 Knowledge about how content is produced: contend that media literacy is enhanced when people
understand the process media use to produced messages and attract audiences.

Knowledge about 4 elements argue that media literate people need to have knowledge patterns of content due to the way
media content messages are constructed.

Knowledge about 15 elements mention that media literacy requires people to acquire knowledge about media effect as follows:
media effects  Knowledge about effects that can be attributed to media influence: 2 elements claim that people need to
know what the various effects of the media are.
 Knowledge about how media influence works: 4 elements argue that people need to know how the process
of media influence works in order to understand the eventual effects from media exposure.
 Knowledge about how to avoid/process risk of effects: 9 elements caution that people need to know certain
things so they can control their risk of experiencing a negative effect from media exposure.

Knowledge about 9 elements argue that the more knowledge people have about the real world, the more media literate they can
the world be.

Potter ǀ Journal of Media Literacy Education, 14(2), 27-43, 2022 35

 Table 6. Organizations of behavior, belief, and motivation elements in definitions of media literacy

Category Elements Findings

Behavior Behavior in general 7 elements argue that media literacy requires some general behaviors such as engaging with
elements media content in a more meaningful manner or making changes in people’s media behaviors.

Exposure/accessing 1 element call for the monitoring and regulation of media users’ behaviors.
behaviors

Message processing 5 elements define media literacy as helping users improve their habits of inquiry by being
behaviors more active, observant, questioning, and challenging.

Production 7 elements specify that media literacy required people to perform production behaviors to
behaviors improve their communication skills and also to engage in experiences that will help them
understand the nature of media messages better.

Belief Teaching beliefs 3 elements argue that media literacy needs to instill particular beliefs, such as individual
elements responsibility, active citizenship, and avoiding risky behaviors.

Belief construction 4 elements contend that media literacy needs to stimulate people to construct their own
beliefs about their self-efficacy and autonomy.

Motivation Need for motivation 4 elements mention that motivation is an essential part of media literacy (i.e., people must
elements be motivated in order to improve their media literacy).

Origin of motivation 4 elements specify that motivation is stimulated by skepticism, desire to improve, curiosity,
and encouragement from others.

Table 7. Organization of the 76 macro elements in definitions of media literacy

Category Findings
Purpose for the 37 elements argue that the purpose of media literacy is to improve the individual in some way:
individual  Generally improve life: 5 elements posit that the purpose of media literacy is to help people live a better
life in some general way.
 More in control: 16 elements claim that media literacy’s purpose is to give people a means to increase
their control over the media by thinking for themselves and giving them a sense of empowerment.
 Better able to protect themselves from potentially harmful effects: 11 elements say that the purpose of
media literacy is to help people protect themselves from potential effects from media exposure than could
be harmful.
 More aware of one’s world: 5 elements contend the purpose of media literacy is to make people more
aware of their world.

Purpose for 29 elements articulate a societal purpose for media literacy as follows:
society  To keep citizens well informed: 14 elements say that media literacy serves to improve the flow of accurate
information that results in a well-informed citizenry that is required for the successful working of a
democracy.
 To stimulate activism: 8 elements argue that media literacy increases activism that results in improving
many areas of society.
 To improve interactions in society: 7 elements claim that media literacy helps to improve interactions
among people in society.

Multi-dimensional 4 elements argue that media literacy is multi-dimensional.

Applies to all 3 elements claim out that media literacy should apply to all media.
media

Development 3 elements argue that media literacy needs to be developed.

Potter ǀ Journal of Media Literacy Education, 14(2), 27-43, 2022 36

 Finally, Table 7 displays elements where authors exist at a very high level of abstraction. That is, the
provided broad characteristics about what media literacy meaning would be something very general such as:
is or what they thought it should be. These 76 elements “Media literacy is a tool that people can use to improve
are organized into five sub-categories. The first of these on their experiences with the media.” If we are satisfied
sub-categories includes 37 elements where authors with a very general definition for media literacy, then it
made claims about the purpose of media literacy and is reasonable to believe that this kind of definition is
how it can help individuals, while the second of these widely shared. It appears that the authors of about 36%
sub-categories includes 29 elements where authors of the studies published in this journal accept this belief
made claims about the purpose of media literacy and because they provided no definition of media literacy in
how it can help improve society in some way. The their articles. Thus, it is likely that they believed that
remaining three sub-categories each contain a small there was a common meaning for the term that was so
number of elements well known and so widely shared that there was no need
for them to define it in their article. One of these authors
DISCUSSION (Torrent, 2011) explained his belief in a commonly
shared meaning with the argument:
The major finding of this study is that there is an
enormous variety of meaning expressed across authors Whatever we call it, we all basically know what we are talking
about (I’ll refrain from composing the list here). What is
who write about media literacy. This finding is
important is that ‘media literacy’ is a globally (globally!)
supported by the patterns found in both the citation accepted term, a framework clear enough to have a discussion
analysis as well as the meaning analysis. While the about it with representatives of many different professional areas
citation analysis found that there were two sources that of our communities. I think that this is the result of the thousands
of educators who have been diligently educating (often with a
stood out from all the rest as being most popular, neither
touch of true activism) the mediamakers, the policymakers, and
of these sources could be considered as a dominant the public in general (teachers, parents, social workers, medical
source of a definition for media literacy. The National workers, etc.) for so many years (p. 23).
Association of Media Literacy Education’ Core
Principles and the definition developed at the 1992 While a very general definition could be constructed
National Leadership Conference on Media Literacy that would be a kind of umbrella that could cover all the
(NLCML) together accounted for less than 38% of all ideas found across all the definitions identified in this
citations, which means that in over 62% of all articles study’s meaning analysis, the high degree of generality
published in the Journal of Media Literacy Education, of such a definitional statement would prevent it from
authors ignored or rejected both of these definitions. having much explanatory value. It would lack the detail
The pattern of strong diversity in meaning for needed to explain what kind of a tool media literacy is,
media literacy is even more compelling in the results of how people can acquire such a tool, how they can use
the meaning analysis where almost every definition for the tool once acquired, and in what ways they can use
media literacy that did not site either of the two most the tool to improve their experiences with the media. Its
popular sources presented its own unique configuration generality would prevent it from being distinguished
of definitional elements. Even more telling is the pattern from other tools that could help people with the media -
of diversity found among those authors who cited one of - tools such as critical thinking, mindful exposures, self-
these popular sources of definition. Although we should reflexivity, parental mediation, and willingness to
expect all scholars who cite the definition of media examine one’s beliefs and behaviors.
literacy developed at the 1992 National Leadership Given the results of this study’s meaning analysis, it
Conference on Media Literacy (NLCML) would present appears that the majority (62%) of authors of articles
the same definition, this was far from the case. Authors published in the Journal of Media Literacy Education
of the 45 articles that cited this definition presented 20 were not satisfied with such a general definition,
different versions of it. because they presented media literacy definitions
Given this enormous diversity in meaning composed of specific ideas that served to clarify its
continually demonstrated across authors who write essence and distinguish it from many other seemingly
about media literacy, it is puzzling that there are scholars related ideas. As those authors presented more details in
who claim that there is a common, shared definition. If their definitions of media literacy, those added details
there is such a sharing of meaning, then it would have to could have shown a growing overlap with one another,

Potter ǀ Journal of Media Literacy Education, 14(2), 27-43, 2022 37

which would have indicated a growing consensus of elements from the “standard” definition presented by
meaning. But this analysis shows this not to be the case. NLCML, subtracting elements, and/or renaming
Instead, those added details signified even more elements. And scholars of the 53 articles that referred to
diversity of thinking. The meaning analysis found that the NAMLE Core Principles rarely characterized those
as authors increased the number of details in their six principles for their readers in the same way. Thus,
definitions, those definitions became more unique and the authors who cited one of these sources rarely
more differentiated from each other. For example, some presented the same interpretation of the definition
authors defined the “tool” of media literacy as being a created by the institution that was being cited. Beyond
particular skill or a combination of particular skills. these two sources, there was even more variation in
Other authors regarded the tool as being a set of definitions.
knowledge. Others regarded it as the alteration of beliefs The high degree of diversity in definitions for media
and/or behaviors. And many other authors argued that literacy is even more apparent when we look at the
media literacy is a particular combination of many of results of the meaning analysis. Authors of the 134
these things. There are also important differences across articles that displayed definitions of media literacy for
authors in in their expressed beliefs about what it means their readers presented 258 definitional entries that
for media literacy to improve people’s media included a total of 434 definitional ideas. The one area
experiences. Some scholars regarded improvement as of high agreement was that almost all of the articles that
protecting people from many different kinds of provided a definition for media literacy said something
unwanted effects (either by giving them information about the need for skills; however, as authors specified
about what those effects are, or by teaching them how to which skills were essential to media literacy,
recognize those effects, or by trying to alter their beliefs, considerable differences arose.
or by reshaping their behaviors), while other scholars Some authors talked about the need for exposure
regarded improvement as empowering people in a wide skills (how to search for messages, how to make good
variety of ways; and others regarded media literacy as a selections among all the available choices, and how to
combination of protectionism and empowerment. When get access to particular messages); others specified some
we look at the definitional patterns that emerge from the kind of information processing skill (how to read
134 articles where authors provided their definitions for messages in more depth, how to evaluate messages on
media literacy, it is rare to see the same configuration of all sorts of standards, how to construct one’s own
definitional elements presented in more than a few meaning); others argued for the importance of
articles. production skills (technical abilities, conceptual
It appears that the dynamic to increase differences in abilities, and creative abilities); still others detailed the
conceptualizing media literacy is much stronger than the importance of social skills and/or reflection skills. While
dynamic to pull scholars together into a coherent almost all authors defined media literacy as relying on
community built on a foundation of shared meanings. To skills, few authors defined media literacy with the same
illustrate this claim, look at the patterns in Tables 2 and configuration of skills. And the variations in definitions
3. Scholars who contend that there is a sharing of grew larger when we considered whether authors
meaning for media literacy argue that there are two included elements of knowledge, beliefs, behaviors, and
commonly used definitions (Aufderheide, 1997; motivations in their definitions.
Livingstone, 2003; Redmond, 2012; Scharrer, 2009; This wide variation of definitional elements, the
Scharrer & Cooks, 2006; Schmidt, 2013; Torrent, 2011). diversity of interpretations of widely quoted definitions,
The NAMLE Core Principles were cited in 53 articles, and the frequent citing of alternative sources for the
and the NLCML definition was cited in 45 articles. same idea leads to the conclusion that scholars who
While these two were the most often cited sources for write about media literacy exhibit considerable variety
definitions of media literacy, together they accounted in their meanings for the term. It appears that everyone
for only 38% of all citations. And when we look at the who writes about media literacy has a different
actual definitions that authors presented when citing perspective on what it is or what it should be, unless we
these two sources, we can see that there were significant keep our focus at the most general level of meaning.
differences in the ways those authors were perceiving This raises the question about how this sharing of
those “standard” definitions. For example, scholars of meaning only at the most general level benefits or limits
the 45 articles that referred to the NLCML definition the development of media literacy as a scholarly field.
presented 20 different configurations of it – often adding

Potter ǀ Journal of Media Literacy Education, 14(2), 27-43, 2022 38

Implications unwilling to invest this effort limit themselves to either
(a) locking their perceptions into the particular
Can scholars build a viable field of study on a perspective that defines their niche or (b) forming
foundation where there is a high degree of agreement unwarranted interpretations about the nature of the
about the field’s focal concept only at the most abstract, broader field.
general level? The answer to this question depends on The diversity of ideas about how the field defines its
what those scholars value most. If scholars value focal concept makes it very difficult to impossible for
diversity, openness of ideas, and creative expansion of outsiders to understand what the field is. Students,
thinking, then the generality of the accepted definition scholars new to the field, journalists, and the public in
for media literacy is a good thing, because it keeps the general who want to know what media literacy is are
boundaries of the field purposely ambiguous and likely to get a very different impression of what media
welcomes any idea that anyone wants to contribute. It is literacy means depending on which authors they read.
a wide-open forum for all kinds of perspectives on what Outsiders will find it impossible to know who to trust to
media literacy should be and encourages a seemingly tell them what they need to know about the field, so they
limitless stream of ideas about how it could achieve are likely to accept the meaning from their exposure to
those many purposes. It is a field that attracts all kinds one random definition.
of scholars because all viewpoints are equally respected. The diversity of meanings in circulation also creates
A field based on such a value would track the degree of significant challenges for educators who want to create
each term’s worth by measuring how many definitional an instructional unit of any scale -- lesson, intervention,
elements it has accumulated and how diverse those course, or curriculum. With limited resources, educators
elements are. In such a field, scholars would be depend on a research literature to tell them which
encouraged to create new definitions to expand the learning objectives are the worthy to pursue and which
diversity rather than to search for the most useful should be avoided; which instructional elements have
meanings of terms and to build progressively toward a been the most successful; and which measures have the
common language that joins authors together in a best track record of generating valid data. If that
scholarly community. literature is composed primarily of hidden differences,
Alternatively, the diversity of meaning can be then designers of media literacy lessons are presented
regarded as a negative characteristic that slows down the with an overwhelming number of options with little
development of knowledge, because it resists the guidance because each element is treated as being
establishment of a core of knowledge that all members equally valid.
of that scholarly community recognize and use as a As for learning objectives, scholars have observed
shared foundation. When a field lacks a commonly that it is difficult for designers of interventions and
shared definition for each of its key terms, the field’s lessons to craft learning objectives for specific lessons
literature becomes balkanized into groups of scholars because the purposes of media literacy as expressed in
each characterized by holding different meanings for the the literature are so varied (Ashley et al., 2012; Christ,
field’s most important concepts. While this 2004; Hobbs & Jensen, 2009; Scharrer, 2002). Scholars
balkanization serves to reinforce the sharing of beliefs who read through the literature to try to determine the
across members inside the same niche, it makes it more essence of media literacy are confronted with so many
difficult for scholars to network effectively with ideas that it leaves them with the impression that
scholars in other niches because of the effort required to anything goes. Therefore, media literacy programs and
understand and work around the many differences in interventions vary so widely that it is difficult to see
meanings that have served to divide scholars into those what they have in common. Recall that Turin and
niches. Scholars in one niche who want to read across Friesem (2020) found a wide range of perceptions about
the general literature of media literacy so that they can what media literacy education is and what it should be,
perceive patterns across the full set of niches must which led the authors to conclude that there is a
continually compare “apples and oranges” because of continuing lack of one standard approach.
the differences in the ways media literacy is Designers of media literacy educational efforts find
conceptualized and operationalized in each study. These that the treatment of learning objectives in the published
differences increase the amount of work scholars must research is so general that it fails to provide them with
invest when trying to perceive broader patterns of much guidance. For example, Bergsma and Carney
knowledge beyond their niche. Scholars who are (2008) argue that media literacy scholars and

Potter ǀ Journal of Media Literacy Education, 14(2), 27-43, 2022 39

professionals should be more precise in describing the meaning being used by each author then keep all those
concepts and skills they include in their lessons. many meanings straight as they continue to read.
Scharrer (2002) reasons that even though there is a
generalized understanding about what media literacy Recommendation
outcomes are, they are often not explicitly defined and
measured. Christ (2004) argues that the term media It may seem that I am calling for the establishment
literacy needs to be more clearly defined and that of a single definition that would be shared by all scholars
standards and competencies need to be developed in in the field. But I am not; that would be unreasonable
more detail in order to provide an adequate basis for given all the definitional work that has stretched the
measuring media literacy outcomes. He states that most range of meaning to such a degree.
higher education faculty would claim that they teach There are two recommendations that can reasonably
media literacy however, they may not be able to express be made given the picture that the results of this citation
what they mean with regard to the term and much less and meaning analysis present. First, scholars who write
be able to assess it with learning outcomes. about media literacy need to present their meaning to
When scholars are fuzzy about what media literacy readers rather than assume that all readers share the
is and how educational experiences can be designed to same meaning that authors hold for the term. Media
increase it, then it becomes impossible to design literacy is not a primitive term, because there is no
measures with adequate validity (Bergsma & Carney, evidence for a commonly shared meaning. Instead, there
2008; Kubey, 1998; Livingstone & Thumim, 2003; are many meanings for the term in circulation. Some of
Martens, 2010; Scharrer, 2009; Schilder, et al. 2016). those meanings differ from one another in minor ways
For example, Livingstone and Thumim (2003) observe and some differ in more major ways. But even small
that there is little consensus over the appropriate way to difference in meaning can cause problems when a reader
measure media literacy. This is reflected in the variety holds a different meaning than the authors do.
of ways media literacy is assessed. A challenge that may Therefore, a minimum requirement for scholarly
relate to this lack of systematic implementation of media publication should be that authors who write about
literacy assessments across different educational media literacy recognize the diversity of meaning in play
systems is that media literacy criteria and outcomes are and use that diversity as a context for clearly presenting
not always clearly defined. Similarly, Bergsma and the meaning they are using in their publication.
Carney (2008) suggest that media literacy professionals Second, scholars who do express their meaning for
and scholars “should be more explicit about the media media literacy in their writings need to do so with more
literacy core concepts/skills they include in their clarity, completeness, and precision. It is not sufficient
interventions and should more carefully address who to simply name the source of a commonly cited
delivered the intervention with what fidelity, in what definition and assume that this is enough to convey their
setting, for how long and utilizing what pedagogical meaning clearly and completely. As was found in this
approach” (Schilder et al., 2016, p. 34). Martens (2010) study’s citation analysis, authors who refer to the same
argues that evaluating and explaining the effectiveness citation do not all hold the same meaning for what that
of media literacy education is one of the most citation presents. The results of this citation analysis
overwhelming challenges to be addressed by research in show that authors have frequently added, subtracted, and
the field. re-named the components in a cited definition. Of
The task of educating students about the essence of course, scholarship allows for the altering of definitions
any body of knowledge expands enormously with the when authors need to do so in order to achieve the
number of meanings in circulation for each term used. purposes of their writings better. However, when
Students who read through a literature first need to learn authors make such alterations, they need to be clear
the meaning of what each term is. Once a meaning for a about what those alterations are and present an argument
term is learned, students can read through large portions for why their changes contribute something of value to
of the literature efficiently because they can easily match the scholarly field. When authors cite a common
the one denoted meaning to the term each time they definition but present their idiosyncratic interpretation
encounter it. However, if the meaning of a term is of it rather than reporting the original meaning
different with each piece of writing, then the task of accurately, they are contributing more to chaos and
learning about a field becomes enormously more confusion instead of knowledge.
difficult because students must learn the different

Potter ǀ Journal of Media Literacy Education, 14(2), 27-43, 2022 40

 It is likely that the idea of media literacy will community, religion, and media bias) while protecting
continue to stimulate even more meaning elements and our existing beliefs that are not faulty in some way; and
that many of these authors will assemble these meaning it can increase our degree of engagement with the media,
elements into an even greater number of unique other people, institutions, and society at large.
configurations. Unless the two recommendations This large accumulation of ideas is indeed
presented above are implemented, it is likely that this impressive in what they promise. But scholarly fields
growing diversity will continue to be masked by the need to do more than promise; they need to create the
persistent assumption that we are all sharing the same knowledge that will deliver on those promises. As media
meaning. Communication of meaning will become literacy scholars, we need to consider the degree to
much more of a challenge for authors and readers, for which we increase the challenge of sharing knowledge
instructors and students, and for study designers and when we exhibit so little sharing of a common meaning
reviewers. When we cannot read the work of colleagues for our most essential concept.
with adequate comprehension, we are less likely to value
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