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 Table of Contents
1. Introduction.

2. An Introduction to Linear Programming.

3. Linear Programming: Sensitivity Analysis and Interpretation of Solution.

4. Linear Programming Applications in Marketing, Finance, and Operations

Management.

5. Advanced Linear Programming Applications.

6. Distribution and Network Models.

7. Integer Linear Programming.

8. Nonlinear Optimization Models.

9. Project Scheduling: PERT/CPM.

10. Inventory Models.

11. Waiting Line Models.

12. Simulation.
13. Decision Analysis.

14. Multicriteria Decisions.

15. Forecasting.

16. Markov Processes.

17. Linear Programming: Simplex Method (on Website).

18. Simplex-Based Sensitivity Analysis and Duality (on Website).

19. Solution Procedures for Transportation (on Website).

20. Minimal Spanning Tree (on Website).

21. Dynamic Programming (on Website).

Description
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Professional 2010 accompanies the book on CD.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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 The Oil Industry in Japan207
Japan’s oil industry has a brilliant future before it. The use of
kerosene in the country has grown at a wonderfully rapid pace. In
the first year of Meiji the amount of oil imported was 639 koku. In
1901 it had reached 1,300,000 koku. The value of the oil imported in
1868 was only 7,236 yen; that imported in 1901 was 14 million
yen.208 The following table shows the rate at which the import of
kerosene into Japan increased:—
Value.
Years. Koku.
Yen.
1868 639 7,236
1872 8,936 160,608
1877 53,645 605,598
1882 413,644 2,320,905
1887 421,177 1,871,428
1892 653,785 3,328,398
1897 1,221,164 7,667,350
1900 1,356,846 14,162,652
1901 1,379,927 14,943,400
Notwithstanding the large supply that has come from abroad, of late
years the demand for the Echigo oil has gone on increasing, as
shown in the subjoined table, which covers seven years.
Koku of Crude
Years. Value. Yen.
Petroleum.
1895 158,334 526,976
1896 207,470 619,333
1897 257,614 668,677
 1898 355,006 670,308
1899 544,583 1,450,904
1900 836,628 2,142,003
1901 1,115,807 2,345,916
It is calculated that about 5/10 of the total quantity of this crude
petroleum was used for lighting purposes. It would seem, then, that
Echigo supplied 3/10 of the total amount of oil used for lighting in
Japan during the seven years, and that the remaining 7/10 came
from abroad. Taking the year 1901, the value of the crude petroleum
being 2,345,916 yen, it is estimated that when refined this amount
of petroleum would fetch not less than 4 million yen. But the fact
remains that the proportion of oil imported is still very large, so that
there is room for a further great development of the business.
In 1908 Japan’s output of petroleum was 1,872,592 U. S. barrels.
Echigo is by no means worked out: new fields are constantly being
discovered in that province. Then petroleum has been found in
Hokkaidō and in the Yamagata and Shizuoka prefectures. So that
among Japan’s modern industries her oil trade may be pronounced
to be full of promise. How the quality of the Japanese oil compares
with the American and Russian brands, we are not told by the Jiji,
but from other sources we gather that when properly refined
Japanese petroleum is equal to the best American and Russian oils.
 NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT.
The following table shows the national development in population,
finance, trade, railway, vessels, telegraphs, savings, and currency,
during the 30 years from 1872 to 1902.
Population. State Expenditure. Trade. Railway.
Year.
(in Thousand) Yen. Yen. Miles.
1872 33,210 57,730,025 43,204,462 18
1873 33,300 62,678,601 49,742,830 18
1874 33,625 82,269,528 42,779,120 38
1875 33,997 69,203,242 48,586,738 38
1876 34,338 59,308,956 51,676,296 65
1877 (unknown) 48,428,324 50,769,424 66
1878 „ 60,911,336 58,862,974 68
1879 35,768 60,317,578 61,128,772 73
1880 35,929 63,140,896 65,021,987 98
1881 36,358 71,460,321 62,250,133 122
1882 36,700 73,480,667 67,168,344 170
1883 37,017 83,106,859 64,712,861 244
1884 37,451 76,663,108 63,544,112 262
1885 37,868 61,115,313 66,503,659 353
1886 38,507 83,223,960 84,044,745 430
1887 39,069 79,453,036 96,711,932 593
1888 39,607 81,504,024 131,160,744 912
1889 40,072 79,713,671 136,164,472 1,136
1890 40,453 82,125,403 138,332,086 1,339
1891 40,718 83,558,891 142,454,540 1,716
1892 41,089 76,734,740 162,428,833 1,870
1893 41,388 84,581,872 177,970,036 1,938
1894 41,813 78,128,643 230,028,141 2,118
1895 42,270 85,317,179 265,372,756 2,290
1896 42,706 168,856,509 289,517,234 2,507
1897 43,228 223,678,844 382,435,848 2,948
1898 43,763 219,757,568 443,255,909 3,120
1899 44,260 254,165,537 435,331,802 3,638
1900 .... 292,726,996 491,691,839 3,855
1901 .... 266,856,824 508,166,187 4,026
1902 .... 275,751,194
Telegraphic Money in
Vessels. Savings.
Year. Lines. Circulation.
Ton. Yen.
Ri. Yen
1872 22,364 87 .... 132,611,498
1873 26,988 806 .... 159,423,361
1874 26,120 1,758 .... 157,660,830
1875 42,304 1,833 15,224 154,931,596
1876 40,248 2,156 41,845 163,692,344
1877 49,105 2,876 100,138 175,432,023
1878 43,899 3,512 286,289 221,994,874
1879 42,763 3,842 494,114 215,912,239
1880 41,215 4,489 662,091 203,994,171
1881 41,044 5,078 821,938 195,742,688
1882 42,107 5,477 1,058,225 186,376,681
1883 45,350 5,871 2,298,502 182,625,317
1884 49,845 6,122 5,260,484 177,978,053
 1885 59,613 6,283 9,050,255 181,433,916
1886 63,314 6,353 15,462,054 198,557,838
1887 72,322 6,818 18,417,022 200,157,163
1888 81,066 7,588 20,142,169 207,825,609
1889 88,816 8,191 19,976,419 220,748,343
1890 93,812 9,250 19,197,942 205,408,438
1891 95,588 9,113 26,424,174 210,872,584
1892 102,301 9,920 30,031,483 219,848,385
1893 110,205 10,230 32,199.954 244,847,437
1894 169,414 11,502 32,772,652 256,088,534
1895 213,221 12,212 41,143,695 291,665,016
1896 227,841 15,431 46,693,884 307,461,803
1897 426,624 18,360 51,550,536 330,470,142
1898 464,246 20,561 52,532,992 285,589,698
1899 498,376 24,342 68,829,712 332,702,090
1900 534,239 27,390 72,897,286 318,280,814
1901 .... .... .... 306,315,006
1902
NOTE.—In expenditure, the figures from 1872 up to 1898 are
taken from the settled account, and those of 1899, 1900, and 1901
from the actual account. 1902 is from the Budget. In railways, the
figures show the mileages of the lines belonging to the government
as well as those belonging to private firms opened to traffic at the
end of the respective years. The tonnage of vessels shown in the
table is that of steamers. Before 1896, the figures represented the
aggregate amount of both registered and unregistered tonnage,
while from that year up to 1902, the figures only represented
registered tonnage. In savings, the figures show the total amount
saved in the post offices as well in the savings banks at the end of
the respective years. The figures from 1890 to 1900 indicate,
however, the amounts of the postal savings only.
From the “Tōyō Keizai Shimpō” (Oriental Economist).
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOREIGN TRADE OF JAPAN
From the official statistics we give a table of Japan’s foreign trade
each year from 1868 to 1901, and for 1909.
Exports. Imports. Total.
Yen. Yen. Yen.
1868 15,553,472 870 10,693,071 790 26,246,544 660
1869 12,908,977 990 20,783,633 090 33,692,611 080
1870 14,543,012 510 33,741,637 360 48,284,649 870
1871 17,968,608 660 21,916,727 650 39,885,336 310
1872 17,026,647 220 26,174,814 930 43,201,462 150
1873 21,635,440 850 28,107,390 030 49,742,830 880
1874 19,317,306 090 23,461,814 400 42,779,120 490
1875 18,611,110 610 29,975,627 620 48,586,738 230
1876 27,711,527 500 29,964,678 960 51,676,206 460
1877 23,348,521 600 27,420,902 950 50,769,424 650
1878 25,988,140 280 32,874,834 170 58,862,974 450
1879 28,175,770 190 32,953,002 390 61,128,772 580
1880 28,395,386 660 36,626,601 000 65,021,987 660
1881 31,058,887 930 31,191,246 020 62,250,133 950
1882 37,721,750 570 29,446,593 980 67,168,344 550
1883 36,268,019 590 28,444,841 780 64,712,861 370
1884 33,871,465 500 29,672,647 450 63,544,112 950
1885 37,146,691 430 29,356,967 920 66,503,659 350
1886 48,876,312 790 32,168,432 260 81,044,745 050
1887 52,407,681 150 44,304,251 690 96,711,932 840
1888 65,705,510 210 65,455,234 010 131,160,744 220
1889 70,060,705 820 66,103,766 600 136,164,472 420
1890 56,603,506 030 81,728,580 500 138,332,086 530
1891 79,527,272 340 62,927,268 380 142,454,540 720
1892 91,102,753 630 71,326,079 500 162,428,833 130
1893 89,712,864 590 88,257,171 710 177,970,036 300
1894 113,246,086 150 117,481,955 460 230,728,041 610
1895 136,112,177 920 129,260,578 280 265,372,756 200
1896 177,842,700 620 171,674,474 250 289,517,234 870
1897 163,135,077 320 219,300,771 640 382,435,848 960
1898 165,753,752 880 277,502,156 510 443,255,909 390
1899 214,929,894 310 220,401,925 990 435,331,820 300
1900 204,429,998 980 287,261,845 680 491,691,839 560
1901 252,349,542 100 255,816,644 700 508,166,187 800
1909 413,112,511 .. 394,198,843 .. 807,311,354
Imports Compared with Exports.
Increase. Decrease.
Yen. Yen.
1868 ....... .. 4,860,401 080
1869 7,874,655
1870 19,198,624 850
1871 3,948,118 990
1872 9,148,167 710
1873 6,471,949 180
1874 4,144,508 310
1875 11,364,517 010
1876 ....... .. 3,746,848 540
 1877 4,072,381 850
1878 6,886,693 890
1879 4,777,232 200
1880 8,231,214 340
1881 132,358 090
1882 ...... .. 8,275,156 590
1883 ...... .. 7,823,177 810
1884 ...... .. 4,198,818 050
1885 ...... .. 7,789,723 510
1886 ...... .. 16,707,880 530
1887 ...... .. 8,103,429 460
1888 ...... .. 250,276 200
1889 ...... .. 3,966,939 220
1890 25,125,074 470
1891 ...... .. 16,600,003 960
1892 ...... .. 19,776,674 130
1893 ...... .. 1,455,692 880
1894 4,235,869 310
1895 ...... .. 6,851,599 640
1896 53,831,713 680
1897 56,165,694 320
1898 111,748,403 630
1899 5,472,031 680
1900 82,831,851 600
1901 3,467,101 600
=1909=
 The Wealth of Japan
The following estimate gives an idea of the wealth of Japan and
its distribution:—
Land 7,000 millions yen.
Mines 500 „ „
Live-stock 80 „ „
Buildings 1,900 „ „
Furniture 400 „ „
Railroads 350 „ „
Warships and merchant-ships 250 „ „
Specie 200 „ „
Miscellaneous 300 „ „
Goods and other products 800 „ „
Total 11,080 „ „

The output of gold in 1908 was 168,883 ounces.

On the position Japanese occupy as regards the acquisition of

wealth Mr. Kure Bunso, the well-known statistician, writes in the
“Shakaigaku Zasshi” as follows: There are only two men in Japan
who pay an income tax on over 250,000 yen. There are only 13 men
in the whole country who pay on 39,000 yen, being in the proportion
of 4 persons to every 100,000 inhabitants; only 67 who pay on
24,000 yen, being in the proportion of 2 persons to every 10,000
inhabitants; 96 persons who pay on 17,000 yen, being in the
proportion of 2.8 persons to every 10,000 inhabitants; those who
pay on 11,000 yen number 140, being in the proportion of 4 persons
to every 10,000 inhabitants. Out of every 1,000 inhabitants there are
only 7 persons who make 2,700 yen a year. Thus it is seen that
when compared with the French and the English the Japanese are
extremely poor. The Germans seem to be rich to the Japanese,
though when compared with the French and English they are poor.
General Grant, when in Japan nearly twenty years ago, remarked
that Japan was fortunate in having such an equality among all
classes of the people. He said that the gulf between the rich and the
poor did not exist here. Equality may be all very well in its way, but,
says Mr. Kure, a state of equality in which most of the people hardly
have enough to live on is anything but desirable.209

The new building of the Mitsui Company in Tōkyō is constructed

upon steel frames, and is the only one of its kind in the East. The
Mitsui Bank is the oldest banking establishment in Japan, more than
200 years old. The building area is 2,600 square yards on a site
covering 2½ acres.
 Japanese Year Periods
It should be borne in mind that the Japanese year periods do not
regularly correspond with the reigns of the Emperors, because “a
new one was chosen whenever it was deemed necessary to
commemorate an auspicious or ward off a malign event.” But
hereafter the era will correspond with the reign of an Emperor. The
names of some of these eras are quite famous, like the Elizabethan
or the Victorian Era in English history. As the first era was a time of
great reforms, it is known as the Taikwa Reformation; the Engi Era,
in the tenth century, is celebrated for important legislation; the
Genroku Era, in the seventeenth century, was “a period of great
activity in various arts”; and the Tempō Era, of recent days, was “the
last brilliant period of feudalism before its fall.” This name was also
given to the large 8 rin piece coined in that era. The Wadō Era, in
the fourteenth century, was so named on account of the discovery of
copper; and the second era, Hakuchi, commemorates a “white
pheasant,” presented to the Emperor.
 LIST OF JAPANESE YEAR PERIODS.210

Japanese Christian
Name.
Era.211 Era.
Taikwa 1305 645
Hakuchi 1310 650
(Blank) 1315-1331 655-671
Sujaku 1332 672
Hakuhō 1332 672
Shuchō 1346 686
(Blank) 1347-1360 687-700
Daihō [Taihō] 1361 701
Keiun 1364 704
Wadō 1368 708
Reiki 1375 715
Yōrō 1377 717
Jinki [Shinki] 1384 724
Tembiō 1389 729
Tembiō shōhō 1409 749
Tembiō hoji 1417 757
Tembiō jingo 1425 765
Jingo keiun 1427 767
Hōki 1430 770
Tenō 1441 781
Enriaku 1442 782
Daidō 1466 806
Kōnin 1470 810
Tenchō 1484 824
Jōwa [Shōwa] 1494 834
Kajō [Kashō] 1508 848
Ninju 1511 851
Saikō 1514 854
Tenan 1517 857
Jōgwan [Jōkwan] 1519 859
Gwangiō [Genkei] 1537 877
Ninna [Ninwa] 1545 885
Kwampei 1549 889
Shōtai 1558 898
Engi 1561 901
Enchō 1583 923
Jōhei [Shōhei] 1591 931
Tengiō [Tenkei] 1598 938
Tenriaku 1607 947
Tentoku 1617 957
Ōwa 1621 961
Kōhō 1624 964
Anna 1628 968
Tenroku 1630 970
Ten-en 1633 973
Jōgen 1636 976
Tengen 1638 978
Eikwan 1643 983
Kwanna 1645 985
Eien 1647 987
Eiso [Eisho] 1649 989
Shōriaku 1650 990
Chōtoku 1655 995
Chōhō 1659 999
Kwankō 1664 1004
Chōwa 1672 1012
Kwannin 1677 1017
Ji-an 1681 1021
Manju 1684 1024
Chōgen 1688 1028
Chōriaku 1697 1037
Chōkiū 1700 1040
Kwantoku 1704 1044
Eijō [Eishō] 1706 1046
Tengi [Tenki] 1713 1053
Kōhei 1718 1058
Jiriaku 1725 1065
Enkiū 1729 1069
Jōhō [Shōhō] 1734 1074
Jōriaku [Shōreki] 1737 1077
Eiho 1741 1081
Otoku 1744 1084
Kwanji 1747 1087
Kahō 1754 1094
Eichō 1756 1096
Jōtoku [Shōtoku] 1757 1097
Kōwa 1759 1099
Chōji 1764 1104
Kajō [Kashō] 1766 1106
Tennin 1768 1108
Tenei 1770 1110
Eikiū 1773 1113
Genei 1778 1118
Hōan 1780 1120
Tenji 1784 1124
Daiji 1786 1126
Tenjō [Tenshō] 1791 1131
Chōjō [Chōshō] 1792 1132
Hōen 1795 1135
Eiji 1801 1141
Kōji 1802 1142
Tenyō 1804 1144
Kiū-an 1805 1145
Nimbiō 1811 1151
Kiūju 1814 1154
Hōgen 1816 1156
Heiji 1819 1159
Eiriaku 1820 1160
Ōhō 1821 1161
Chōkwan 1823 1163
Eiman 1825 1165
Ninan 1826 1166
Ka-ō 1829 1169
Jō-an [Shōan] 1831 1171
Angen 1835 1175
Jishō 1837 1177
Yōwa 1841 1181
Ju-ei 1842 1182
Genriaku 1844 1184
Bunji 1845 1185
Kenkiū 1850 1190
Shōji 1859 1199
Kennin 1861 1201
Genkiū 1864 1204
Kenei 1866 1206
Jōgen [Shōgen] 1867 1207
Kenriaku 1871 1211
Kempō 1873 1213
Jōkiū [Shōkiū] 1879 1219
Jō-ō 1882 1222
Gennin 1884 1224
Karoku 1885 1225
Antei 1887 1227
Kwangi 1889 1229
Jō-ei 1892 1232
Tempuku 1893 1233
Bunriaku 1894 1234
Katei 1895 1235
Riakunin 1898 1238
En-o 1899 1239
Ninji 1900 1240
Kwangen 1903 1243
Hōji 1907 1247
Kenchō 1909 1249
Kōgen 1916 1256
Shōka 1917 1257
Shōgen 1919 1259
Bunō 1920 1260
Kōchō 1921 1261
Bunei 1924 1264
Kenji 1935 1275
Kōan 1938 1278
Shō-ō 1948 1288
Einin 1953 1293
Shōan 1959 1299
Kengen 1962 1302
Kagen 1963 1303
Tokuji 1966 1306
Enkiō [En-kei] 1968 1308
Ōchō 1971 1311
Shōwa 1972 1312
Bumpō 1977 1317
Gen-ō 1979 1319
Genkō 1981 1321
Shōchū 1984 1324
Kariaku 1986 1326
Gentoku 1989 1329
Shōkiō [Shōkei] 1992 1332
Kemmu 1994 1334
Rekiō 1998 1338212
Kōei 2002 1342212
Jōwa 2005 1345212
Kwanō 2010 1350212
Bunna 2012 1352212
Embun 2016 1356212
Kōan 2021 1361212
Jōji 2022 1362212
Ōan 2028 1368212
Eiwa 2035 1375212
Kōreki 2039 1379212
Eitoku 2041 1381212
Shitoku 2044 1384212
Kakei 2047 1387212
Koō 2049 1389212
Engen 1996 1336213
Kōkoku 2000 1340213
Shōhei 2006 1346213
Kentoku 2030 1370213
Bunchū 2032 1372213
Tenju 2035 1375213
Kōwa 2041 1381213
Genchū 2044 1384213
Meitoku 2050 1390
Ō-ei 2054 1394
Shōchō 2088 1428
Eikiō 2089 1429
Kakitsu 2101 1441
Bunan 2104 1444
Hōtoku 2109 1449
Kōtoku 2112 1452
Kōshō 2115 1455
Chōroku 2117 1457
Kwanshō 2120 1460
Bunshō 2126 1466
Ōnin 2127 1467
Bummei 2129 1469
Chōkō 2147 1487
Entoku 2149 1489
Mei-ō 2152 1492
Bunki 2161 1501
Eishō 2164 1504
Dai-ei [Taiei] 2181 1521
Kōroku 2188 1528
Tembun 2192 1532
Kōji 2215 1555
Eiroku 2218 1558
Genki 2230 1570
Tenshō 2233 1573
Bunroku 2252 1592
Keichō 2256 1596
Genna 2275 1615
Kwanei 2284 1624
Shōhō 2304 1644
Kei-an 2308 1648
Jō-ō [Shō-ō] 2312 1652
Meireki 2315 1655
Manji 2318 1658
Kwambun 2321 1661
Empō 2333 1673
Tenna 2341 1681
Jōkiō 2344 1684
Genroku 2348 1688
Hō-ei 2364 1704
Shōtōku 2371 1711
Kiōhō 2376 1716
Gembun 2396 1736
Kwampō 2401 1741
Enkiō 2404 1744
Kwannen 2408 1748
Hōreki 2411 1751
Meiwa 2424 1764
Anei 2432 1772
Temmei 2441 1781
Kwansei 2449 1789
Kiōwa 2461 1801
Bunkwa 2464 1804
Bunsei 2478 1818
Tempō 2490 1830
Kōkwa 2504 1844
Ka-ei 2508 1848
Ansei 2514 1854
Manen 2520 1860
Bunkiū 2521 1861
Genji 2524 1864
Kei-ō 2525 1865
Meiji 2528 1868
Taishō 2572 1912

The names of these periods are made by the various

combinations of 68 Chinese words of good omen.

There are, moreover, other expressions which more closely

resemble such common Occidental phrases as the Victorian Era, the
Elizabethan Era, the Age of Pericles, except that in the impersonal
Orient such expressions are named more often from places. In
Japanese history, for instance, it is very common to read of the Nara
Epoch, the Heian Epoch, the Muromachi Period, the Kamakura
Period, the Yedo Era, the Tōkyō Period (Modern Japan). Personal
names are applied, however, in such cases as the Hōjō Era, the
Ashikaga Period, the Tokugawa Era, the Fujiwara Period.
Chronological Table of Emperors and Empresses.214
1. Jimmu (660-585 b. c.)
 2. Suizei (581-549)
3. Annei (548-511)
4. Itoku (510-477)
5. Kōshō (475-393)
6. Kōan (392-291)
7. Kōrei (290-215)
8. Kōgen (214-158)
9. Kaikwa (157-98)
10. Sujin (97-30)
11. Suinin (29 b. c.-70 a. d.)
12. Keikō (71-130 a. d.)
13. Seimu (131-190)
14. Chūai-(192-200)
[15. Jingō214 (201-269)]
16. Ōjin (270-310)
17. Nintoku (313-399)
18. Richū (400-405)
19. Hanzei (406-411)
20. Ingyō (412-453)
21. Ankō (454-456)
22. Yūryaku (457-479)
23. Seinei (480-484)
24. Kensō (485-487)
25. Ninken (488-498)
26. Muretsu (499-506)
27. Keitai (507-531)
28. Ankan (534-535)
29. Senkwa (536-539)
30. Kimmei (540-571)
31. Bidatsu (572-585)
32. Yōmei (586-587)
33. Sujun (588-592)
34. Suiko (593-628)
35. Jomei (629-641)
36. Kōgyoku (642-645)
37. Kōtoku (645-654)
38. Saimei (655-661)
39. Tenchi (668-671)
40. Kōbun (672)
41. Temmu (673-686)
42. Jitō (690-696)
43. Mommu (697-707)
44. Gemmyō (708-715)
45. Genshō (715-723)
46. Shōmu (724-748)
47. Kōken (749-758)
48. Junnin (758-764)
49. Shōtoku (765-770)
50. Kōnin (770-781)
51. Kwammu (782-806)
52. Heizei (806-809)
53. Saga (809-823)
54. Junna (823-833)
55. Nimmyō (833-850)
56. Montoku (850-858)
57. Seiwa (859-876)
58. Yōzei (877-884)
59. Kōkō (884-887)
60. Uda (888-897)
61. Daigo (897-930)
62. Sujaku (931-946)
63. Murakami (946-967)
64. Reizei (968-969)
65. Enyū (970-984)
66. Kwazan (985-986)
67. Ichijō (987-1011)
68. Sanjō (1012-1016)
69. Go-Ichijō215 (1016-1036)
70. Go-Sujaku (1037-1045)
71. Go-Reizei (1045-1068)
72. Go-Sanjō (1068-1072)
73. Shirakawa (1073-10861
74. Horikawa (1087-1107)
75. Toba (1108-1123)
76. Sutoku (1123-1141)
77. Konoye (1142-1155)
78. Go-Shirakawa (1155-1158)
79. Nijō (1159-1165)
80. Rokujō (1165-1168)
 81. Takakura (1168-1180)
82. Antoku (1180-1185)
83. Go-Toba (1186-1198)
84. Tsuchimikado (1198-1210)
85. Juntoku (1211-1221)
86. Chūkyō (1221)
87. Go-Horikawa (1221-1232)
88. Shijō (1233-1242)
89. Go-Saga (1242-1246)
90. Go-Fukakusa (1246-1259)
91. Kameyama (1260-1274)
92. Go-Uda (1274-1287)
93. Fushimi (1288-1298)
94. Go-Fushimi (1298-1301)
95. Go-Nijo (1301-1308)
96. Hanazono (1308-1318)
97. Go-Daigo (1318-1338)
98. Go-Murakami (1339-1368)
[99. Chōkei (1368-1372)]
100. Go-Kameyama (1373-1392)
101. Go-Komatsu (1392-1412)
102. Shōkō (1412-1428)
103. Go-Hanazono (1428-1464)
104. Go-Tsuchimikado (1464-1500)
105. Go-Kashiwabara (1500-1526)
106. Go-Nara (1526-1557)
107. Ogimachi (1567-1586)
 108. Go-Yōzei (1587-1611)
109. Go-Mizuno-o (1612-1629)
110. Myōshō (1630-1643)
111. Go-Kōmyō (1643-1654)
112. Go-Saiin (1655-1663)
113. Reigen (1663-1687)
114. Higashiyama (1687-1709)
115. Nakano-mikado (1709-1735)
116. Sakuramachi (1735-1747)
117. Momozono (1747-1762)
118. Go-Sakuramachi (1762-1770)
119. Go-Momozono (1771-1779)
120. Kōkaku (1779-1817)
121. Ninkō (1817-1846)
122. Kōmei (1846-1867)
123. Mutsuhito (1867-1912)
124. Yoshihito (1912- )
N.B.—Nos. 36 and 38 were the same empress; likewise Nos. 47
and 49.
We append also a list of the sovereigns of the “Northern Court”
during the separation, as follows:
1. Kōgon (1331-1333)
2. Kōmyō (1336-1348)
3. Sukō (1349-1352)
4. Go-Kōgon (1352-1371)
5. Go-Enyu (1371-1382)
6. Go-Komatsu (1383-1392)
In 1392 Go-Komatsu became emperor over the reunited empire.
 Ministerial Changes in Japan
The following table shows the Cabinet changes that have taken
place since constitutional government was instituted:
Premier. Term of Office. Yrs. Mos.
Yamagata Dec. ’89-Apr. ’91 1 4
Matsukata May ’91-July ’92 1 2
Itō Aug. ’92-Aug. ’96 4 0
Matsukata Sept. ’96-Dec. ’97 1 3
Ito Jan. ’98-June ’98 0 5
Okuma-Itagaki June ’98-Oct. ’98 0 4
Yamagata Nov. ’98-Sept. ’00 1 10
Itō Oct. ’00-May ’01 0 7
Katsura June ’01-Dec. ’05 4 6
Saionji Jan. ’06-July ’08 2 6
Katsura July ’08-Aug. ’11 3 2
Saionji Sept. ’11-Dec. ’12 1 3
Katsura Dec. ’12-Feb. ’13 0 2
Yamamoto Feb. ’13-

In connection with this table, we wish to call attention to the fact

that the average duration of eleven Ministries is less than two years;
and that the average was considerably raised by the unusual length
of the two Ministries which covered the periods of the wars with
China and Russia, when political rivalries were buried. It is quite
probable that, if foreign wars had not occurred to unify the nation,
those Ministries would not have had a duration so greatly in excess
of the average, especially as, at the outbreak of the wars, party
feeling was running very high. In that case the general average
would have been reduced by an increase in the number of cabinets.
It should also be noticed that three of these Ministries (both
Matsukata and the second Itō) came to an end on account of
collision with the Diet, and that four Ministries (the Kuroda, the first
and third Itō, and the first party Cabinet of Ōkuma and Itagaki) were
broken up by internal dissensions; and the last Katsura (February,
1913) was forced out by popular revolt.