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CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Systems Analysis and Design.

1. Compare and contrast phases, steps, techniques and deliverables.

The Systems Development Life Cycle “SDLC” has a set of four fundamental phases:
planning, analysis, design, and implementation. Different projects may emphasize
different parts of the SDLC or approach the SDLC phases in different ways, but all
projects have elements of these four phases.

Each phase is itself composed of a series of steps, which rely upon techniques that
produce deliverables (specific documents and files that provide understanding about
the project).

Example: When you apply for admission to a university, there are several phases that
all students go through: information gathering, applying, and accepting. Each of these
phases has steps—information gathering includes steps like searching for schools,
requesting information, and reading brochures. Students then use techniques (e.g.,
Internet searching) that can be applied to steps (e.g., requesting information) to create
deliverables (e.g., evaluations of different aspects of universities).

2. Describe the major phases in the systems development life cycle (SDLC).
There are four major phases in SDLC.

a) Planning: The Planning phase is the fundamental process of understanding

why an information system should be built and determining how the project
team will go about building it.

b) Analysis: The Analysis phase answers the questions of who will use the
system, what the system will do, and where and when it will be used. During
this phase, the project team investigates any current system(s), identifies
improvement opportunities, and develops a concept for the new system.

c) Design: The design phase decides how the system will operate, in terms of
the hardware, software, and network infrastructure; the user interface, forms
and reports; and the specific programs, databases, and files that will be
needed.

d) Implementation: The final phase in the SDLC is the implementation phase,

during which the system is actually built (or purchased, in the case of a
packaged software design). This is the phase that usually gets the most
attention, because for most systems it is longest and most expensive single
part of the development process.

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3. Describe the principal steps in the planning phase. What are the major
deliverables

The planning phase is the fundamental process of understanding why an information

system should be built and determining how the project team will go about building
it. It has two steps:

1. Project Initiation: This step involves the identification of the system’s

business value. A system request presents a brief summary of a business need,
and it explains how a system that supports the need will create business value.
The IS department works together with the person or department that
generated the request (called the project sponsor) to conduct a feasibility
analysis. The feasibility analysis examines key aspects of the proposed project
like the technical feasibility, economic feasibility and organizational
feasibility

2. Project Management: Once the project is approved, it enters—project

management. During project management, the project manager creates a work
plan, staffs the project, and puts techniques in place to help the project team
control and direct the project through the entire SDLC. The deliverable for
project management is a project plan that describes how the project team will
go about developing the system.

4. Describe the principal steps in the analysis phase. What are the major
deliverables?

The analysis phase answers the questions of who will use the system, what the system
will do, and where and when it will be used. During this phase, the project team
investigates any current system(s), identifies improvement opportunities, and
develops a concept for the new system. This phase has three steps:

1. Analysis Strategy: Developed to guide the project team’s efforts. Such a

strategy usually includes an analysis of the current system (as-is system) and
its problems, and then ways to design a new system (to-be system).

2. Requirements Gathering: The analysis of this information—in conjunction

with input from project sponsor and many other people—leads to the
development of a concept for a new system. The system concept is then used
as a basis to develop a set of business analysis models that describes how the
business will operate if the new system were developed.

3. System Proposal: The analyses, system concept, and models are combined
into a document called the system proposal, which is presented to the project
sponsor and other key decision makers.

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The system proposal is the initial deliverable that describes what business
requirements the new system should meet. This is really the first step in the design of
the new system.

5. Describe the principal steps in the design phase. What are the major
deliverables?

The design phase decides how the system will operate, in terms of the hardware,
software and network infrastructure; the user interface, forms and reports; and the
specific programs, databases, and files that will be needed. The design phase has four
steps:

1. Developing design strategy: This clarifies whether the system will be

developed by the company’s own programmers, whether it will be outsourced
to another firm (usually a consulting firm), or whether the company will buy
an existing software package.

2. Basic architecture design: This describes the hardware, software, and network
infrastructure that will be used. In most cases, the system will add or change
the infrastructure that already exists in the organization.

3. Database and file specifications: These define exactly what data will be
stored and where they will be stored.

4. Program Design: The analyst team develops the program design, which
defines the programs that need to be written and exactly what each program
will do.

This collection of deliverables (architecture design, interface design, database and file
specifications, and program design) is the system specification that is handed to the
programming team for implementation. At the end of the design phase, the feasibility
analysis and project plan are reexamined and revised, and another decision is made by
the project sponsor and approval committee about whether to terminate the project or
continue.

6. Describe the principal steps in the implementation phase. What are the major
deliverables?

The final phase in the SDLC is the implementation phase, during which the system is
actually built (or purchased, in the case of a packaged software design). This phase
has three steps:

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1. System construction: The system is built and tested to ensure it performs as

designed. Since the cost of bugs can be immense, testing is one of the most
critical steps in implementation.

2. Installation: This is the process by which the old system is turned off and the
new one is turned on. It may include a direct cutover approach, a parallel
conversion approach, or a phased conversion strategy.

3. Support plan: This plan usually includes a formal or informal post-

implementation review, as well as a systematic way for identifying major and
minor changes needed for the system.

7. What are the roles of a project sponsor and the approval committee?

Project sponsor: Project Sponsor could be represented either by an individual or a

department or a team. The project sponsor is from where the request is generated.
They are basically involved through out the various phases of the SDLC.

a. The IS department works hand in hand with the project sponsor to

conduct a feasibility analysis, be it a technical, organizational or an
economical feasibility.

b. During the Analysis phase the project team investigates any current
system, identifies improvement opportunities and develops a concept
for the new system in conjunction with the input from the project
sponsor.

c. At the end of the design phase the feasibility analysis and the project
plan are reexamined and revised and the decision whether the project
is to continue or terminated is made by the project sponsor along with
the approval committee.

d. The key deliverables for each phase are typically very long and are
presented to the project sponsor for approval as the project moves
from phase to phase.

e. The project sponsor approves the key deliverables for each phase only
after which the project moves from phase to phase.

f. The project sponsor along with the users provides valuable comments
which are used to re-analyze, re-design and re-implement a second
prototype which provides few more features.

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Approval Committee: Sometimes referred to as the steering committee is the final

decision maker regarding the fate of the project after carefully reviewing the system
request, feasibility analysis, system proposal etc.

a) In planning phase after feasibility analysis the approval committee decides

whether the project should be undertaken.

b) After Analysis the system proposal is forwarded to the approval committee to

decide whether the project should continue to move forward

c) During the Design phase the feasibility analysis and project plan are reexamined
and the approval committee will decide whether to terminate or continue with the
project

8. What does gradual refinement mean in context of SDLC?

Generally, the clarity of understanding and the depth of detail of the new system are
gradually refined during the phases of the SDLC. Initially, the requirements are only
vaguely understood. This understanding is improved during the Analysis phase.
Further detail is developed during Design, and then is fully expressed during
Implementation.

9. Compare and contrast process-centered methodologies with data-centered

methodologies.

Process-centered methodologies: Process-centered methodologies emphasize process

models as the core of the system concept.
Example: Process-centered methodologies would focus first on defining the processes
(e.g., assemble sandwich ingredients).

Data-centered methodologies: Data-centered methodologies emphasize data models

as the core of the system concept.
Example: Data centered methodologies would focus first on defining the contents of
the storage areas (e.g., refrigerator) and how the contents were organized.

10. Compare and contrast structured-design based methodologies in general to

RAD-based methodologies in general.

Structured design methodologies are usually fairly formal, step-by-step approaches to

systems development. The project moves through the phases in a systematic way. The
emphasis in most of these methodologies is development of paper-based
specifications for the new system prior to implementation. RAD methodologies, on
the other hand, tend to emphasize quick creation of a limited-capability version of the

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system or a model of the system. These methodologies focus on refining this

preliminary system or model rather than trying to fully describe it on paper prior to
implementation.

11. Compare and contrast extreme programming and throwaway prototyping.

Extreme programming (XP): Extreme Programming is founded on four core values

which provide a foundation on which XP developers use to create any system. The
four core values are Communication, Simplicity, Feedback and Courage.

Throwaway Prototyping: Throwaway prototyping-based methodologies balance the

benefits of well thought out analysis and design phases with the advantages of using
prototypes to refine key issues before a system is built. Each of these issues is
examined by analyzing, designing, and building a design prototype.

12. Describe the major elements and issues with waterfall development.

Waterfall Development follows the phases of the life cycle in sequence (Planning,
Analysis, Design, and Implementation). Each phase is thoroughly documented and
approval is required before proceeding to the subsequent phase. It is difficult, though
not impossible, to go backwards in the SDLC under Waterfall Development.

Waterfall Development requires that the system requirements be precisely specified

prior to implementation and also often "freezes" those requirements during
development. The high degree of effort devoted to specifying user requirements is a
strength of Waterfall Development but specifying those requirements on paper is
laborious and may lead to errors and omissions. "Freezing" the requirements during
development helps assure that the system is developed according to specifications,
but in a dynamic business environment, the system that is ultimately developed may
bear little resemblance to what is actually needed at the time the project is completed.
Therefore, extensive maintenance may be needed after implementation to revise the
system to meet current conditions.

The two key advantages of the structured design waterfall approach are that:

 It identifies system requirements long before programming begins

 It minimizes changes to the requirements as the project proceeds.

The two key disadvantages are that:

a. The design must be completely specified before programming begins.

b. A long time elapses between the completion of the system proposal in the
analysis phase and the delivery of the system.

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13. Describe the major elements and issues with parallel development

The parallel development methodology attempts to address the problem of long

delays between the analysis phase and the delivery of the system. Instead of doing
design and implementation in sequence, it performs a general design for the whole
system and then divides the project into a series of distinct subprojects that can be
designed and implemented in parallel. Once all subprojects are complete, there is a
final integration of the separate pieces, and the system is delivered

The major issues in this approach are that it still suffers from problems caused by
paper documents. It also adds a new problem such as sometimes the subprojects are
not completely independent; design decisions made in one subproject may affect
another, and the end of the project may require significant integration efforts.

14. Describe the major elements and issues with phased development.

Phased Development is a RAD methodology that does not attempt to develop the
complete system initially. Instead, the system is generally specified. User
requirements are organized into a series of versions. The first version includes the
essential system components and is delivered to the users quickly. Subsequent
versions add features and refinements to the system based on the initial specification
plus the users' feedback and reaction to using the system.

The critical issue with Phased Development is to accurately specify the initial
requirements so that the first version provided to the users is useful, although
incomplete. If this is done well, Phased Development will provide value to the
organization by getting the users a system to use quickly. New requirements may be
identified through user feedback as well, which improves the "fit" of the system to the
business needs.

15. Describe the major elements and issues with prototyping.

A prototyping-based methodology performs the analysis, design, and implementation

phases concurrently, and all three phases are performed repeatedly in a cycle until the
system is completed. Prototype is usually the first part of the system that the user will
use and the key advantage of a prototyping-based methodology is that it very quickly
provides a system for the users to interact with, even if it is not ready for widespread
organizational use at first.

The major problem with prototyping is that its fast-paced system releases challenge
attempts to conduct careful, methodical analysis. Often the prototype undergoes such
significant changes that many initial design decisions become poor ones. This can

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cause problems in the development of complex systems because fundamental issues

and problems are not recognized until well into the development process.

Example: Imagine building a car and discovering late in the prototyping process that
you have to take the whole engine out to change the oil (because no one thought
about the need to change the oil until after it had been driven 10,000 miles).

16. Describe the major elements and issues with throwaway-prototyping.

In throw-away prototyping, there is a more careful and rigorous analysis performed as

compared to Prototyping (more similar to the traditional SDLC). However, in the
Design phase, models of various elements of the system are developed to help explore
design alternatives and refine system requirements. These prototypes help users
clarify their needs, options, and priorities. Once user requirements are established
through reaction to the design prototype, it is discarded; however, the requirements it
embodied are incorporated into the new system.

Throw-away prototyping is very useful in situations where users are uncertain about
key elements of the system. Throw-away prototypes can help focus users on design
issues and improve understanding of business needs. The approach helps create a
system that suits the users needs even though those needs may have been poorly
understood initially.

17. What are the key factors in selecting a methodology?

There are several factors that influence the choice of a methodology:

 Clarity of the user requirements

 Familiarity with the base technology
 System complexity
 Need for system reliability
 Time pressures &
 Need to see progress on the time schedule.

18. What are the major roles on a project team?

Business analyst: Emphasis on the business issues addressed by the system: value of
new system; identification of problems and opportunities; revision of business
processes and policies.

Systems analyst: Emphasis on IS issues of the system: how IT can be used to support
business processes; design of new business process and IS; and enforcement of IS
standards.

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Infrastructure analyst: Technical issues associated with integrating new system

components to existing technical infrastructure. Change management analyst -
emphasis on facilitating organizational adaptation to new system. Helping to identify
and overcome resistance to change and assuring adequate training and documentation
of new system.

Project manager: Ensuring that progress is made on the project: time schedules and
budgets are met; supervision of project team; and manage relations with project
sponsor and users.

19. Compare and contrast the role of a systems analyst, business analyst, and
infrastructure analyst.

These three roles emphasize different perspectives on the system. The business
analyst represents the sponsor/users interests, while the systems analyst knows how to
apply IS to support business needs. Together, the systems analyst and the business
analyst can design a system that conforms to the IS standards while adding value to
the business. The infrastructure analyst has more technical knowledge and provides
the team with technical constraints, or identifies infrastructure changes that the new
system will require.

System Analyst: A System Analysts role is to:

 Identifying how technology can improve business processes

 Designing the new business processes
 Designing the information system
 Ensuring that the system conforms to information systems standards

Business Analyst: A Business Analyst’s role is to:

 Analyzing the key business aspects of the system

 Identifying how the system will provide business value
 Designing the new business processes and policies

Infrastructure Analyst: The Infrastructure Analyst’s role is to:

 Ensuring the system conforms to infrastructure standards

 Identifying infrastructure changes needed to support the system

20. Which phase in the SDLC is most important and why?

All systems development projects follow essentially the same fundamental process
called the system development life cycle (SDLC). The planning phase in SDLC is the

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most important phase because during this phase the project team identifies the
business value of the system, conducts a feasibility analysis, and plans the project.
This phase is the fundamental process of understanding why an information system
should be built and determining how the project team will go about building it.

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