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 Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 C ontents

Preface xv

Module 1
Introduction to Database Management 1
Introduction1
JC Consulting Company Background 1
Selecting a Database Solution 4
Defining Database Terminology 4
Storing Data 5
Identifying Database Management Systems 11
Advantages of a Properly Designed Relational Database  14
Key Factors for a Healthy Relational Database  15
Big Data 16
Preparing for a Career in Database Administration and Data Analysis 16
Introduction to the Pitt Fitness Database Case 16
Introduction to the Sports Physical Therapy Database Case 20
Summary24
Key Terms 24
Module Review Questions 25
Problems25
Critical Thinking Questions 26
JC Consulting Case Exercises 26
Problems26
Critical Thinking Questions 27
Pitt Fitness Case Exercises 27
Problems27
Critical Thinking Questions 29
Sports Physical Therapy Case Exercises 29
Problems29
Critical Thinking Questions 30

Module 2
The Relational Model: Introduction, QBE, and Relational Algebra 31
Introduction31
Examining Relational Databases 31
Relational Database Shorthand 35
Creating Simple Queries and Using Query-By-Example 36
Selecting Fields and Running the Query 37
Saving and Using Queries 38
Using Simple Criteria 40
Parameter Queries 41
Comparison Operators 42
Using Compound Criteria 42
Creating Computed Fields 46
Summarizing with Aggregate Functions and Grouping 49
Sorting Records 52
Sorting on Multiple Keys 54
Joining Tables 56
Joining Multiple Tables 60
Using an Update Query 62
Using a Delete Query 63
Using a Make-Table Query 64
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 Contents

Optimizing Queries 65
viii
Examining Relational Algebra 65
Selection66
Projection66
Joining67
Union69
Intersection70
Difference70
Product71
Division71
Summary72
Key Terms 73
Module Review Questions 74
Problems74
Critical Thinking Questions 75
JC Consulting Case Exercises: QBE 76
Problems76
Critical Thinking Questions 77
JC Consulting Case Exercises: Relational Algebra 77
Problems77
Pitt Fitness Case Exercises 79
Problems79
Critical Thinking Questions 80
Sports Physical Therapy Case Exercises 81
Problems81
Critical Thinking Questions 82

Module 3
The Relational Model: SQL 83
Introduction83
Getting Started with SQL 84
Opening an SQL Query Window in Access 84
Changing the Font and Font Size in SQL View 85
Creating a Table  85
Naming Conventions 85
Data Types 86
Selecting Data 88
Numeric Criteria 90
Text Criteria 91
Date Criteria 93
Comparing Two Fields 94
Saving SQL Queries 94
Using Compound Conditions: AND Criteria 95
Using Compound Conditions: OR Criteria 95
Using the BETWEEN Operator 96
Using the NOT Operator 98
Creating Calculated Fields 99
Using Wildcards and the LIKE Operator 101
Using the IN Operator 102
Sorting Records 102
Sorting on Multiple Fields 103
Using Aggregate Functions 104
Grouping Records 105
Limiting Records with the HAVING clause 107
Writing Subqueries 108
Joining Tables with the WHERE Clause 109
Joining More Than Two Tables with the WHERE Clause 111
Using the UNION Operator 112

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 Contents 

Updating Values with the SQL UPDATE Command 113

ix
Inserting a Record with the SQL INSERT Command 114
Deleting Records with the SQL DELETE Command 116
Saving Query Results as a Table 117
Developing Career Skills: SQL 118
Accessing Free SQL Tutorials 118
Summary119
Key Terms 120
Module Review Questions 120
Problems120
Critical Thinking Question 122
JC Consulting Case Exercises 122
Problems122
Critical Thinking Questions 124
Pitt Fitness Case Exercises 124
Problems124
Critical Thinking Questions 126
Sports Physical Therapy Case Exercises 126
Problems126
Critical Thinking Questions 129

Module 4
The Relational Model: Advanced Topics 131
Introduction131
Creating and Using Views 131
Using Indexes 134
Examining Database Security Features 137
Preventing Unauthorized Access 138
Safely Distributing Information 139
Providing Physical Security 139
Enforcing Integrity Rules 139
Entity Integrity 139
Referential Integrity 140
Cascade Options 142
Legal-Values Integrity 143
Changing the Structure of a Relational Database 144
Adding a New Field to a Table 144
Modifying Field Properties 145
Deleting a Field 146
Deleting a Table 146
Using SQL JOIN Commands 147
LEFT Joins 149
RIGHT Joins 150
Applying Referential Integrity: Error Messages 152
Applying Referential Integrity: Null Values 153
Using the System Catalog 153
Using Stored Procedures and Triggers 154
Triggers154
Career Skills: Database Administrators 157
Summary158
Key Terms 159
Module Review Questions 159
Problems159
Critical Thinking Question 161
JC Consulting Case Exercises 161
Problems161
Critical Thinking Questions 162

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 Contents

Pitt Fitness Case Exercises 162

x
Problems162
Critical Thinking Questions 164
Sports Physical Therapy Case Exercises 164
Problems164
Critical Thinking Questions 166

Module 5
Database Design: Normalization 167
Introduction167
Case Study: Faculty/Student Advising Assignments 167
Data Modification Anomalies 168
Functional Dependence 170
Keys171
First Normal Form 171
Atomic Values 173
Breaking Out Atomic Values Using Query Design View 173
Creating a Blank Database with Access 174
Importing Excel Data into an Access Database 174
Algorithms175
Creating Fields 178
Creating New Fields in Table Design View 178
Updating Fields 179
Updating Field Values Using Query Design View 179
Creating the 1NF Table 181
Creating a New Table in Query Design View 181
Using Atomic Values for Quantities 183
Finding Duplicate Records 184
Finding Duplicate Records in Query Design View 184
Second Normal Form 186
Benefits of Normalization 190
Third Normal Form 190
Fourth Normal Form 191
Creating Lookup Tables in Query Design View 192
Beyond Fourth Normal Form 194
Summary  196
Key Terms 196
Module Review Questions 197
Problems197
Critical Thinking Questions 198
JC Consulting Case Exercises 198
Problems198
Critical Thinking Questions 199
Pitt Fitness Case Exercises 200
Problems200
Critical Thinking Questions 202
Sports Physical Therapy Case Exercises 202
Problems202
Critical Thinking Questions 205

Module 6
Database Design: Relationships 207
Introduction207
User Views 208
Documenting a Relational Database Design 209
Database Design Language (DBDL) 209
Setting Keys and Indexes 211

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 Contents 

Entity-Relationship (E-R) Diagrams 213

xi
Crow’s Foot Notation 214
Microsoft Access E-R Diagram in the Relationships window 215
The Entity-Relationship Model (ERM) 217
Exploring One-to-Many Relationships in Access 220
Table Datasheet View 220
Subdatasheets221
Lookup Properties 222
Subforms225
Working with One-to-Many Relationships in Query Datasheet View 225
Other Relationship Types 229
One-to-One Relationships 229
Many-to-Many Relationships 232
Summary235
Key Terms 235
Module Review Questions 236
Problems236
Critical Thinking Questions 237
JC Consulting Case Exercises 237
Problems237
Critical Thinking Questions 238
Pitt Fitness Case Exercises 238
Problems238
Critical Thinking Questions 239
Sports Physical Therapy Case Exercises 239
Problems239
Critical Thinking Questions 240

Module 7
Database Management Systems Processes and Services 241
Introduction241
Create, Read, Update, and Delete Data 242
Provide Catalog Services 243
Catalog Services in Microsoft Access 243
Catalog Services in Enterprise Database Management Systems 244
Support Concurrent Updates 244
Concurrent Updates in Microsoft Access 244
Concurrent Updates in Enterprise Database Management Systems 245
Recover Data 246
Recovering Data in Microsoft Access 246
Recovering Data in Enterprise Database Management Systems  247
Forward Recovery 248
Backward Recovery 249
Provide Security Services 250
Encryption250
Authentication250
Authorization250
Views250
Privacy250
Provide Data Integrity Features 251
Support Data Independence 252
Adding a Field 252
Changing the Property of a Field 252
Managing Indexes 252
Changing the Name of a Field, Table, or View 252
Adding or Changing a Relationship 252
Support Data Replication 253
Summary254
Key Terms 254
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 Contents

Module Review Questions 255

xii
Problems255
Critical Thinking Questions 256
JC Consulting Case Exercises 256
Problems256
Critical Thinking Questions 257
Pitt Fitness Case Exercises 257
Problems257
Critical Thinking Questions 259
Sports Physical Therapy Case Exercises 259
Problems259
Critical Thinking Questions 260

Module 8
Database Industry Careers 261
Introduction261
Careers in the Database Industry 261
Role of a Database Administrator 262
Duties and Responsibilities of a DBA 262
Database Policy Formulation and Enforcement 263
Access Privileges 263
Security264
Disaster Planning 264
Archiving265
Database Technical Functions 266
Database Design 266
SQL and Views 266
Testing267
Performance Tuning 267
DBMS Maintenance 267
Database Administrative Functions 268
Data Dictionary Management 268
Training268
Professionals Reporting to the DBA 268
Responsibilities of a Data Analyst 270
Responsibilities of a Data Scientist 270
Database Industry Certifications 271
Summary274
Key Terms 274
Module Review Questions 275
Problems275
Critical Thinking Questions 276
JC Consulting Case Exercises 276
Problems276
Critical Thinking Questions 276
Pitt Fitness Case Exercises 277
Problems277
Critical Thinking Questions 278
Sports Physical Therapy Case Exercises 278
Problems278
Critical Thinking Questions 279

Module 9
Database Industry Trends 281
Introduction281
Database Architectures 281
Centralized Approach 281
Cloud Computing 283
Personal Computer Revolution  284
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 Contents 

Client/Server Architecture 286

xiii
Access and Client/Server Architecture 286
Three-Tier Client/Server Architecture 287
Data Warehouses 289
Online Analytical Processing (OLAP) 289
Codd’s Rules for OLAP Systems 292
Current OLAP Vendors 292
Distributed Databases 293
Rules for Distributed Databases 293
Summary of Current Database Architecture Implementations  293
Selecting a Relational Database System 294
Software Solution Stacks 297
NoSQL Database Management Systems 299
Object-Oriented Database Management Systems 300
Rules for Object-Oriented Database Management Systems 301
Big Data 302
Google Analytics 302
Data Formats 303
XML304
JSON306
Data Visualization Tools  307
Visualization Tools in Microsoft Excel 307
Microsoft Power BI 309
Tableau309
Summary311
Key Terms 311
Module Review Questions 313
Problems313
Critical Thinking Questions 314
JC Consulting Case Exercises 314
Problems314
Critical Thinking 315
Pitt Fitness Case Exercises 315
Problems315
Critical Thinking Questions 316
Sports Physical Therapy Case Exercises 317
Problems317
Critical Thinking Questions 318

Appendix A
Comprehensive Design Example: Douglas College 319
Douglas College Requirements 319
General Description 319
Report Requirements 319
Update (Transaction) Requirements 323
Douglas College Information-Level Design 323
Final Information-Level Design 340
Exercises341

Appendix B
SQL Reference 349
Alter Table 349
Column or Expression List (Select Clause) 349
Computed Fields 350
Functions350
Conditions350
Simple Conditions 350
Compound Conditions 350
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 Contents

BETWEEN Conditions 351

xiv
LIKE Conditions 351
IN Conditions 351
CREATE INDEX 351
CREATE TABLE 352
CREATE VIEW 352
DATA TYPES 353
DELETE ROWS 353
DROP INDEX 354
DROP TABLE 354
GRANT354
INSERT354
INTEGRITY355
JOIN355
REVOKE356
SELECT356
SELECT INTO 357
SUBQUERIES357
UNION358
UPDATE358

Appendix C
FAQ Reference 359

Appendix D
Introduction To MysqL  361
Introduction361
Downloading and Installing Mysql361
Running Mysql Workbench and Connecting to Mysql Server 365
Opening an Sql File In Mysql Workbench 366
Running an Sql Script in Mysql Workbench 367
Refreshing Schemas in Mysql Workbench 367
Viewing Table Data in Mysql Workbench 367
Writing Sql in Mysql Workbench 368
Practicing With Mysql Workbench 369
Summary370
Key Terms 370

Appendix E
A Systems Analysis Approach to Information-Level Requirements 371
Introduction371
Information Systems 371
System Requirement Categories 372
Output Requirements 372
Input Requirements 372
Processing Requirements 373
Technical and Constraining Requirements 373
Determining System Requirements 373
Interviews373
Questionnaires374
Document Collection 374
Observation374
Research374
Transitioning From Systems Analysis to Systems Design 374
Key Terms 375
Critical Thinking Questions 375

Glossary377
Index 391
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 P r eface

ABOUT THIS BOOK

This book is intended for anyone who is interested in the database industry. As a textbook, it is appropriate
for business and computer science students in an introductory database concepts course. Traditional database
concepts such as data normalization, table relationships, and SQL are thoroughly covered. Emerging database
concepts and trends are explained using realistic, current, and practical examples. Anyone who is currently
managing or using an existing database will find the book helpful, given that it describes database best
practices and how to create and leverage the benefits of a healthy database. Anyone wanting to enter the
database industry will enjoy the book given that both traditional and new careers in the field are carefully
explored.
This book assumes that students have some familiarity with computers such as solid Microsoft Office and
file and folder management skills. Students do not need to have a background in programming, only a desire
and curiosity to learn about how to harness the power of databases.

CHANGES TO THE TENTH EDITION

The Tenth Edition includes the following new features and content:
• Full-color screen shots using Access 2019.
• Extensive coverage of the relational model, including hands-on exercises that guide students
through the data ­normalization process, how to build relationships, how to query a database
using a QBE tool, and how to write SQL (Structured Query Language) to create, update, and
select data from a relational database.
• Hands-on exercises for creating and using Microsoft Access data macros to accomplish the simi-
lar functionality to SQL triggers.
• A new module on careers for those interested in database administration, data analysis, data sci-
ence, and other related careers in the database industry.
• General information about current trends in database management systems, including the man-
agement of “big data,” object-oriented database management systems, NoSQL systems, data-
driven web apps, and popular software application stacks.
• A new case study, JC Consulting, a web development and data consulting company, used to illus-
trate skills within each module.
• An updated end-of-module case study, Pitt Fitness.
• Updated exercises for Sports Physical Therapy, the second end-of-module case study.
• New critical-thinking questions and exercises that reinforce problem-solving and analytical skills.
• New data files if using MySQL with the database cases.
• An updated appendix to guide users through the installation of MySQL.

MindTap Features

• Integration with SAM and SAM projects, Cengage’s leading-edge, hands-on skills assessment
management system. These activities provide auto-grading and feedback of students’ mastery of
Microsoft Access.
• Module quiz evaluates students’ understanding of foundational database concepts in each
module.
• Quick Lesson concept videos dig deeper into database concepts and innovations to improve stu-
dents’ comprehension.
• Candid Career videos highlight database and data-focused career paths to inform students of var-
ious careers and ways to apply their database skills.

Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface

xvi ORGANIZATION OF THE TEXTBOOK AND KEY FEATURES

Updated Case Studies
Module 1 covers essential database terminology and examines the benefits of and key factors for a healthy
relational database system. It also introduces the JC Consulting, Pitt Fitness, and Sports Physical Therapy
case studies and databases that are used throughout the textbook and end-of-module exercises.

Detailed Coverage of the Relational Model, Query-By-Example (QBE), and SQL

Module 2 includes in-depth, hands-on exercises to select and summarize data from a relational database using
Access’s QBE (Query By Example), Query Design View. Module 2 also covers relational algebra, foundational
information for SQL. Module 3 is an in-depth look at selecting and summarizing data with SQL. Module 4
covers advanced topics for the relational model such as indexes, data integrity, security, inner and outer joins,
triggers, and data macros.

Normalization Coverage
Module 5 dives into the data normalization process, taking a new list of nonnormalized data from first to
second to third (Boyce-Codd normal form) to fourth normal form using hands-on exercises. The module
describes the update anomalies associated with lower normal forms. Access queries and tools are used to take
the data through the normalization process. Access is used to create new, normalized tables, data is analyzed
and updated, fields and data types are properly defined, primary and foreign key fields are created, and lookup
tables are created.

Database Design
Module 6 continues the process of building a healthy relational database by focusing on table relationships,
again using hands-on exercises to illustrate the concepts. Database Design Language (DBDL), E-R diagrams,
and entity-relationship models are all used to document and implement one-to-many relationships between
the tables of data that were properly normalized in Module 5.

Functions Provided by a Database Management System

Module 7 covers traditional database management processes and concerns such as the data recovery
processes, security issues, data integrity and concurrency issues, data replication, and database
documentation features.

Careers in the Database Industry

Module 8 explores the jobs and careers in the database industry starting with the traditional career of a
database administrator (DBA), as well as the emerging areas of data analysts and data scientists. Valuable
educational credentials and industry certifications are identified.

Trends
Module 9 compares and contrasts historical mainframe database management systems with current
data management trends such as distributed database management systems, client/server systems, data
warehouses, object-oriented database management systems, web access to databases, XML, and JSON.

Teaching Tools
When this book is used in an academic setting, instructors may obtain the following teaching tools from
Cengage Learning through their sales representative or by visiting www.cengage.com:
• Instructor’s Manual. The Instructor’s Manual includes suggestions and strategies for using this
text. It includes many ideas for classroom activities and graded projects.
For instructors who want to use an Access text as a companion to the Tenth Edition,
­consider Microsoft Access 2019: Comprehensive by Friedrichsen, also published by Cengage.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface

• Data and Solution Files. Data and solution files are available at www.cengage.com. Data files
xvii
consist of copies of the JC Consulting, Pitt Fitness, and Sports Physical Therapy databases that
are usable in Access 2010, Access 2013, Access 2016, Access 2019, and script files to create the
tables and data in these databases in other systems, such MySQL.
• PowerPoint Presentations. Microsoft PowerPoint slides are included for each module as a t­ eaching
aid for classroom presentations, to make available to students on a network for module review, or to
be printed for classroom distribution. Instructors can add their own slides for ­additional topics they
introduce to the class. The presentations are available at www.cengagebrain.com.
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero is a flexible, online system that allows you to:
• author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple Cengage Learning solutions
• create multiple test versions in an instant
• deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want

GENERAL NOTES TO THE STUDENT

Within each major section, special questions or “Your Turn” exercises have been embedded. Sometimes the
purpose of these exercises is to ensure that you understand crucial material before you proceed. In other
cases, the questions are designed to stretch your understanding into real world application of the concepts.
Read the question or exercise, try to answer the question or complete the exercise on your own, and then
compare your work against the answer that is provided.
You also will find complementary SAM projects in MindTap, which allow you to apply the concepts
learned in a meaningful hands-on project. These critical thinking exercises help you solidify the process and
well as solve the problem.
The end-of-module material consists of a summary, a list of key terms, review questions, and exercises
for the JC Consulting, Pitt Fitness, and Sports Physical Therapy databases. The summary briefly describes the
material covered in the module. The review questions require you to recall and apply the important material
in the module. Review questions and exercises include critical-thinking questions to challenge your problem-
solving and analytical skills.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to acknowledge all of the talented professionals who made contributions during the creation
of this book. We also want to thank those professors and students who use this book to teach and learn. Stay
curious!

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Module 1
Introduction to Database
Management
L E ARN I NG O B J E CT I V E S

• Examine JC Consulting (JCC), the company used for many of the examples throughout the text
• Define basic database terminology
• Describe database management systems (DBMSs)
• Explain the advantages and key factors for a healthy relational database system
• Prepare for a career in database administration
• Review Pitt Fitness, a company used in a case that appears at the end of each module
• Review Sports Physical Therapy, a company used in another case that appears at the end of
each module

Introduction
In this module, you will examine the requirements of JC Consulting (JCC), a company that will be used
in many examples in this text. You will learn how JCC initially stored its data, what problems employees
encountered with that storage method, and why management decided to employ a database management
system (DBMS). You will also study the basic terminology and concepts of relational databases, database
management systems, and big data. You will learn the advantages and key factors of a properly designed
relational database. Finally, you will examine the database requirements for Pitt Fitness and Sports Physical
Therapy, the companies featured in the cases that appear at the end of each module.

JC Consulting Company Background

JC Consulting (JCC) is a digital development and consulting business. The founder, Jacqueline Cabrero,
started the business in the mid-1990s when the Internet became publicly available. Jacqueline grew the
business from a sole proprietorship that built static webpages for small businesses to a firm with more than
20 employees. JCC’s services range from building websites and web apps to back-end database conversions
and programming.
Initially, Jacqueline kept track of her clients and project bids in a spreadsheet. As the company grew, she
used a homegrown project estimator program to bid new projects. Jacqueline has now determined that the
company’s recent growth means it is no longer feasible to use those programs to maintain its data.
What led JCC to this decision? One of the company’s spreadsheets, shown in Figure 1-1, displays project
estimates, and illustrates JCC’s problems with the spreadsheet approach. For each estimate, the spreadsheet
displays the number and name of the client, the project estimate number and date, the task ID, a description
of the task, and a quoted price for that task. Tri-Lakes Realtors received two different project estimates
(ProjectIDs 1 and 31). In the first project estimate, Tri-Lakes Realtors needed general help to establish online
goals. In the second estimate, the agency needed help with relational database design and data conversion.
The result was seven lines in the spreadsheet, two project estimate numbers, and several task IDs.

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fishermen fish for them in 400 or 500 fathoms with a line of some
600 fathoms in length. The Sharks caught were specimens of
Centrophorus coelolepis, from three to four feet long. “These sharks,
as they were hauled into the boat, fell down into it like so many dead
pigs; there was not the smallest motion of their bodies. There can be
no reasonable doubt that they were inhabitants of the same great
depth as Hyalonema” and that, in fact, they were killed by being
dragged to the surface from the pressure of water under which they
lived. The dermal productions of some of the species have a very
peculiar form, being leaf-shaped, pedunculate, or ribbed, or provided
with an impression.
Spinax.—Each dorsal fin with a spine. Teeth of the lower jaw with
the point so much turned aside that the inner margin of the tooth
forms the cutting edge. Upper teeth erect, each with a long-pointed
cusp and one or two small ones on each side. Spiracles wide,
superior, behind the eye.
Three small species from the Atlantic and the southern extremity
of America. Centroscyllium is an allied genus from the coast of
Greenland.
Scymnus.—Two short dorsal fins without spine, the first at a
considerable distance from the ventrals. Dermal productions uniformly
small. Nostrils at the extremity of the snout. Upper teeth small,
pointed; lower much larger, dilated, erect, triangular, not very
numerous. Spiracles wide.
A single species, S. lichia, is rather common in the Mediterranean
and the neighbouring parts of the Atlantic.
Læmargus.—All the fins small; two dorsal fins, without spine, the
first at a considerable distance from the ventrals. Skin uniformly
covered with minute tubercles. Nostrils near the extremity of the
snout. The upper teeth small, narrow, conical; the lower teeth
numerous, in several series, the point so much turned aside that the
inner margin forms a cutting, non-serrated edge. Jaws feeble.
Spiracles of moderate width.
 Fig. 123.—Dentition of the Greenland Shark. Some
teeth are represented of the natural size; those of the
lower jaw in three series.
The “Greenland Shark” is an inhabitant of the Arctic regions, but
rarely straying to the latitudes of great Britain; it grows to a length of
about 15 feet, and, although it never or but rarely attacks man, is one
of the greatest enemies of the whale, which is often found with large
pieces bitten out of the tail by this Shark. Its voracity is so great that,
according to Scoresby, it is absolutely fearless of the presence of
man whilst engaged in feeding on the carcass of a whale, so that it
can be pierced through with a spear or knife without being driven
away. It is stated to be viviparous, and to produce about four young
at a birth.
 Fig. 124.—Læmargus borealis, Greenland Shark.
Echinorhinus.—Two very small dorsal fins, without spine, the first
opposite to the ventrals. Skin with scattered large round tubercles.
Nostrils midway between the mouth and the end of the snout. Teeth
equal in both jaws, very oblique, the point being turned outwards;
several strong denticulations on each side of the principal point.
Spiracles small.
The “Spinous Shark” is readily recognised by the short bulky form
of its body, short tail, and large spinous tubercles. It is evidently a
ground-shark, which probably lives at some depth and but
accidentally comes to the surface. More frequently met with in the
Mediterranean, it has been found several times on the south coast of
England, and near the Cape of Good Hope.
Euprotomicrus and Isistius are two other genera of this family;
they are pelagic and but little known.

Ninth Family—Rhinidæ.
No anal fin; two dorsal fins. Spiracles present. Pectoral fins large,
with the basal portion prolonged forwards, but not grown to the head.
Rhina.—Head and body depressed, flat; mouth anterior. Gill-
openings rather wide, lateral, partly covered by the base of the
pectoral. Spiracles wide, behind the eyes. Teeth conical, pointed,
distant. Dorsal fins on the tail.
The “Angel-fish,” or “Monk-fish” (Rh. squatina), approaches the
Rays as regards general form and habits. Within the temperate and
tropical zones it is almost cosmopolitan, being well known on the
coasts of Europe, eastern North America, California, Japan, South
Australia, etc.; it does not seem to exceed a length of five feet; it is
viviparous, producing about twenty young at a birth.
 Extinct forms, closely allied to the “Angel-fish,” are found in the
Oolite, and have been described as Thaumas. The carboniferous
genus, Orthacanthus, may have been allied to this family, but it was
armed with a spine immediately behind the head.

Tenth Family—Pristiophoridæ.
The rostral cartilage is produced, into an exceedingly long, flat
lamina, armed along each edge with a series of teeth (saw).
These Sharks resemble so much the common Saw-fishes as to
be easily confounded with them, but their gill-openings are lateral,
and not inferior. They are also much smaller in size, and a pair of
long tentacles are inserted at the lower side of the saw. The four
species known (Pristiophorus) occur in the Australian and Japanese
seas.
Squaloraja, from the Lias, is supposed to have its nearest
affinities to this family.

B. Batoidei—Rays.
In the typical Rays the body is excessively depressed, and forms,
with the expanded pectoral fins, a circular or sub-rhomboidal disk, of
which the slender tail appears as a more or less long appendage. In
the two families which we shall place first (Pristidæ and
Rhinobatidæ), the general habit of the body still resembles that of
the Sharks, but the gill-openings are ventral, as in the true Rays; the
anal fin is invariably absent, and the dorsal fins, if developed, are
placed on the tail. The mode of life of those fishes is quite in
accordance with the form of their body. Whilst the species with a
shark-like body and muscular tail swim freely through the water, and
are capable of executing rapid and sustained motions, the true Rays
lead a sedentary life, moving slowly on the bottom, rarely ascending
to the surface. Their tail has almost entirely lost the function of an
organ of locomotion, acting in some merely as a rudder. They
progress solely by means of the pectoral fins, the broad and thin
margins of which are set in an undulating motion, entirely identical
with that of the dorsal and anal fins of the Pleuronectidæ. They are
exclusively carnivorous, like the Sharks, but unable to pursue and
catch rapidly-moving animals; therefore they feed chiefly on
molluscous and crustaceous animals. However, the colour of their
integuments assimilates so closely that of their surroundings, that
other fishes approach them near enough to be captured by them.
The mouth of Rays being entirely at the lower surface of the head,
the prey is not directly seized with the jaws; but the fish darts over its
victim so as to cover and hold it down with its body, when it is
conveyed by some rapid motions to the mouth.
Rays do not descend to the same depth as Sharks; with one
exception,[37] at least, none have been known to have been caught
by a dredge worked in more than 100 fathoms. The majority are
coast fishes, and have a comparatively limited geographical range,
none extending from the northern temperate zone into the southern.
However, some, if not all the species of the family Myliobatidæ,
which includes the giants of this division of Plagiostomes, have a
claim of being included among the Pelagic fishes, as they are
frequently met with in the open ocean at a great distance from the
shore. It is probable that the occurrence of such individuals in the
open sea indicates the neighbourhood of some bank or other
comparatively shallow locality. Many species are exclusively
confined to fresh water, and occur far inland, especially in tropical
America.
The majority are oviparous. All have five pairs of gill-openings.
The number of known species is about the same as that of Sharks,
viz. 140.

First Family—Pristidæ.
The snout is produced into an exceedingly long flat lamina,
armed with a series of strong teeth along each edge (saw).
Pristis.—Body depressed and elongate, gradually passing into
the strong and muscular tail. Pectoral fins, with the front margins quite
 free, not extending to the head. No tentacles below the saw. Teeth in
the jaws minute, obtuse. Dorsal fins without spine, the first opposite or
close to the base of the ventrals.
“Saw-fishes.” Abundant in tropical, less so in sub-tropical seas.
They attain to a considerable size, specimens with a saw 6 feet long
and 1 foot broad at the base not being of uncommon occurrence.
The saw, which is their weapon of attack, renders them most
dangerous to almost all the other large inhabitants of the ocean. Its
endoskeleton consists of three, sometimes five, rarely four, hollow
cylindrical tubes, placed side by side, tapering towards the end, and
incrusted with an osseous deposit. These tubes are the rostral
processes of the cranial cartilage, and exist in all Rays, though in
them they are shorter and much less developed. The teeth of the
saw are implanted in deep sockets of the hardened integument. The
teeth proper, with which the jaws are armed, are much too small for
inflicting wounds or seizing other animals. Saw-fishes use this
weapon in tearing pieces of flesh off an animal’s body or ripping
open its abdomen. The detached fragments or protruding soft parts
are then seized by them and swallowed. Five distinct species of
Saw-fishes are known.
Saws of extinct species have been found in the London clay of
Sheppey and in the Bagshot sands.

Second Family—Rhinobatidæ.
Tail strong and long, with two well-developed dorsal fins, and a
longitudinal fold on each side; caudal developed. Disk not
excessively dilated, the rayed portion of the pectoral fins not being
continued to the snout.
Rhynchobatus.—Dorsal fins without spine, the first opposite to
the ventrals. Caudal fin with the lower lobe well developed. Teeth
obtuse, granular, the dental surfaces of the jaws being undulated.
 Fig. 125.—Dentition of Rhynchobatus.
Two species, Rh. ancylostomus and Rh. djeddensis, are very
common on the tropical coasts of the Indian Ocean. They feed on
hard-shelled animals, and attain scarcely a length of 8 feet.
Rhinobatus.—Cranial cartilage produced into a long rostral
process, the space between the process and pectoral fin being filled
by a membrane. Teeth obtuse, with an indistinct transverse ridge.
Dorsal fins without spine, both at a great distance behind the ventral
fins. Caudal fin without lower lobe.
Numerous on the coasts of tropical and sub-tropical seas; about
twelve species. Trygonorhina is an allied genus from South Australia.
The oolitic genus Spathobatis is scarcely distinct from
Rhinobatus; and another fossil from Mount Lebanon has been
actually referred to this latter genus. Trigorhina from Monte Postale
must be placed here.

Third Family—Torpedinidæ.
The trunk is a broad, smooth disk. Tail with a longitudinal fold on
each side; a rayed dorsal fin is generally, and a caudal always,
present. Anterior nasal valves confluent into a quadrangular lobe. An
electric organ composed of vertical hexagonal prisms between the
pectoral fins and the head.
 “Electric Rays.” The electric organs with which these fishes are
armed are large, flat, uniform bodies, lying one on each side of the
head, bounded behind by the scapular arch, and laterally by the
anterior crescentic tips of the pectoral fins. They consist of an
assemblage of vertical hexagonal prisms, whose ends are in contact
with the integuments above and below; and each prism is subdivided
by delicate transverse septa, forming cells, filled with a clear,
trembling, jelly-like fluid, and lined within by an epithelium of
nucleated corpuscles. Between this epithelium and the transverse
septa and walls of the prism there is a layer of tissue on which the
terminations of the nerves and vessels ramify. Hunter counted 470
prisms in each battery of Torpedo marmorata, and demonstrated the
enormous supply of nervous matter which they receive. Each organ
receives one branch of the Trigeminal nerve and four branches of
the Vagus, the former, and the three anterior branches of the latter,
being each as thick as the spinal chord (electric lobes). The fish
gives the electric shock voluntarily, when it is excited to do so in self-
defence or intends to stun or to kill its prey; but to receive the shock
the object must complete the galvanic circuit by communicating with
the fish at two distinct points, either directly or through the medium of
some conducting body. If an insulated frog’s leg touches the fish by
the end of the nerve only, no muscular contractions ensue on the
discharge of the battery, but a second point of contact immediately
produces them. It is said that a painful sensation may be produced
by a discharge conveyed through the medium of a stream of water.
The electric currents created in these fishes exercise all the other
known powers of electricity: they render the needle magnetic,
decompose chemical compounds, and emit the spark. The dorsal
surface of the electric organ is positive, the ventral surface negative.
[The literature on the electric organ of Torpedo is very extensive.
Here may be mentioned Lorenzini, “Osservazioni intorno alle
Torpedini,” (1678); Walsh, “On the Electric Property of the Torpedo,” in
Philos. Trans., 1773; Hunter, “Anatomical Observations on the
Torpedo,” ibid.; Davy, “Observations on the Torpedo,” in Philos.
Trans., 1834; Matteucci and Savi, “Traité des Phénomènes Electro-
Physiologiques,” 1844.]
 Of the genus Torpedo six species are known, distributed over the
Atlantic and Indian Oceans; three of them are rather common in the
Mediterranean, and one (T. hebetans) reaches the south coast of
England. They attain to a width of from two to three feet, and
specimens of that size are able to disable by a single discharge a
full-grown man, and, therefore, may prove dangerous to bathing
persons. Other genera, differing from Torpedo in the position and
structure of some of the fins, are found in other tropical and sub-
tropical seas, viz. Narcine, Hypnos, Discopyge (Peru), Astrape, and
Temera. All, like electric fishes generally, have a naked body.
A large fish, of the general appearance of a Torpedo, has been
found at Monte Bolca; and Cyclobatis, from the upper cretaceous
limestone of Lebanon, is probably another extinct representative of
this family.

Fourth Family—Rajidæ.
Disk broad, rhombic, generally with asperities or spines; tail with
a longitudinal fold on each side. The pectoral fins extend to the
snout. No electric organ; no serrated caudal spine.
Raja.—Two dorsal fins on the tail, without spine; tail with a
rudimentary caudal fin, or without caudal. Each ventral fin divided into
two by a deep notch. Teeth small, obtuse, or pointed. Pectoral fins not
extending forwards to the extremity of the snout. Nasal valves
separated in the middle, where they are without a free margin (see
Fig. 1, p. 34).
Fig. 126.—Raja lemprieri, from Tasmania.

Fig. 127.—Dermal spines of a

male Thornback, Raja clavata.
 Of all the genera of Batoidei, Rays have the widest geographical
range; they are chiefly inhabitants of temperate seas, and much
more numerous in those of the Northern than of the Southern
Hemisphere. They advance more closely to the Arctic and Antarctic
circles than any other member of this group. More than thirty species
are known, of which the following are found on the British coast:—
The Thornback (R. clavata), the Homelyn Ray (R. maculata), the
Starry Ray (R. radiata), the Sandy Ray (R. circularis), the common
Skate (R. batis), the Burton Skate (R. marginata), and the Shagreen
Skate (R. fullonica). Some of these species, especially the Skates,
attain a considerable size, the disk measuring six and even seven
feet across. All are eatable, and some of them regularly brought to
market. In the majority of the species peculiar sexual differences
have been observed. In some, as in the Thornback, all or some of
the teeth are pointed in the male sex, whilst they are obtuse and flat
in the female. The males of all are armed with patches of claw-like
spines, retractile in grooves of the integument, and serially arranged
occupying a space on the upper side of the pectoral fin near the
angle of the disk, and frequently also the sides of the head. In
species which are armed with bucklers or asperities it is the female
which is principally provided with these dermal productions, the male
being entirely or nearly smooth. Also the colour is frequently different
in the two sexes.
Other genera of this family are Psammobatis, Sympterygia, and
Platyrhina. Although probably this family was well represented in
cretaceous and tertiary formations, the remains found hitherto are
comparatively few. Arthropterus, from the Lias, seems to have been
a true Ray; and dermal spines of a species allied to the Thornback
(Raja antiqua) are abundant in the crag deposits of Suffolk and
Norfolk.

Fifth Family—Trygonidæ.
The pectoral fins are uninterruptedly continued to, and confluent
at, the extremity of the snout. Tail long and slender, without lateral
longitudinal folds; vertical fins none, or imperfectly developed, often
replaced by a strong serrated spine.
The “Sting-Rays” are as numerous as the Rays proper, but they
inhabit rather tropical than temperate seas. The species armed with
a spine use it as a weapon of defence, and the wounds inflicted by it
are, to man, extremely painful, and have frequently occasioned the
loss of a limb. We have mentioned above (p. 190) that the danger
arises from the lacerated nature of the wound as well as from the
poisonous property of the mucus inoculated. The spines (Fig. 98, p.
190) are always barbed on the sides, and may be eight or nine
inches long in the larger species. They are shed from time to time,
and replaced by others growing behind the one in function, as the
teeth of the fishes of this order, or as the fangs of a poisonous
snake. Fossil species of Trygon and Urolophus occur in the tertiary
strata of Monte Bolca and Monte Postale. The genera into which the
various species have been divided are the following:—
Urogymnus.—Tail long, without fin or spine, sometimes with a
narrow cutaneous fold below. Body densely covered with osseous
tubercles. Teeth flattened.

Only one species is known (U. asperrimus), common in the

Indian Ocean, and with a body from 4 to 5 feet long; the skin is
frequently used for covering shields and the handles of swords and
other weapons, its rough surface offering a firm hold to the hand.
Trygon.—Tail very long, tapering, armed with a long arrow-
shaped barbed spine. Body smooth or with tubercles. Nasal valves
coalescent into a quadrangular flap. Teeth flattened.

Some twenty-five species are known, one of which (T. pastinaca)

extends from the south coast of England and the east coast of North
America through the Atlantic and Indian Ocean to Japan. The
majority of the species belong to the tropical parts of the Indian and
Atlantic Oceans; some inhabit exclusively freshwaters of eastern
tropical America. A closely allied genus is Tæniura, with six species.
Urolophus.—Tail of moderate length, with a distinct rayed
terminal fin, armed with a barbed spine, without or with a rudimentary
dorsal fin. Teeth flattened.
 Seven species from tropical seas, apparently of small size.

Fig. 128.—Urolophus cruciatus, from Australia.

Pteroplatea.—Body at least twice as broad as long; tail very
short and thin, without or with a rudimentary fin, and with a serrated
spine. Teeth very small, uni- or tri-cuspid.
Six species from temperate and tropical seas.

Sixth Family—Myliobatidæ.
The disk is very broad, in consequence of the great development
of the pectoral fins, which, however, leave the sides of the head free,
and reappear at the extremity of the snout as a pair of detached
(cephalic) fins. Viviparous.
“Devil-fishes,” “Sea-devils,” or “Eagle-rays.” Generally of large
size, inhabiting temperate and tropical seas. Some genera possess
a pair of singular cephalic processes, which generally project in a
direction parallel to the longitudinal axis of the body, but are said to
be flexible in the living fish, and used for scooping food from the
bottom and conveying it to the mouth. In all the species the dentition
consists of perfectly flat molars, forming a kind of mosaic pavement
in both the upper and lower jaws: a most perfect mechanical
arrangement for crushing alimentary substances.

Fig. 129.—Jaws of an Eagle-Ray, Myliobatis aquila.

Myliobatis.—Teeth sexangular, large, flat, tessellated, those in
the middle much broader than long; several narrower series on each
side. Tail very long and thin, with a dorsal fin near its root; generally a
serrated spine behind the fin.
Seven species are known, two of which are European, one (M.
aquila) being almost cosmopolitan, and occasionally found on the
British coast. The young differ much from the adult, having no
median series of larger teeth, but all the teeth of equal size and
regularly sexangular. Also the tail is much longer in young examples
than in old ones, and the coloration more ornamental. Teeth of
species very closely allied to, or perhaps even identical with, existing
species, are found in tertiary formations.
 Aëtobatis.—Form of the head, body, and tail as Myliobatis. The
nasal valves remain separate, each forming a long flap. The lower
dental lamina projects beyond the upper. Teeth flat, broad, forming a
single series, equivalent to the median series of Myliobatis, there
being no small lateral teeth.

Fig. 130.—Aëtobatis narinari.

One species only (A. narinari) which is found in almost all tropical
seas, and of exceedingly common occurrence in the Atlantic and
Indian Oceans; it does not seem to grow to a very large size
(perhaps not exceeding 5 feet in width), and is readily recognised by
numerous round bluish-white spots, with which the back is
ornamented. Fossils of this genus occur in the English Eocenes and
the Swiss Molasse.
 Fig. 131.—Aëtobatis
subarcuatus, from Bracklesham.
Rhinoptera.—The cephalic appendages are bent inwards, and
situated at the lower side of the snout. Nasal valves confluent into a
broad flap, with free margin. Teeth broad, flat, tessellated, in five or
more series, the middle being the broadest, and the others
decreasing in width outwards. Tail very slender, with a dorsal fin
before the serrated spine.

Fig. 132.—Rhinoptera woodwardi; fossil.

 Fig. 133.—Rhinoptera
polyodon.
Seven species from tropical and sub-tropical seas are known; of
Rhinoptera polyodon nothing is known except the jaws; and as its
dentition is very peculiar, no opportunity should be lost of obtaining
and preserving entire animals. Teeth very similar to those of existing
species, and described as Zygobatis, occur in the Norwich Crag and
in Miocene formations of Switzerland.
Dicerobatis (Cephaloptera).—Cephalic appendages pointing
straight forwards or inwards. Nostrils widely separated from each
other. Mouth inferior, wide. Both jaws with very numerous and very
small flat or tubercular teeth. Tail very slender, with a dorsal fin
between the ventrals, and with or without a serrated spine.
Ceratoptera.—Cephalic appendages pointing forwards or
inwards. Mouth anterior; wide. Teeth in the lower jaw only, very small.
Tail very slender, with a dorsal fin between the ventrals and without
spine.
 Fig. 134.—Dicerobatis draco, from Misol.
The species of these two last genera are not yet well
distinguished; about five of Dicerobatis and two of Ceratoptera are
known from tropical and temperate seas, but their occurrence in the
latter is rather sporadic. Some of them, if not all, attain an enormous
size. One mentioned by Risso, taken off Messina, weighed 1250
pounds. Several observers speak of having seen them in pairs, the
male being usually the smaller. Of a pair mentioned by Risso the
female was first taken, and the male remained hovering about the
boat for three days, and was afterwards found floating dead on the
surface. Still larger individuals, but of uncertain species, are
mentioned by Lacépède, who says that one taken at Barbadoes
required seven yoke of oxen to draw it. A sketch of another, which
was said to be twenty feet long, was sent to Lacépède; and Sonnini
speaks of one which appeared to him to be longer and wider than
the ship in which he was sailing. A fœtus taken from the uterus of the
mother captured at Jamaica, and preserved in the British Museum, is
five feet broad, and weighed twenty pounds. The mother measured
fifteen feet in width as well as in length, and was between three and
four feet thick. The capture of “Devil-fishes” of such large size is
attended with danger, as they not rarely attack and capsize the boat.
They are said to be especially dangerous when they accompany
their young, of which they bring forth one only at a time.

SECOND SUB-ORDER—HOLOCEPHALA.
One external gill-opening only, covered by a fold of the skin,
which encloses a rudimentary cartilaginous gill-cover; four branchial
clefts within the gill-cavity. The maxillary and palatal apparatus
coalescent with the skull.
This suborder is represented in the living fauna by one family
only, Chimæridæ; it forms a passage to the following order of fishes,
the Ganoids. In external appearance, and with regard to the
structure of their organs of propagation, the Chimæras are Sharks
(See Fig. 96, p. 184). The males are provided with “claspers” in
connection with the ventral fins, and the ova are large, encased in a
horny capsule, and few in number; and there is no doubt that they
are impregnated within the oviduct, as in Sharks. Chimæras are
naked, but, as in Scylliidæ, very young individuals possess a series
of small “placoid” spines, which occupy the median line of the back,
and remind us of similar dermal productions in the Rays. The males,
besides, are provided with a singular erectile appendage, spiny at its
extremity, and received in a groove on the top of the head. On the
other hand, the relations of the Chimæras to the Ganoid, and, more
especially, Dipnoous type become manifest in their notochordal
skeleton and continuity of cranial cartilage. The spine in front of the
first dorsal fin is articulated to the neural apophysis, and not merely
implanted in the soft parts, and immovable as in Sharks. A
cartilaginous operculum makes its appearance, and the external gill-
opening is single. The dentition is that of a Dipnoid, each “jaw” being
armed with a pair of broad dental plates, with the addition of a pair of
smaller cutting teeth in the upper “jaw.” Fossils of similar dental
combination are not rare in strata, commencing from the Lias and
the bottom of the Oolitic series; but it is impossible to decide in every
case whether the fossil should be referred to the Holocephalous or
Dipnoous type. According to Newberry, Chimæroid fishes commence
in the Devonian with Rhynchodus, the remains of which were
discovered by him in Devonian rocks of Ohio. Undoubted
Chimæroids are Elasmodus, Psaliodus, Ganodus, Ischyodus,
Edaphodon, and Elasmognathus, principally from mesozoic and
tertiary formations. Very similar fossils occur in the corresponding
strata of North America. A single species of Callorhynchus has been
discovered by H. Hector in the Lower Greensand of New Zealand.
The living Chimæras are few in number, and remain within very
moderate dimensions, probably not exceeding a length of five feet,
inclusive of their long filamentous, diphycercal tail. They are referred
to two genera.
Chimæra.—Snout soft, prominent, without appendage. The dorsal
fins occupying the greater part of the back, anterior with a very strong
and long spine. Longitudinal axis of the tail nearly the same as that of
the trunk, its extremity being provided with a low fin above and below,
similar in form to a dorsal and anal fin. Anal fin very low.
Three species are known: Ch. monstrosa, from the coasts of
Europe and Japan and the Cape of Good Hope; Ch. colliei from the
west coast of North America; and Ch. affinis from the coast of
Portugal. (See Fig. 96, p. 184.)
Callorhynchus.—Snout with a cartilaginous prominence,
terminating in a cutaneous flap. Two dorsal fins, the anterior with a
very strong and long spine. Extremity of the tail distinctly turned
upwards, with a fin along its lower edge, but without one above. Anal
fin close to the caudal, short and deep.
One species (C. antarcticus) is common in the Southern
temperate zone. Cunningham describes the egg (see Fig. 81, p.
169), as being of a dark greenish-black colour, and, in general,
measuring from eight to nine or even ten inches in length, by about
three in breadth. It consists of a central, somewhat spindle-shaped
convex area (between the horny walls of which the young fish lies),
surrounded by a broad plicated margin, which is fringed at the edge,
and covered on the under surface with fine light brownish-yellow
hairs.

SECOND ORDER—GANOIDEI.