Chapter 2

Essential Chemistry for Biology

PowerPoint® Lectures for

Campbell Essential Biology, Fifth Edition, and
Campbell Essential Biology with Physiology,
Fourth Edition
– Eric J. Simon, Jean L. Dickey, and Jane B. Reece
Lectures by Edward J. Zalisko © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Matter: Elements and Compounds

• Matter is anything that occupies space and has

mass.
• Matter is found on Earth in three physical states:
– solid
– liquid
– gas

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Matter: Elements and Compounds

• Matter is composed of chemical elements.

– An element is a substance that cannot be broken
down into other substances by chemical reactions.
– There are 92 naturally occurring elements on
Earth.

• All of the elements are listed in the periodic table of

elements.

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Figure 2.1a
Atomic number
(number of protons) 6

Element symbol C
Mass number 12
(number of
protons plus neutrons)
H He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg TI Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn

Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Matter: Elements and Compounds

• Twenty-five elements are essential to people.

• Four elements make up about 96% of the weight of
most cells:
– Oxygen
– Carbon
– Hydrogen
– Nitrogen

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Figure 2.2

Carbon (C): 18.5%

Oxygen (O):
65.0%
Calcium (Ca): 1.5%
Phosphorus (P): 1.0%
Potassium (K): 0.4%
Sulfur (S): 0.3%
Sodium (Na): 0.2%
Chlorine (Cl): 0.2%
Magnesium (Mg): 0.1%
Hydrogen (H):
9.5%
Trace elements: less than 0.01%
Boron (B) Manganese (Mn)
Chromium (Cr) Molybdenum (Mo)
Nitrogen (N):
Cobalt (Co) Selenium (Se)
3.3%
Copper (Cu) Silicon (Si)
Fluorine (F) Tin (Sn)
Iodine (I) Vanadium (V)
Iron (Fe) Zinc (Zn)
Matter: Elements and Compounds

• Trace elements are

– required in only very small amounts and
– essential for life.

• An iodine deficiency causes goiter.

• Fluorine
– is added to dental products and drinking water and
– helps to maintain healthy bones and teeth.

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Figure 2.3
Matter: Elements and Compounds

• Elements can combine to form compounds.

– Compounds are substances that contain two or
more elements in a fixed ratio.
– Common compounds include
– NaCl (table salt) and
– H2O (water).

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Atoms

• Each element consists of one kind of atom.

– An atom is the smallest unit of matter that still
retains the properties of an element.

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The Structure of Atoms

• Atoms are composed of subatomic particles.

– A proton is positively charged.
– An electron is negatively charged.
– A neutron is electrically neutral.

• Most atoms have protons and neutrons packed

tightly into the nucleus.
– The nucleus is the atom’s central core.
– Electrons orbit the nucleus.

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Figure 2.4

2 Protons
Nucleus
2 Neutrons

2 Electrons

Nucleus
2e–

Electron cloud
The Structure of Atoms

• Elements differ in the number of subatomic

particles in their atoms.
– The number of protons, the atomic number,
determines which element it is.
– Mass is a measure of the amount of material in
an object.
– An atom’s mass number is the sum of the
number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.

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Isotopes

• Isotopes are alternate mass forms of an element.

• Isotopes
– have the same number of protons and electrons
but
– differ in their number of neutrons.

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Table 2.1
Isotopes

• The nucleus of a radioactive isotope decays

spontaneously, giving off particles and energy.
• Radioactive isotopes have many uses in research
and medicine.
– They can be used to determine the fate of atoms in
living organisms.
– They are used in PET scans to diagnose heart
disorders and some cancers.

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Isotopes

• Uncontrolled exposure to radioactive isotopes can

harm living organisms by damaging DNA.
– The 1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident released
large amounts of radioactive isotopes.
– Naturally occurring radon gas may cause lung
cancer.

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Electron Arrangement and the Chemical Properties
of Atoms

• Of the three subatomic particles, only electrons are

directly involved in the chemical activity of an atom.
• Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom in specific
electron shells.
• The farther an electron is from the nucleus, the
greater its energy.
• The number of electrons in the outermost shell
determines the chemical properties of an atom.

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Figure 2.6

First electron shell Outer electron shell

(can hold 2 electrons) (can hold 8 electrons)
Electron

Hydrogen (H) Carbon (C) Nitrogen (N) Oxygen (O)

Atomic number = 1 Atomic number = 6 Atomic number = 7 Atomic number = 8
Chemical Bonding and Molecules

• Chemical reactions enable atoms to give up or

acquire electrons, completing their outer shells.
• Chemical reactions usually result in atoms
– staying close together and
– being held together by attractions called chemical
bonds.

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Ionic Bonds

• When an atom loses or gains electrons, it becomes

electrically charged.
– Charged atoms are called ions.
– Ionic bonds are formed between oppositely
charged ions.

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 Animation: Ionic Bonds
Right-click slide / select “play”
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Figure 2.7-1

Na Cl

Na Cl
Sodium atom Chlorine atom
Figure 2.7-2

Complete
outer shells

Na Cl Na+ Cl–

Na Cl
Na+ Cl–
Sodium atom Chlorine atom
Sodium ion Chloride ion

Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Covalent Bonds

• A covalent bond forms when two atoms share one

or more pairs of outer-shell electrons.
• Covalent bonds are the strongest of the various
bonds.
• Covalent bonds hold atoms together in a molecule.
• The number of covalent bonds an atom can form is
equal to the number of additional electrons needed
to fill its outer shell.

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Figure 2.8

Electron configuration Structural formula Space-filling model Ball-and-stick model

H H

Hydrogen gas (H2)

O O

Oxygen gas (O2)

H C H

Methane (CH4)
Hydrogen Bonds

• Water is a compound in which the electrons in its

covalent bonds are not shared equally.
– This causes water to be a polar molecule, one
with an uneven distribution of charge.

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Figure 2.UN02

(slightly +) (slightly +)
H H

(slightly −)
Hydrogen Bonds

• The polarity of water results in weak electrical

attractions between neighboring water molecules.
– These weak attractions are called hydrogen
bonds.

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Figure 2.9

Hydrogen bond

Slightly
positive
Slightly
charge
negative
charge
Chemical Reactions

• Cells constantly rearrange molecules by breaking

existing chemical bonds and forming new ones.
– Such changes in the chemical composition of
matter are called chemical reactions.
– A simple example is the reaction between oxygen
gas and hydrogen gas that forms water.

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Figure 2.UN03

2 H2 + O2 2 H2O

Hydrogen Oxygen Water

gas gas

Reactants Products
Chemical Reactions

• Chemical reactions include

– reactants, the starting materials, and
– products, the end materials.

• Chemical reactions
– can rearrange matter
– but cannot create or destroy matter.

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WATER AND LIFE

• Life on Earth began in water and evolved there for

3 billion years.
– Modern life remains tied to water.
– Your cells are composed of 70–95% water.

• The abundance of water is a major reason Earth is

habitable.

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Water’s Life-Supporting Properties

• The polarity of water molecules and the hydrogen

bonding that results explain most of water’s life-
supporting properties.
– Water molecules stick together.
– Water has a strong resistance to change in
temperature.
– Frozen water floats.
– Water is a common solvent for life.

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The Cohesion of Water

• Water molecules stick together as a result of

hydrogen bonding.
– This tendency of molecules of the same kind to
stick together is called cohesion.
– Cohesion is vital for the transport of water from the
roots to the leaves of plants.

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Figure 2.11

Evaporation from the leaves

Microscopic water-conducting tubes

Cohesion due to
hydrogen bonds
between water
molecules
Colorized
SEM
The Cohesion of Water

• Surface tension is the measure of how difficult it is

to stretch or break the surface of a liquid.
– Hydrogen bonds give water an unusually high
surface tension.

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Figure 2.12

Raft spider
How Water Moderates Temperature

• Because of hydrogen bonding, water has a strong

resistance to temperature change.
• Heat and temperature are related, but different.
– Heat is the amount of energy associated with the
movement of the atoms and molecules in a body of
matter.
– Temperature measures the intensity of heat.

• Water can absorb and store large amounts of heat

while only changing a few degrees in temperature.

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How Water Moderates Temperature

• Water can moderate temperatures.

– Earth’s giant water supply causes temperatures to
stay within limits that permit life.
– Evaporative cooling occurs when a substance
evaporates and the surface of the liquid remaining
behind cools down.

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The Biological Significance of Ice Floating

• When water molecules get cold enough, they move

apart, forming ice.
• A chunk of ice has fewer water molecules than an
equal volume of liquid water.
• Ice floats because it is less dense than liquid
water.

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Figure 2.14

Hydrogen bond

Liquid water
Ice
Hydrogen bonds Stable hydrogen bonds
constantly break hold molecules apart,
and re-form. making ice less dense
than water.
The Biological Significance of Ice Floating

• If ice did not float, ponds, lakes, and even the

oceans would freeze solid.
• Life in water could not survive if bodies of water
froze solid.

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Water as the Solvent of Life

• A solution is a liquid consisting of a homogeneous

mixture of two or more substances.
– The dissolving agent is the solvent.
– The dissolved substance is the solute.

• When water is the solvent, the result is an

aqueous solution.

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Figure 2.15

Sodium ion
in solution
Chloride ion
in solution
Cl– Na+

– Na+
Cl

Salt crystal
Acids, Bases, and pH

• A chemical compound that releases H+ to a

solution is an acid.
• A compound that accepts H+ and removes them
from solution is a base.
• To describe the acidity of a solution, chemists use
the pH scale.

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Figure 2.17
14
Oven cleaner
OH− 13
OH−OH
− Household

Lower H+ concentration
− +
OH H OH− bleach
OH− H+ 12
Household ammonia
Basic 11
solution Milk of magnesia
10

9
Seawater
8
+
OH− H Human blood
OH− H+
OH−
[H+] = [OH−] 7 Pure water
H+ − +
OH H

6 Urine
Neutral Greater H+ concentration
solution
5
Black coffee
Tomato juice
4

3 Grapefruit juice,
soft drink
H+ H+
+
OH− H H+ 2 Lemon juice,
−
+ OH
H + stomach acid
H
Battery acid
1
Acidic
solution 0
pH scale
Figure 2.17a

OH− +
OH− OH
−
OH− H H+ H+
OH− H+ − OH− H+ − H
+

− +
OH OH − OH H+
OH H H+ − + H + OH−
OH H H+

Basic Neutral Acidic

solution solution solution
Acids, Bases, and pH

• Buffers are substances that resist pH change.

• Buffers
– accept H+ ions when they are in excess
– donate H+ ions when they are depleted.

• Increases in global CO2 concentrations may lead to

– the acidification of the oceans and
– ecological disasters.

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