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AJAYI CROWTHER UNIVERSITY, OYO

Computer Aided Design

EEE 5103

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Introduction of CAD
In the mid of 1970s, as computer aided design starts to offer more potential than
just a skill to replicate manual drafting with electronic drafting, the cost gain for
companies to switch to CAD became obvious. The benefit of CAD methods over
manual drafting are the capabilities one often takes for established from computer
systems; automated creation of Bill of Material, interference checking, auto layout
in integrated circuits.
. Product cycle
Product cycle integrate processes, people, data, and business and gives a product
information for industries and their extended activity. Product cycle is the process
of managing the entire lifecycle of a product from starting, through design and
manufacture, to repair and removal of manufactured products.
Product cycle methods assist association in managing with the rising difficulty and
engineering challenges of developing new products for the worldwide competitive
markets.
Product lifecycle management (PLM) can be part of one of the following four
fundamentals of a manufacturing information technology structure.
I. Customer Relationship Management (CRM) (ii) Supply Chain Management (SCM)
II. Enterprise resource planning (ERP)
III. Product Planning and Development (PPD).
The core of PLM is in the formation and management of all product information
and the technology used to access this data and knowledge. PLM as a discipline
appeared from tools such as CAD, CAM and PDM, but can be viewed as the
combination of these tools with processes, methods and people through all stages
of a product’s life cycle. PLM is not just about software technology but is also a
business approach.

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Explain Product life cycle with design process. (Or) Briefly explain the
conventional process of the product cycle in the conventional manufacturing
environment. Product Life Cycle:

Figure 1.1.shows the life cycle of a typical product. The product begins
with a need which is identified based on customers’ and markets’
demands. The product goes through two main processes from the idea
conceptualization to the finished product: The design process and the
manufacturing process.

Design process: The product goes through two main processes from
inception to a finished product: the design process and the
manufacturing process. Synthesis and analysis are the two main
subprocesses of the design process.

Synthesis: The philosophy, functionality, and uniqueness of the product

arc all determined during synthesis. During synthesis, a design takes the
form of sketches and layout drawings that show the relationship among
the various product parts. These sketches and drawings can be created
using a CAD/CAM system or simply hand- drawn on paper. They are
used during brainstorming discussions among various design teams and
for presentation purposes.

Analysis: The analysis subprocess begins with an attempt to put the

conceptual design into the context of engineering sciences to evaluate the
performance of the expected product. This requires design modeling and
simulation. An important aspect of analysis is the "what if' questions that
help us to eliminate multiple design choices and find the best solution to
each design problem. The outcome of analysis is the design
documentation in the form of engineering drawings (also known as

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blueprints).

Manufacturing Process: The manufacturing process begins with the

process planning and ends with the actual product. Process planning is
considered the backbone or the manufacturing process since it attempts to
determine the most efficient sequence in which to produce the product. A
process planner must be aware of the various aspects of manufacturing to
plan properly. The planner typically works with the blueprints and may
communicate with the design team to clarify or request changes in the
design to

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fit manufacturing requirements. The outcome of the process planning is

a production plan, tools procurement, material order, and machine
programming. Other special manufacturing needs such as design or jigs
and fixtures or inspection gages are planned.

Figure 1.1.Typical product life cycle

Product Cycle Model:

There are several Product cycle models in industry to be

considered, one of the possible product cycle is given below
(Figure 1.2):

Step 1: Conceive-Imagine, Specify, Plan, Innovate

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The first step is the definition of the product requirements based on

company, market and customer. From this requirement, the product's
technical data can be defined. In parallel, the early concept design work is
performed defining the product with its main functional features. Various
media are utilized for these processes, from paper and pencil to clay
mock-up to 3D Computer Aided Industrial Design.

Step 2: Design-Describe, Define, Develop, Test, Analyze and Validate

This is where the completed design and development of the product

begins, succeeding to prototype testing, through pilot release to final
product. It can also involve redesign and ramp for Improvement to
existing products as well as planned obsolescence. The main tool used
for design and development is CAD. This can be simple 2D drawing /
drafting or 3D parametric feature based solid/surface modeling. This
step covers many engineering disciplines including: electronic,
electrical, mechanical, and civil. Besides the actual making of geometry
there is the analysis of the components and assemblies.

Optimization, Validation and Simulation activities are carried out using

Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) software. These are used to perform
various tasks such as: Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD); Finite
Element Analysis (FEA); and Mechanical Event Simulation (MES).
Computer Aided Quality (CAQ) is used for activities such as Dimensional
tolerance analysis.

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3: Realize-Manufacture, Make, Build, Procure, Produce, Sell and Deliver

Once the design of the components is complete the method of

manufacturing is finalized. This includes CAD operations such as
generation of CNC Machining instructions for the product’s component as
well as tools to manufacture those components, using integrated Computer
Aided Manufacturing (CAM) software.

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It includes Production Planning tools for carrying out plant and factory
layout and production simulation. Once details components are
manufactured their geometrical form and dimensions can be verified
against the original data with the use of Computer Aided Inspection
Equipment (CAIE). Parallel to the engineering tasks, sales and marketing
work take place. This could consist of transferring engineering data to a
web based sales configuration.

Step 4: Service-Use, Operate, Maintain, Support, Sustain, Phase-

out, Retire, Recycle and Disposal

The final step of the lifecycle includes managing of information related to

service for repair and maintenance, as well as recycling and waste
management information. This involves using tools like Maintenance,
Repair and Operations Management software.

2. Briefly explain about design process.

Design Process

The design process includes series of steps that engineers apply in making
functional products and processes. The parts of the process often need to
be repeated many times before production of a product can start. The parts
that get iterated and the number of such design cycles in any given project
can be highly changeable. One method of the engineering design process
focuses on the following common aspects:

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1. Research
A considerable amount of time is used on research, or finding
information. Consideration should be given to the available
applicable literature, issues and

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successes linked with available solutions, and need of marketplaces.

The basis of information should be significant, including existing
results. Reverse engineering can be a successful technique if other
solutions are available in the market. Added sources of information
include the trade journals, available government documents, local
libraries, vendor catalogs and personal organizations.
2. Feasibility assessment
The feasibility study is an analysis and assessment of the possible of a
proposed design which is based on detail investigation and research to
maintain the process of decision creation. The feasibility assessment
helps to focus the scope of the project to spot the best situation. The
purpose of a feasibility assessment is to verify whether the project can
continue into the design phase.

3. Conceptualization
A Concept Study is the stage of project planning that includes
developing ideas and taking into account the all features of
executing those ideas. This stage of a project is done to reduce the
likelihood of assess risks, error and evaluate the potential success
of the planned project.
4. Establishing the design requirements
Establishing design requirements is one of the most essential elements
in the design practice, and this task is usually performed at the same
time as the feasibility analysis. The design requirements control the
design of the project all over the engineering design process. A few
design requirements comprise maintainability, hardware and software
parameters, availability, and testability.
5. Preliminary design
The preliminary design fills the gap between the design concept and
the detailed design phase. During this task, the system configuration is
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defined, and schematics, diagrams, and layouts of the project will offer
early project configuration. In detailed design and optimization, the
parameters of the part being produced will change, but the preliminary
design focuses on creating the common framework to construct the
project.
6. Detailed design

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The next phase of preliminary design is the Detailed Design which

may include of procurement also. This phase builds on the already
developed preliminary design, aiming to further develop each phase of
the project by total description through drawings, modeling as well as
specifications. The advancement CAD programs have made the
detailed design phase more competent. This is because a CAD
program can offer optimization, where it can shrink volume without
compromising the part's quality. It can also calculate displacement and
stress using the FEM to find stresses throughout the part. It is the
responsibility of designer to find whether these stresses and
displacements are acceptable, so the part is safe.
7. Production planning and tool design
The production planning and tool design is more than planning
how to mass- produce the project and which tools should be used in
the manufacturing of the component. Tasks to complete in this
stage include material selection, identification of the production
processes, finalization of the sequence of operations, and selection
of jigs, fixtures, and tooling. This stage also includes testing a
working prototype to confirm the created part meets qualification
standards. With the finishing of qualification testing and prototype
testing, the design process is completed.
(Or)
Design process---Shingley Model
It involves six steps

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1. Recognition of need
⮚ Realization of problem exists in the design or in the product
⮚ Identification of some defect in a current machine design
⮚ New product opportunity
2. Definition of problem
⮚ Specification of the item to be designed
⮚ Functional characteristics, cost, quality, performance, etc.
3. Synthesis
Preliminary ideas are developed through research of similar product
or designs in use.
4. Analysis and Optimization
⮚ Suitability for the specified design constraints
⮚ If not suitable or design fails to satisfy the constraints
⮚ Then redesign or modified iteration continues until the
proposed design meet the specifications (or) until
feasibility is achieved.
⮚ Then components, sub-assemblies or sub-systems
are then synthesized into the final overall system in
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a similar iterative manner.

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5. Evaluati
on ⮚ Prototyping
⮚ Testing
⮚ Quality
⮚ Reliability testing
6. Presentation
Documentation of the design through drawings, material
specifications, assembly lists, etc.
Pahl and Beitz Model:
1. Clarification of the task: Collection of information,

constraints on the design.

2. Conceptual design: establishment of the functions to be

included in the design,

3. Embodiment design: problems are resolved and weak

aspects are eliminated

4. Detail design: The dimensions, tolerance, materials

and form of individual components of the design are

specified in design for subsequent manufacturing.

3. Write briefly on Sequential and Concurrent Engineering

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Sequential Engineering:
⮚ Sequential engineering is the term used to explain the
method of production in a linear system. The various
steps are done one after another, with all attention and
resources focused on that single task.
⮚ Sequential engineering is a system by which a group within an
organization works sequentially to create new products and services.
⮚ The sequential engineering is a linear product design
process during which all stages of manufacturing operate
in serial. Both process and product design run in serial and
take place in the different time.
⮚ Process and Product are not matched to attain optimal matching.
⮚ Decision making done by only group of experts.

1. Sequential Engineering

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⮚ In concurrent engineering, various tasks are handled at the same

time, and not essentially in the standard order. This means that
info found out later in

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the course can be added to earlier parts, improving them, and

also saving time. Concurrent engineering
⮚ Concurrent engineering is a method by which several groups within an
organization work simultaneously to create new products and services.
⮚ The concurrent engineering is a non-linear product design
process during which all stages of manufacturing operate at
the same time. Both product and process design run in parallel
and take place in the same time.
⮚ Process and Product are coordinated to attain optimal matching of
requirements for effective quality and delivery.
⮚ Decision making involves full team involvement.

Write briefly on Computer Aided Design.

CAD is the intersection of Computer Graphics, Geometric modeling

and Design tools (Fig.4.1.). The concepts of computer graphics and
geometric modeling and must be used innovatively to serve the design
process. CAD is the function of computer systems to support in the
creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design.

Fig.4.1.CAD

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⮚ CAD software for design uses either vector-based graphics to

explain the objects of traditional drafting, or may also develop
raster graphics showing the overall look of designed objects.
During the manual drafting of engineering drawings, the output
of CAD must convey information, like dimesions, materials,
processes,and tolerances.
⮚ CAD is a significant industrial art used in many purposes, including
industrial and architectural design, shipbuilding, automotive,
and aerospace industries, and many more. CAD is also
extensively used to create computer animation for special
effects in movies, and technical manuals, frequently called as
Digital Content Creation.
⮚ CAD software packages provide the designer with a multi window
environment with animation which is regularly used in Digital
Content Creation. The animations using wire frame modeling
helps the designer to see into the interior of object and to
observe the behaviors of the inner components of the assembly
during the motion.

CAD Tools

The CAD tools are mainly using for graphics applications and
modeling. Aids such a color, grids, geometric modifiers and group
facilitate structural geometric models. Visualization is achieved
through shaded components and animation which focus design
conceptualization, communication and interference detection. FEM
packages provide optimization in shape and structure. Adding
tolerances, tolerance analysis and investigating the effect of
manufacturing on the design can perform by utilizing CAD tools.

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CAD Tools Design Process

Geometric modeling, Graphics Conceptualization
aids, visualization and
manipulation
Geometric modeling, Graphics Modeling and Simulation
aids,
visualization and manipulation,
animation, assemblies
Analysis packages, Design Analysis
customized programs
Structural optimization Design Optimization

Drafting and detailing , Shaded Communication and

images Documentation

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Uses of CAD

CAD is one of the tools used by designers and engineers and is used
in different ways depending on the profession of the customer and
the type of software.

CAD is one of the Digital Product Development activities within

the Product Lifecycle Management practices with other tools,
which are either integrated modules or individual, such as:

⮚ Computer Aided engineering (CAE) and Finite Element Analysis (FEA)

⮚ Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
⮚ Realistic Rendering and Simulation.
⮚ Product Data Management (PDM).

CAD is also used for the development of photo simulations that are
frequently necessary in the preparation of Environmental Impact
Reports, in which proposed CAD buildings are superimposed into
photographs of existing situation to represent what that conditions will
be like, where the proposed services are allowed to be built.

Parameters and constraints can be used to get the size, shape, and other
properties of the modeling elements. The features of the CAD system
can be used for the several tools for measurement; such as yield
strength, tensile strength and electrical or electro-magnetic properties.

CAD System Architecture

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Computer architecture is a pattern describing how a group of software and hardware

technology standards relate to form a computer system. In general, computer
architecture refers to how a computer is designed and what technologies it is
compatible with. Computer architecture is likened to the art of shaping the needs of
the technology, and developing a logical design and standards based on needs.

In CAD, Computer architecture is a set of disciplines that explains the

functionality, the organization and the introduction of computer systems; that is, it
describes the capabilities of a computer and its programming method in a summary
way, and how the internal organization of the system is designed and executed to
meet the specified facilities. Computer architecture engages different aspects,
including instruction set architecture design, logic design, and implementation. The
implementation includes Integrated Circuit Design, Power, and Cooling.
Optimization of the design needs expertise with Compilers, Operating Systems and
Packaging.

1. Instruction set architecture

An instruction set architecture is the interface between the software and hardware
and also can be observed as the programmer's view of the machine. Computers do
not understand high level languages, if any, language elements that translate
directly into a machine's native op codes. A processor

Write short notes on Scope and applications of

CAD/CAM Scope of CAD/CAM

At the core of the CAD and CAM processes is a geometric model of the product
under design. Activities of the CAD process include mass properties, finite
element analysis, dimensioning. tolerancing, assembly modeling, generating
shaded images, and documentation and drafting.

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Activities of the CAM process include CAPP (Computer Aided Process

Planning), NC (numerical control) programming, design of injection mold, CMM
(coordinate measuring machine) verification, inspection, assembly via robots, and
packaging.

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The CAD process and its tools utilize three disciplines: geometric modeling,
computer graphics, and design. The CAM process utilizes the disciplines of CAD
itself, manufacturing, and automation.

CAD/CAM Applications

There are considerable numbers of applications for the various existing

CAD/CAM systems. For example, there are mechanical, electrical, and
architectural CAD and CAM products. An inspection of these various systems
reveals that they have a generic structure and common modules. Awareness of
such structure and modules enables users to better understand system functions for
both evaluation and training purposes. The major available modules are the
geometric engine (module) is the heart of a CAD/CAM system. It provides users
with functions to perform geometric modeling and construction, editing and
manipulation of existing geometry, drafting and documentation. The typical
modeling operations that users can engage in are model creation, cleanup,
documentation, and printing/plotting. Shaded images can be generated as part of
model documentation.

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The applications module varies from one software system to another. However,
there are common applications shared by most CAD/CAM systems. Mechanical
applications include mass property calculations, assembly analysis, tolerance
analysis and synthesis, sheet metal design, finite element modeling and analysis,
mechanisms analysis, animation techniques, and simulation and analysis of plastic
injection molding. Manufacturing applications include CAPP, NC, CIM, robot
simulation, and group technology.

The programming module allows users to customize systems by programming

them to fit certain design and manufacturing tasks. A CAD/CAM system requires
advanced knowledge of the system architecture, its database format, and a high-
level programming language such as C, C++, Java, Scheme, or others.

The communications module is crucial if integration is to be achieved between

the CAD/CAM system, other computer systems, and manufacturing facilities. It is
common to network the system to transfer the CAD database of a model for
analysis purposes or to transfer its CAM database to the shop floor for production.
This module also serves the purpose of translating databases between CAD/CAM
systems using graphics standards such as IGES and STEP.

The collaborative module is emerging as an outcome of the widespread of the

World Wide Web and the Internet. This module supports collaborative design.
Various design teams in different geographical locations can work concurrently on
the same part, assembly, or drawing file in real time over the Web. One team can
make changes that other teams can view and accept or reject.

The various CAD/CAM systems support engineering design, analysis, and

manufacturing applications. They all have a flexible pricing structure that allows
customers to add on applications as needed.

Write short notes on: CAD, CAD process, components of CAD system, and
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advantages of CAD systems. Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

⮚ CAD can be defined as the use of computer systems to perform certain

functions in the design process. Use of computer systems to assist in the
creation, modification, analysis, and optimization of a design In general, a
Computer Aided Design (CAD) package has three components: a) Design,
b) Analysis, and c) Visualization. A brief description of these components
follows.

⮚ Design: Design refers to geometric modeling, i.e., 2-D and 3-D modeling,

including, drafting, part creation, creation of drawings with various views

of the part, assemblies of the parts, etc.

⮚ Analysis: Analysis refers to finite element analysis, optimization, and other

number crunching engineering analyses. In general, a geometric model is

first created and then the model is analyzed for loads, stresses, moment of
inertia, and volume, etc.

⮚ Visualization: Visualization refers to computer graphics, which includes:

rendering a model, creation of pie charts, contour plots, shading a model,

sizing, animation, etc.

Each of these three areas has been extensively developed in the last 30 years several books
are

written on each of these subjects and courses are available through the academic
institutions and the industry.

• Typical tools:
• Tolerance analysis
• Mass property calculations
• Finite-element modeling and visualization
• Defines the geometry of the design

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Computer-Aided Design Process

Two types of activities: synthesis and analysis

• Synthesis is largely qualitative and hard to capture on computer.

• Analysis can be greatly enhanced with computers.
• Once analysis is complete, design evaluation- rapid prototyping are done.

CAD Hardware

There are basically two types of devices that constitute CAD hardware:

a) Input devices, and b) Output devices.

Input Devices

These are the devices that we use for communicating with computer, and
providing our input in the form of text and graphics. The text input is mainly
provided through keyboard. For graphic input, there are several devices available
and used according to the work environment. A brief description of these devices is
given here.

Mouse: This is a potentiometric device, which contains several variable resistors

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that send signals to the computer. The functions of a mouse include locating a
point on the screen, sketching, dragging an object, entering values, accepting a
software command, etc. Joystick and trackballs are analogous to a mouse device,
and operate on the same principle.

Digitizers: Digitizers are used to trace a sketch or other 2-D entities by moving a
cursor over a flat surface (which contains the sketch). The position of the cursor
provides a feedback to the

computer connected with the device. There are electrical wires embedded in
orthogonal directions that receive and pass signals between the device and the
computer. The device is basically a free moving pen shaped stylus, connected to a
tablet.

Light Pens: Lockheed’s CADAM software utilized this device to carry out the
graphic input. A light pen looks like a pen and contains a photocell, which emits an
electronic signal. When the pen is pointed at the monitor screen, it senses light,
which is converted to a signal. The signal is sent to the computer, for determination
of the exact location of the pen on the monitor screen.
Touch Sensitive Screens: This device is embedded in the monitor screens, usually,
in the form of an overlay. The screen senses the physical contact of the user. The
new generation of the Laptop computers is a good example of this device.

Other Graphic Input Devices: In addition to the devices described above, some
CAD software will accept input via Image Scanners, which can copy a drawing or
schematic with a camera and light beam assembly and convert it into a pictorial
database.

The devices just described are, in general, independent of the CAD package being
used. All commercial CAD software packages contain the device drivers for the
most commonly used input devices. The device drivers facilitate a smooth

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interaction between our input, the software, and the computer. An input device is
evaluated on the basis of the following factors:

• Resolution

• Accuracy

• Repeatability

• Linearity

Output Devices

After creating a CAD model, we often need a hard copy, using an output device. Plotters
and printers are used for this purpose.

A plotter is often used to produce large size drawings and assemblies, whereas, a
laser jet printer is adequate to provide a 3-D view of a model. Most CAD software
require a plotter for producing a shaded or a rendered view.

CAD Software

⮚ CAD software is written in FORTRAN and C languages. FORTRAN

provides the number crunching, whereas, C language provides the
visual images.
⮚ The modern CAD software utilizes the open architecture system, i.e.,
software vendors do not design and manufacture their own hardware.
Third party software can be used to augment the basic CAD package.
⮚ Most popular CAD package will facilitate integration of the Finite Element Analysis
and other CAD software from more than one vendor. For example, IDEAS
preprocessor can work with almost all the FEA packages for pre and post analyses.
⮚ Networking is an important consideration in applications of CAD software. A model
created by one engineer must be readily accessible to others in an
organization, which is linked by a LAN or other means. The designer,
analyst, management, marketing, vendor, and others generally share a
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model. This is the concurrent engineering in action, mentioned earlier.

CAD Platform

⮚ In general, we can run CAD software on three different CAD platforms:

Mainframe, Workstation, and PC.
⮚ When the CAD programs first became available, they could only be run on
a mainframe computer. However, as the PCs have become faster and
cheaper, almost all the CAD vendors have introduced a version of their
CAD software that will effectively run on a Pentium or higher computer.
Currently, the most popular platforms are PCs and Workstations.
⮚ Popularity of Workstations stems from their ability to network easily with other
computers, and also, due to their large memory storage capability. However,
PC platform is still the most preferred medium for most engineers.
⮚ Increasing popularity of the PC platform can be attributed to several
factors, including, total user control, the speed, capability of storing large
memory, ease of hardware upgrading and maintenance, and the overall
reasonable cost.

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Advantages of CAD/CAM systems

⮚ Greater flexibility, Reduced lead times, Reduced inventories, Increased

Productivity, Improved customer service, Improved quality, Improved
communications with suppliers, Better product design, Greater
manufacturing control, Supported integration, Reduced costs, Increased
utilization, Reduction of machine tools, Less floor space

CAD/CAM Applications

Write short notes on: Concurrent Engineering, Characteristics of Concurrent

Engineering with example.

Characteristics of Concurrent Engineering

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In concurrent engineering functional divisions like design, manufacturing and

quality are integrated in a compatible environment. The integration comes in the
form of instant delivery of information about business processes across the
enterprise. Cross functional units co-operate concurrently rather than
sequentially. The real-time sharing of information enables teams to make design
modifications early in a product development cycle, thus reducing unwanted
rework and engineering changes that increase cost of operations, reduce product
quality and delay the time-to-market.

The concurrent engineering approach can be characterized by the following

factors: • Integration of product and process development and logistics support •
Closer attention to the needs of customers

• Adoption of new technologies

• Continuous review of design and development process
• Rapid and automated information exchange
• Cross functional teams
• Rapid prototyping

Example of Concurrent Engineering

The story of the development of Neon Car in USA is a typical example of success of
concurrent engineering. The planning of the car started in August 1990.

For each major item product teams were made. Supporting teams were
organized for such activities like dimension control, materials etc. The
composition of a typical team included representatives from engineering,
stamping, manufacturing processes, assembly, design, purchase, finance,
product planning, materials handling and vendor development. Even suppliers
were part of the product development team. Each team took approximately one
year to complete a task. Subsequently process teams were organized to
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converted into launch teams to successfully introduce the product in the market.

Another example for successful implementation of concurrent engineering is

the development of Scooty moped and other products by TVS Motors Ltd. in
India. Before taking up the design cross functional teams were formed to
design and engineer the product. This reduced not only the product
development time but also helped the manufacturer to introduce the quality
product in the market.

GEOMETRIC MODELING

Representation of curves- Hermite curve- Bezier curve- B-spline curves-rational

curves- Techniques for surface modeling – surface patch- Coons and bicubic
patches- Bezier and B- spline surfaces. Solid modeling techniques- CSG and B-
rep.

Geometric Modeling
Introduction
Geometric modeling is a part of computational geometry and applied
mathematics that studies algorithms and techniques for the mathematical
description of shapes. The shapes defined in geometric modeling are generally
2D or 3D, even though several of its principles and tools can be used to sets of
any finite dimension. Geometric modeling is created with computer based
applications. 2D models are significant in computer technical drawing and
typography. 3D models are fundamental to CAD and CAM and extensively
used in many applied technical branches such as civil engineering and
mechanical engineering and medical image processing.
Geometric models are commonly differentiated from object oriented models
and procedural, which describe the shape perfectly by an opaque algorithm that
creates its appearance. They are also compared with volumetric models and
digital images which shows the shape as a subset of a regular partition of space;
and with fractal models that provide
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shape. Though, these differences are often fuzzy: for example, an image can be
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interpreted as a collection of colored squares; and geometric shape of circles are

defined by implicit mathematical equations. Also, a fractal model gives a
parametric model when its recursive description is truncated to a finite depth.
Representation of curves
Curves are mathematical entities that define the path of a point in space.
Represented parametrically, a 2D curve has the following mathematical
description.

R(t) = < x(t), y(t), z(t) >

Where ‘t’ is a parameter over a specified interval, parameterizing the curve.

Curves types can be Bezier curves and B-spline curves expressed as weighted
combinations of control points.

Finally, surfaces are mathematical constructs that defines the boundaries of 3D

shapes represented with the following mathematical description of a parametric
surface

R(u,v) = (x(u.v), y(u,v), z(u,v))

Where two variables ‘u’ and ‘v’ parameterize surfaces

Examples of a surface model include parametric surfaces, defined through

functions, and Bezier surfaces, expressed as combinations of control points.
These mathematical models facilitates precise control over the shape and
characteristics of surfaces in geometric modeling.

Conic Section
Conic sections or sections of a cone are the curves obtained by the intersection
of a plane and cone. There are three major sections of a cone or conic sections:
parabola, hyperbola, and ellipse(the circle is a special kind of ellipse). A cone
with two identical nappes is used to produce the conic sections.

All the sections of a cone or conic sections have different shapes but they do
share some common properties.
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Conic sections are the curves obtained when a plane cuts the cone. A cone
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generally has two identical conical shapes known as nappes. We can get various
shapes depending upon the angle of the cut between the plane and the cone and
its nappe. By cutting a cone by a plane at different angles, we get the following
shapes:
 Circle
 Parabola
 Ellipse
 Hyperbola
Ellipse is a conic section that is formed when a plane intersects with the cone at
an angle. The circle is a special type of ellipse where the cutting plane is parallel
to the base of the cone. A hyperbola is formed when the interesting plane is
parallel to the axis of the cone, and intersects with both the nappes of the double
cone. When the intersecting plane cuts at an angle to the surface of the cone, we
get a conic section named parabola.

Conic Section Parameters

The focus, directrix, and eccentricity are the three important features or parameters
which defined the conic. The various conic figures are the circle, ellipse, parabola, and
hyperbola. And the shape and orientation of these shapes are completely based on these
three important features. Let us learn in detail about each of them.

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The focus or foci(plural) of a conic section is/are the point(s) about which the conic
section is created. They are specially defined for each type of conic section. A parabola
has one focus, while ellipses and hyperbolas have two foci. For an ellipse, the sum of the
distance of the point on the ellipse from the two foci is constant. Circle, which is a
special case of an ellipse, has both the foci at the same place and the distance of all
points from the focus is constant. For parabola, it is a limiting case of an ellipse and has
one focus at a distance from the vertex, and another focus at infinity. The hyperbola has
two foci and the absolute difference of the distance of the point on the hyperbola from
the two foci is constant.

Directrix

Directrix is a line used to define the conic sections. The directrix is a line drawn
perpendicular to the axis of the referred conic. Every point on the conic is defined by the
ratio of its distance from the directrix and the foci. The directrix is parallel to the
conjugate axis and the latus rectum of the conic. A circle has no directrix. The parabola
has 1 directrix, the ellipse and the hyperbola have 2 directrices each.

Eccentricity

The eccentricity of a conic section is the constant ratio of the distance of the point on the
conic section from the focus and directrix. Eccentricity is used to uniquely define the
shape of a conic section. It is a non-negative real number. Eccentricity is denoted by "e".
If two conic sections have the same eccentricity, they will be similar. As eccentricity
increases, the conic section deviates more and more from the shape of the circle. The
value of e for different conic sections is as follows.

 For circle, e = 0.
 For ellipse, 0 ≤ e < 1
 For parabola, e = 1
 For hyperbola, e > 1

Terms Related To Conic Section

Other than these three parameters, conic sections have a few more parameters like
principal axis, latus rectum, major and minor axis, focal parameter, etc. Let us briefly
learn about each of these parameters related to the conic section. The following are the
details of the parameters of the conic section.

 Principal Axis: The axis passing through the center and foci of a conic is its
principal axis and is also referred to as the major axis of the conic.
 Conjugate Axis: The axis drawn perpendicular to the principal axis and passing
through the center of the conic is the conjugate axis. The conjugate axis is also its
minor axis.
 Center: The point of intersection of the principal axis and the conjugate axis of
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 Vertex: The point on the axis where the conic cuts the axis is referred to as the
vertex of the conic.
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 Focal Chord: The focal chord of a conic is the chord passing through the focus of
the conic section. The focal chord cuts the conic section at two distinct points.
 Focal Distance: The distance of a point (x1,y1)
 on the conic, from any of the foci, is the focal distance. For an ellipse, hyperbola
we have two foci, and hence we have two focal distances.
 Latus Rectum: It is a focal chord that is perpendicular to the axis of the conic.
The length of the latus rectum for a parabola is LL' = 4a. And the length of the
latus rectum for an ellipse, and hyperbola is 2b2/a.
 Tangent: The tangent is a line touching the conic externally at one point on the
conic. The point where the tangent touches the conic is called the point of contact.
Also from an external point, about two tangents can be drawn to the conic.
 Normal: The line drawn perpendicular to the tangent and passing through the
point of contact and the focus of the conic is called the normal. We can have one
normal for each of the tangents to the conic.
 Chord of Contact: The chord drawn to join the point of contact of the tangents,
drawn from an external point to the conic is called the chord of contact.
 Pole and Polar: For a point which is referred as a pole and lying outside the conic
section, the locus of the points of intersection of the tangents, draw at the ends of
the chords, drawn from this point is called the polar.
 Auxilary Circle: A circle drawn on the major axis of the ellipse as its diameter is
called the auxiliary circle. The conic equation of an ellipse is x2/a2 + y2/b2 = 1,
and the equation of the auxiliary circle is x2 + y2 = a2.
 Director Circle: The locus of the point of intersection of the perpendicular
tangents drawn to the ellipse is called the director circle. For an ellipse (x 2/a2 +
y2/b2 = 1), the equation of the director circle is x2 + y2 = a2 + b2
 Asymptotes: The pair of straight lines drawn parallel to the hyperbola and
assumed to touch the hyperbola at infinity. The equations of the asymptotes of the
hyperbola are y = bx/a, and y = -bx/a respectively. And for a hyperbola having the
conic equation of x2/a2 - y2/b2 = 1, the equation of the pair of asymptotes of the
x y
hyperbola are a ± b =0

Circle - Conic Section

The circle is a special type of ellipse where the cutting plane is parallel to the base of the
cone. The circle has a focus known as the center of the circle. The locus of the points on
the circle have a fixed distance from the focus or center of the circle and is called the
radius of the circle. The value of eccentricity(e) for a circle is e = 0. Circle has no
directrix. The general form of the equation of a circle with center at (h, k), and radius r:

(x−h)2 + (y−k)2 = r2

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Parabola - Conic Section

When the intersecting plane is at an angle to the surface of the cone we get a
conic section named parabola. It is a U-shaped conic section. The value of
eccentricity(e) for parabola is e = 1. It is asymmetrical open plane curve formed
by the intersection of a cone with a plane parallel to its side. The graph of a
quadratic function is a parabola, a line-symmetric curve whose shape is like the
graph of y = x2. The graph of a parabola either opens upward like y = x 2 or opens
downward like the graph of y = - x 2. The path of a projectile under the influence
of gravity ideally follows a curve of this shape.

Ellipse - Conic Section

Ellipse is a conic section that is formed when a plane intersects with the cone at
an angle. Ellipse has 2 foci, a major axis, and a minor axis. Value of
eccentricity(e) for ellipse is e < 1. Ellipse has 2 directrices. The general form of
the equation of an ellipse with center at (h, k) and length of the major and minor
axes as '2a' and '2b' respectively. The major axis of the ellipse is parallel to the
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x-axis. The conic section formula for an ellipse is as follows.
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(x−h)2/a2 + (y−k)2/b2 = 1

Hyperbola - Conic Section

A hyperbola is formed when the interesting plane is parallel to the axis of the cone, and
intersect with both the nappes of the double cone. The value for eccentricity(e) for
hyperbola is e > 1. The two unconnected sections of the hyperbola are called branches.
They are mirror images of each other, and their diagonally opposite arms approach the
limit to a line.

A hyperbola is an example of a conic section that can be drawn on a plane that intersects
a double cone created from two nappes.The general form of the equation of the
hyperbola with (h, k) as the center is as follows.

(x−h)2/a2 - (y−k)2/b2 = 1

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Conic Section Formulas - Standard Forms
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Conic section formulas represent the standard forms of a circle, parabola, ellipse,
hyperbola. For ellipses and hyperbolas, the standard form has the x-axis as the principal
axis and the origin (0,0) as the center. The vertices are (±a, 0) and the foci (±c, 0)., and is
defined by the equations c2= a2 − b2 for an ellipse and c2 = a2 + b2 for a hyperbola. For a
circle, c = 0 so a 2 = b2. For the parabola, the standard form has the focus on the x-axis at
the point (a, 0) and the directrix is the line with equation x = −a.

 Circle: x2+y2= a2
 Parabola: y2= 4ax when a>0
 Ellipse: x2/a2 + y2/b2 = 1
 Hyperbola: x2/a2 – y2/b2 = 1

1. Example 1: What will be the equation for the hyperbola which has center at (2, 3), vertex
at (0, 3), and the focus at (5, 3).

Solution:

As we see, for hyperbola, all three points i.e., center, vertex, and focus lie on the same line y = 3.

Now we can see from the given points:

a = 2, c = 3

Hence

b2 = c2- a2 = 9 – 4 = 5.

Putting in the equation of hyperbola conic section:

(x−h)2/a2 - (y−k)2/b2 = 1

We get,

(x−2)2/22 - (y−3)2/5 = 1

Answer: Equation of the hyperbola will be (x−2)2/4 - (y−3)2/5 = 1.

2. Example 2: If for an ellipse, the focus lies at (3, 0), a vertex lies at (4, 0), and its center lies
at (0, 0). Find the equation of the ellipse.

Solution:

From the given points, we can see that

c = 3 and a = 4.

Using b2 = a2 – c2
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We get:
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b2= 16 – 9 = 7

Putting in the equation of ellipse conic section:

x2/a2 + y2/b2 = 1

x2/16 + y2/7 = 1

Answer: The equation of the ellipse is x2/16 + y2/7 = 1.

Hermite curve
A Hermite curve is a spline where every piece is a third degree polynomial defined in
Hermite form: that is, by its values and initial derivatives at the end points of the
equivalent domain interval. Cubic Hermite splines are normally used for interpolation of
numeric values defined at certain dispute values x1,x2,x3, ….., xn, to achieve a smooth
continuous function. The data should have the preferred function value and derivative at
each Xk. The Hermite formula is used to every interval (Xk, Xk+1) individually. The
resulting spline become continuous and will have first derivative.
Cubic polynomial splines are specially used in computer geometric modeling to attain
curves that pass via defined points of the plane in 3D space. In these purposes, each
coordinate of the plane is individually interpolated by a cubic spline function of a
divided parameter‘t’.
Cubic splines can be completed to functions of different parameters, in several ways.
Bicubic splines are frequently used to interpolate data on a common rectangular grid,
such as pixel values in a digital picture. Bicubic surface patches, described by three
bicubic splines, are an necessary tool in computer graphics. Hermite curves are simple to
calculate but also more powerful. They are used to well interpolate between key points.

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The following vectors needs to compute a Hermite curve:

● P1: the start point of the Hermite curve
● T1: the tangent to the start point
● P2: the endpoint of the Hermite curve
● T2: the tangent to the endpoint
Bezier curve
Bezier curves are extensively applied in CAD to model smooth curves. As the curve is
totally limited in the convex hull of its control points P0, P1,P2 & P3, the points can be
graphically represented and applied to manipulate the curve logically. The control points
P0 and P3 of the polygon lie on the curve (Fig.2.4.). The other two vertices described the
order, derivatives and curve shape. The Bezier curve is commonly tangent to first and
last vertices.
Cubic Bezier curves and Quadratic Bezier curves are very common. Higher degree
Bezier curves are highly computational to evaluate. When more complex shapes are
required, Bezier curves in low order are patched together to produce a composite Bezier
curve. A composite Bezier curve is usually described to as a ‘path’ in vector graphics
standards and programs. For smoothness assurance, the control point at which two
curves meet should be on the line between the two control points on both sides.

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A general adaptive method is recursive subdivision, in which a curve's control points are
verified to view if the curve approximates a line segment to within a low tolerance. If
not, the curve is further divided parametrically into two segments, 0 ≤ t ≤ 0.5 and 0.5 ≤ t
≤ 1, and the same process is used recursively to each half. There are future promote
differencing techniques, but more care must be taken to analyze error transmission.
Analytical methods where a Bezier is intersected with every scan line engage finding
roots of cubic polynomials and having with multiple roots, so they are not often applied
in practice. A Bezier curve is described by a set of control points P0 through Pn, where
‘n’ is order of curve. The initial and end control points are commonly the end points of
the curve; but, the intermediate control points normally do not lie on the curve.
(i) Linear Bezier curves

As shown in the figure 2.5, the given points P0 and P1, a linear Bezier curve is merely a
straight line between those two points.
The Bezier curve is represented by and it is similar to linear interpolation

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(iii) Cubic Bezier curves

As shown in figure 2.7, four control points P0, P1, P2 and P3 in the higher-dimensional
space describe as a Cubic Bezier curve. The curve begins at P0 going on the way to P1
and reaches at P3 coming from the direction of P2. Typically, it will not pass through
control points P1 / P2, these points are only there to give directional data. The distance
between P0 and P1 determines ‘how fast’ and ‘how far’ the curve travels towards P1
before turning towards P2.

Properties Bezier curve

 The Bezier curve starts at P0 and ends at Pn; this is known as ‘endpoint
interpolation’ property.
 The Bezier curve is a straight line when all the control points of a cure are
collinear.
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the Bezier curve is tangent to the first portion of the Bezier
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 A Bezier curve can be divided at any point into two sub curves, each of which is
also a Bezier curve.
 A few curves that look like simple, such as the circle, cannot be expressed
accurately by a Bezier;
 via four piece cubic Bezier curve can similar a circle, with a maximum radial error
of less than one part in a thousand (Fig.2.8).

 Each quadratic Bezier curve is become a cubic Bezier curve, and more commonly,
each degree ‘n’ Bezier curve is also a degree ‘m’ curve for any m > n.
 Bezier curves have the different diminishing property. A Bezier curves does not
‘ripple’ more than the polygon of its control points, and may actually ‘ripple’ less
than that.
 Bezier curve is similar with respect to t and (1-t). This represents that the sequence
of control points defining the curve can be changes without modify of the curve
shape.
 Bezier curve shape can be edited by either modifying one or more vertices of its
polygon or by
 keeping the polygon unchanged or simplifying multiple coincident points at a
vertex

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VISUAL REALISM
Hidden – Line-Surface-Solid removal algorithms – shading – colouring – computer
animation.

Visual Realism
3.1. Introduction
Visual Realism is a method for interpreting picture data fed into a computer and for
creating pictures from difficult multidimensional data sets. Visualization can be
classified as :
● Visualization in geometric modeling
● Visualization in scientific computing.
Visualization in geometric modeling is helpful in finding connection in the design
applications. By shading the parts with various shadows, colors and transparency, the
designer can recognize undesired unknown interferences. In the design of complex
surfaces shading with different texture characteristics can use to find any undesired quick
modifications in surface changes.
Visualization in computing is viewed as a technique of geometric modeling. It changes
the data in numerical form into picture display, allowing users to view their simulations
and
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computations. Visualization offers a process of seeing the hidden. Visualization in

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scientific computing is of great interest to engineers during the design process.

Existing visualization methods are:

● Parallel projections
● Perspective projection.
● Hidden line removal
● Hidden surface removal
● Hidden solid removal
● Shaded models
Hidden line and surface removal methods remove the uncertainty of the displays of 3D
models and is accepted the first step towards visual realism. Shaded images can only be
created for surface and solid models. In multiple step shading process, the first step is
removing the hidden surfaces / solids and second step is shades the visible area only.
Shaded images provide the maximum level of visualization.

The processes of hidden removal need huge amounts of computing times and also upper
end hardware services. The creation and maintenance of such a models are become
complex. Hence, creating real time images needs higher end computers with the shading
algorithms embedded into the hardware.

Hidden line removal

Hidden line removal (HLR) is the method of computing which edges are not hidden by
the faces of parts for a specified view and the display of parts in the projection of a
model into a 2D plane. Hidden line removal is utilized by a CAD to display the visual
lines. It is considered that information openly exists to define a 2D wireframe model as
well as the 3D topological information. Typically, the best algorithm is required for
viewing this information from an available part representation.

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3D parts are simply manufactured and frequently happen in a CAD design of such a part.
In addition, the degrees of freedom are adequate to show the majority of models and are
not overwhelming in the number of constraints to be forced. Also, almost all the surface-
surface intersections and shadow computations can be calculated analytically which
results in significant savings in the number of computations over numerical methods.

Priority algorithm

Priority algorithm is basis on organization all the polygons in the view according to the
biggest Z-coordinate value of each. If a face intersects more than one face, other
visibility tests besides the Z- depth required to solve any issue. This step comprises
purposes of wrapper.

Imagines that objects are modeled with lines and lines are generated where surfaces join.
If only the visible surfaces are created then the invisible lines are automatically removed.

Hidden surface removal

The hidden surface removal is the procedure used to find which surfaces are not visible
from a certain view. ADownloaded
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issue, which was one of the first key issues in the field of three dimensional graphics.
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The procedure of hidden surface identification is called as hiding, and such an algorithm
is called a ‘hider’. Hidden surface identification is essential to render a 3D image
properly, so that one cannot see through walls in virtual reality.
Hidden surface identification is a method by which surfaces which should not be visible
to the user are prohibited from being rendered. In spite of benefits in hardware potential
there is still a requirement for difficult rendering algorithms. The accountability of a
rendering engine is to permit for bigger world spaces and as the world’s size approaches
infinity the rendering engine should not slow down but maintain a constant speed.

There are many methods for hidden surface identification. They are basically a work out
in sorting, and generally vary in the order in which the sort is executed and how the
problem is subdivided. Sorting more values of graphics primitives is generally done by
divide.

buffer algorithm

pixel is behind the pixel in the Z-buffer, the pixel is eliminated, or else it is shaded and
its depth value changes the one in the Z-buffer. Z-buffering helps dynamic visuals easily,
and is presently introduced effectively in graphics hardware.
• Depth buffering is one of the easiest hidden surface algorithms

• It keeps follow of the space to nearest object at every pixel position.

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•Initialized to most negative z value.

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• when image being drawn, if its z coordinate at a position is higher than z buffer value,
it is drawn, and new z coordinate value is stored; or else, it is not drawn

• If a line in three dimensional is being drawn, then the middle z values are interpolated:
linear interpolation for polygons, and can calculate z for more difficult surfaces.

Basic operations:
1. compute y range of an object
2. compute x range of a given scan line of an object
3. Calculate intersection point of a object with ray through pixel position (x,y).
Painter’s algorithm

The painter's algorithm is called as a priority fill, is one of the easiest results to the
visibility issue in three dimensional graphics. When projecting a 3D view onto a 2D
screen, it is essential at various points to be finalized which polygons are visible, and
which polygons are hidden.

The ‘painter's algorithm’ shows to the method employed by most of the painters of
painting remote parts of a scene before parts which are close thereby hiding some areas
of distant parts. The painter's algorithm arranges all the polygons in a view by their depth
and then paints them in this order, extreme to closest. It will paint over the existing parts
that are usually not visible hence solving the visibility issue at the cost of having painted
invisible areas of distant objects.
The ordering used by the algorithm is referred a 'depth order', and does not have to
respect the distances to the parts of the scene: the important characteristics of this
ordering is, somewhat, that if one object has ambiguous part of another then the first
object is painted after the object that it is ambiguous. Thus, a suitable ordering can be
explained as a topological ordering of a directed acyclic graph showing between objects.

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sort objects by depth, splitting if necessary to handle intersections; loop on
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objects (drawing from back to front)

{
loop on y within y range of this object
{
loop on x within x range of this scan line of this object
{
image[x,y] = shade(x,y);
}
}

Basic operations:
1. compute ‘y’ range of an object
2. compute ‘x’ range of a given scan line of an object
3. compute intersection point of a given object with ray via pixel point (x,y).
4. evaluate depth of two objects, determine if A is in front of B, or B is in front of A,
if they don’t overlap in xy, or if they intersect
5. divide one object by another object
Advantage of painter's algorithm is the inner loops are quite easy and limitation is sorting
operation.
Warnock algorithm
The Warnock algorithm is a hidden surface algorithm developed by John Warnock that is
classically used in the area of graphics. It explains the issues of rendering a difficult
image by recursive subdivision of a view until regions are attained that is trivial to
evaluate. Similarly, if the view is simple to compute effectively then it is rendered; else it
is split into tiny parts which are likewise evaluated for simplicity. This is a algorithm
with run-time of O(np), where p is the number of pixels in the viewport and n is the
number of polygons.
The inputs for Warnock algorithm are detail of polygons and a viewport. The good case
is that if the detail of polygons is very simple then creates the polygons in the viewport.
The continuous step is Downloaded
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viewport into four equally sized quadrants and to
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recursively identify the algorithm for each quadrant, with a polygon list changed such
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that it contains polygons that are detectable in that quadrant.

1. Initialize the region.
2. Generate list of polygons by sorting them with their z values.
3. Remove polygons which are outside the area.
4. Identify relationship of each polygon.
5. Execute visibility decision analysis:
a) Fill area with background color if all polygons are disjoint,
b) Fill entire area with background color and fill part of polygon contained in
area with color of polygon if there is only one contained polygon,
c) If there is a single surrounding polygon but not contained then fill area with
color of surrounding polygon.
d) Set pixel to the color of polygon which is closer to view if region of the
pixel (x,y) and if neither of (a) to (d) applies calculate z- coordinate at pixel (x,y) of
polygons.
6. If none of above is correct then subdivide the area and Go to Step 2.

Hidden Solid Removal

The hidden solid removal issue involves the view of solid models with hidden line or
surface eliminated. Available hidden line algorithm and hidden surface algorithms are
useable to hidden solid elimination of B-rep models.
The following techniques to display CSG models:
1. Transfer the CSG model into a boundary model.
2. Use a spatial subdivision strategy.
3. Based on ray sorting.
Ray-Tracing algorithm

A ray tracing is a method for creating an image by tracing the path of light via pixels in
an image plane and reproducing the effects of its meets with virtual objects. The
procedure is capable of creating a high degree of visual realism, generally higher than
that of usual scan line techniques, but at a better computational. This creates ray tracing
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excellent suited for uses where the image can be rendered gradually ahead of time,
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similar to still images and film and TV visual effects, and more badly suited for real time
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environment like video games where speed is very important. Ray tracing is simulating a
wide range of optical effects, such as scattering, reflection and refraction.

Optical ray tracing explains a technique for creating visual images constructed in three
dimensional graphics environments, with higher photorealism than either ray casting
rendering

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practices. It executes by tracing a path from an imaginary eye via every pixel in a virtual
display, and computing the color of the object visible via it.
Displays in ray tracing are explained mathematically by a programmer. Displays may also
incorporate data from 3D models and images captured like a digital photography.
In general, every ray must be tested for intersection with a few subsets of all the objects in
the view. Once the nearest object has been selected, the algorithm will calculate the
receiving light at the point of intersection, study the material properties of the object, and
join this information to compute the finishing color of the pixel. One of the major
limitations of algorithm, the reflective or translucent
materials may need additional rays to be re-cast into the scene.
Advantages of Ray tracing:
1. A realistic simulation of lighting over other rendering.
2. An effect such as reflections and shadows is easy and effective.
3. Simple to implement yet yielding impressive visual results.
Limitation of ray tracing:
Scan line algorithms use data consistency to divide computations between pixels, while ray
tracing normally begins the process a new, treating every eye ray separately.
Shading
Shading defines to describe depth perception in three dimensioning models by different
levels of darkness. Shading is applied in drawing for describes levels of darkness on paper
by adding media heavy densely shade for darker regions, and less densely for lighter
regions.

There are different techniques of shading with cross hatching where perpendicular lines of
changing closeness are drawn in a grid pattern to shade an object. The closer the lines are
combining, the darker the area appears. Similarly, the farther apart the lines are, the lighter
the area shows.

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Shading techniques:
In computer graphics, shading submits to the procedure of changing the color of an object in
the

3D view, a photorealistic effect to be based on its angle to lights and its distance from
lights. Shading is performed through the rendering procedure by a program called a
‘Shader’. Flat shading and Smooth shading are the two major techniques using in Computer
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graphics.

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CAD
Standards
Introduction
The purpose of CAD standard is that the CAD software should not be device-
independent and should connect to any input device via a device driver and to
any graphics display via a device drive.

The graphics system is divided into two parts: the kernel system, which is
hardware independent and the device driver, which is hardware dependent. The
kernel system, acts as a buffer independent and portability of the program. At
interface ‘X’ , the application program calls the standard functions and sub routine
provided by the kernel system through what is called language bindings. These
functions and subroutine, call the device driver functions and subroutines at
interface ‘Y’ to complete the task required by the application program

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Various standards in graphics programming

The following international organizations involved to develop the graphics standards:
● ACM ( Association for Computer Machinery )
● ANSI ( American National Standards Institute )
● ISO ( International Standards Organization )
● GIN ( German Standards Institute )

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As a result of these international organization efforts, various standard functions at

various levels of the graphics system developed. These are:
4. IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification) enables an
exchange of model data basis among CAD system.
5. DXF (Drawing / Data Exchange Format) file format was
meant to provide an exact representation of the data in
the standard CAD file format.

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6. STEP (Standard for the Exchange of Product model data)

can be used to exchange data between CAD, Computer
Aided Manufacturing (CAM) , Computer Aided
Engineering (CAE) , product data management/enterprise
data modeling (PDES) and other CAx systems.
7. CALS ( Computer Aided Acquisition and Logistic
Support) is an US Department of Defense initiative with
the aim of applying computer technology in Logistic
support.
8. GKS (Graphics Kernel System) provides a set of drawing
features for two-dimensional vector graphics suitable for
charting and similar duties.
9. PHIGS ( Programmer’s Hierarchical Interactive Graphic
System) The PHIGS standard defines a set of functions and
data structures to be used by a programmer to manipulate
and display 3-D graphical objects.
10.VDI (Virtual Device Interface) lies between GKS or
PHIGS and the device driver code. VDI is now called
CGI (Computer Graphics Interface).
11.VDM (Virtual Device Metafile) can be stored or
transmitted from graphics device to another.
VDM is now called CGM (Computer Graphics Metafile).

12.NAPLPS (North American Presentation- Level Protocol

Syntax) describes text and graphics in the form of
sequences of bytes in ASCII code

Graphics Kernel System (GKS)

The Graphical Kernel System (GKS) was the first ISO standard for computer
graphics in low- level, established in 1977. GKS offers a group of drawing aspects
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for 2D vector graphics appropriate for mapping and related duties. The calls are
defined to be moveable across various programming languages, graphics hardware,
so that applications noted to use GKS will be willingly portable to different
devices and platforms

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The main uses of the GKS standard are:

● To give for portability of application graphics programs.
● To assist in the learning of graphics systems by application programmers.
● To offer strategy for manufacturers in relating practical graphics
capabilities. The GKS consists of three basic parts:
(i) A casual exhibition of the substances of the standard which contains such
things as how text is placed, how polygonal zones are to be filled, and so
onward.
(ii) ii) An official of the descriptive material in (i), by way of conceptual the
ideas into separate functional explanations. These functional descriptions
have such data as descriptions of input and output parameters, specific
descriptions of the result of every function should have references into the
descriptive material in (i), and a description of fault situation. The
functional descriptions in this division are language autonomous.
(iii) iii) Language bindings are an execution of the abstract functions
explained in (ii). in a explicit computer language such as C.

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GKS arrange its functionality into twelve functional stages, based on the
complexity of the graphical input and output. There are four stages of output (m, 0,
1, 2) and three stages of input (A, B, C). NCAR GKS has a complete execution of
the GKS C bindings at level 0 A.

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GKS Output Primitives

GKS is based on a number of elements that may be drawn in an object know as
graphical primitives. The fundamental set of primitives has the word names
POLYLINE, POLYMARKER, FILLAREA, TEXT and CELLARRAY, even
though a few implementations widen this basic set.
i) POLYLINES
The GKS function for drawing line segments is called ‘POLYLINE’. The
‘POLYLINE’ command takes an array of X-Y coordinates and creates line
segments joining them. The elements that organize the look of a ‘POLYLINE’ are
(Fig.5.3):
● Line type : solid, dashed or dotted.
● Line width scale factor : thickness of the line.
●  Polyline color index : color of the line.

ii) POLYMARKERS

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v) CELL ARRAY
The GKS CELL ARRAY function shows raster like pictures in a device
autonomous manner. The CELL ARRAY function takes the two corner points of a
rectangle that indicate, a number of partitions (M) in the X direction and a number
of partitions (N) in the Y direction. It then partitions the rectangle into M x N sub
rectangles noted as cells.
Standard for exchange images
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A graphics standard proposed for interactive Three Dimensional applications

should assure different criteria. It should be introduced on platforms with changing
graphics abilities without sacrificing the graphics quality of the primary hardware
and without compromising control over the hardware’s function. It must offer a
normal interface that permits a programmer to explain rendering processes quickly.
To end with, the interface should be flexible adequate to contain additions, hence
that as new graphics operations become important, these operations can be given
without sacrificing the original interface. OpenGL meets these measures by giving
a simple interface to the basic operations of 3D graphics rendering. It supports
basic graphics primitives, basic rendering operations and lighting calculations. It
also helps advanced rendering attributes such as texture mapping.
Open Graphics Library
OpenGL draws primitives into a structured buffer focus to a various selectable
modes. Every Point, line, polygon, or bitmap are called as a primitive. Each mode
can be modified separately; the parameters of one do not affect the parameters of
others. Modes defined, primitives detailed, and other OpenGL operations
explained by giving commands in the form of procedure calls

The first stage gives an effective means for resembling curve and surface geometry by
estimating polynomial functions of input data. The next stage works on geometric
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primitives explained
by vertices. In this stage vertices are converted, and primitives are clipped to a
seeing volume in creation for the next stage.

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All ‘fragment’ created is supplied to the next stage that executes processes on
personal fragments before they lastly change the structural buffer. These
operations contain restricted updates into the structural buffer based on incoming
and formerly saved depth values, combination of incoming colors with stored
colors, as well as covering and other logical operations on fragment values.
To end with, rectangle pixels and bitmaps by pass the vertex processing part of the
pipeline to move a group of fragments in a straight line to the individual fragment
actions, finally rooting a block of pixels to be written to the frame buffer. Values
can also be read back from the frame buffer or duplicated from one part of the
frame buffer to another. These transfers may contain several type of encoding or
decoding.

. Features of OpenGL
i) Based on IRIS GL
OpenGL is supported on Silicon Graphics’ Integrated Rater Imaging System
Graphics Library (IRIS GL). Though it would have been potential to have
designed a totally new Application Programmer’s Interface (API), practice with
IRIS GL offered insight into what programmers need and don’t need in a Three
Dimensional graphics API. Additional, creation of OpenGL similar to Integrated
Rater Imaging System Graphics Library where feasible builds OpenGL most
likely to be admitted; there are various successful IRIS GL applications, and
programmers of IRIS GL will have a simple time switching to OpenGL.
ii) Low-Level
A critical target of OpenGL is to offer device independence while still permitting
total contact to hardware. Therefore the API gives permission to graphics
operations at the lowest level that still gives device independence. Hence,
OpenGL does not give a suggestion for modeling complex geometric objects.
iii) Fine-Grained Control
Due to minimize the needs on how an application utilizing the Application
Programmer’s Interface must save and present its information, the API must give a
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suggestion to state entity parts of geometric entities and operations on them. This
fine-grained control is necessary so that these mechanism and operations may be
defined in any order and so that control of rendering operations is comfortable to
contain the needs of various applications.

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iv) Modal
A modal Application Programmer’s Interface arises in executions in which
processes function in parallel on different primitives. In that cases, a mode modify
must be transmit to all processors so that all collects the new parameters before it
processes its next primitive. A mode change is thus developed serially, stopping
primitive processing until all processors have collected the modifications, and
decreasing performance accordingly.
v) Frame buffer
Most of OpenGL needs that the graphics hardware has a frame buffer. This is a
realistic condition since almost all interactive graphics run on systems with frame
buffers. Some actions in OpenGL are attained only during exposing their execution
using a frame buffer. While OpenGL may be applied to give data for driving such
devices as vector displays, such use is minor.
vi) Not Programmable
OpenGL does not give a programming language. Its function may be organized by
turning actions on or off or specifying factors to operations, but the rendering
algorithms are basically fixed. One basis for this decision is that, for performance
basis, graphics hardware is generally designed to apply particular operations in a
defined order; changing these operations with random algorithms is generally
infeasible. Programmability would variance with maintenance of the API close to
the hardware and thus with the objective of maximum performance.
vii) Geometry and Images
OpenGL gives support for managing both 3D and 2D geometry. An Application
Programmer’s Interface for utilize with geometry should also give guidance for
reading, writing, and copying images, because geometry and images are regularly
joint, as when a Three Dimensional view is laid over a background image.
Various per-fragment processes that are applied to fragments beginning from
geometric primitives apply uniformly well to fragments corresponding to pixels in
an image, making it simple to mix images with geometry.
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Briefly explain the Coordinate Systems and its types

Coordinate Systems Three types of coordinate systems are needed in order to

input, store, and display model geometry and graphics. These are Model
Coordinate System (MCS), Working Coordinate System (WCS) and Screen
Coordinate System (SCS), respectively. Other names for

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MCS are database, master, or world coordinate system. Another name for SCS is
device coordinate system. Model Coordinate System

⮚ The model coordinate system is defined as the reference space of the model
with respect to which all the model geometrical data is stored.
⮚ It is a Cartesian system which forms the default coordinate system used by
a particular software program. The X, Y, and Z axes of the MCS can be
displayed on the computer screen. The origin of the MCS can be arbitrarily
chosen by the user while its orientation is established by the software.
⮚ The three default sketch planes of a CAD/CAM system define the three planes of the
MCS, and their intersection point is the MCS origin. When a CAD designer
begins sketching, the origin becomes a corner point of the profile being
sketched. The sketch plane defines the orientation of the profile in the model
3D space.
⮚ In order for the user to communicate properly and effectively with a model database,
the
relationship between the MCS orthogonal (sketch) planes and the model
views must be understood by the user. Typically, the software chooses one
of two possible orientations of the MCS in space.

⮚ As shown in Figure8.1a, the XY plane is the horizontal plane

and defines the model top view. The front and right side views
are consequently defined by the XZ and YZ planes,
respectively. Figure 8.1b shows the other possible orientation of
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the MCS where the XY plane is vertical and defines the model
front view. As a result, the XZ and the YZ planes define the top
and the right side views, respectively.

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⮚ Existing CAD/CAM software uses the MCS as the default

WCS. In both orientations, the XY plane is the default
construction (sketch) plane. If the user utilizes such a plane,
the first face of a model to be constructed becomes the top or
front view, depending on which MCS is used.
⮚ The MCS is the only coordinate system that the software recognizes
when
storing or retrieving graphical information in or from a model
database. Many existing software packages allow the user to
input coordinate information in cartesian (x, y. z) and cylindrical
(r, θ, z) coordinates. This input information is transformed to (x,
y. z) coordinates relative to the MCS before being stored in the
database.
⮚ Obtaining views is a form of retrieving graphical information relative to
the
MCS. If the MCS orientation does not match the desired
orientation of the object being modeled, users become puzzled
and confused.
⮚ Another form of retrieving information is entity verification.
Coordinates
of points defining the entity are given relative to MCS by
default. However, existing software allows users to obtain the
coordinates relative to another system (WCS) by using the
proper commands or modifiers

Working Coordinate System

⮚ It is often convenient in the development of geometric models

and the input of geometric data to refer to an auxiliary
coordinate system instead of the MCS. This is usually useful
when a desired plane (face) of construction is not easily defined
as one of the MCS orthogonal planes, as in the case of inclined
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faces of a model. The user can define a Cartesian coordinate

system whose XY plane is coincident with the desired plane of
construction. That system is the Working Coordinate System,
WCS. It is a convenient user-defined system that facilitates
geometric construction.
⮚ It can be established at any position and orientation in space that the user
desires. While the user can input data in reference to the WCS,
the CAD software performs the necessary transformations to the
MCS before storing the data.

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⮚ The ability to use two separate coordinate systems within the

same model database in relation to one another gives the user
great flexibility. Some commercial software refers to the WCS
as is Unigraphics offers an example. Other software refers to it
as a sketch plane (Pro/E and SolidWorks) or construction
plane.
⮚ A WCS requires three noncollinear points to define its XYplane. The
first
defines the origin, the first and the second define the X axis, and
the third points with the first define the Y axis. The Z axis is
determined as the cross product of the two unit vectors in the
directions defined by the lines connecting the first and the
second (the X axis), and the first and the third points (Y axis).
We will use the subscript w to distinguish the WCS axes from
those of the MCS. The XwYwplane becomes the active sketch
(working) or construction plane if the user defines a WCS.
⮚ In this case, the WCS and its corresponding Xw,Yw plane override the
MCS and the default sketch plane, respectively. As a matter of
fact, the MCS with its default sketch plane is the default WCS
with its Xw,Yw plane. All CAD/CAM software packages
provide users with three standard WCSs {sketch planes) that
correspond to the three standard views: Front, Top, and Right
sides. The user can define other WCSs or sketch planes.
⮚ There is only one active WCS (sketch plane) at any one time. If the user
defines multiple WCSs in one session during a model
construction, the software recognizes only the last one and
stores it with the model database if the user stores the model.
The model tree displayed by the CAD software shows the last
selected (activated) sketch plane.

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Once a WCS is defined, user coordinate inputs are interpreted by

the software in reference to this system. The software calculates the
corresponding homogeneous transformation matrix between the
WCS and the MCS to convert these input values into coordinates
relative to the MCS before storing them in the database. The
transformation equation can be written as:

Pm = T Pw

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where Pm is the position vector of a point relative to the MCS

and Pw is the vector of the point relative to the active WCS.
Each vector is given by:

P = [x y z 1] T

The matrix [T] is the homogeneous transformation matrix. It is a

4 x 4 matrix and is given by:

m
Where [R]w is the rotation matrix that defines the orientation of
the WCS relative to the MCS and [P]w org m is the position vector
that describes the origin of the WCS relative to the MCS. The
m
columns of[R]w : give the direction cosines of the unit vectors in
the Xw, Yw and Zw directions relative to the MCS as shown in Figure
.These direction cosines are the components of the unit vectors
along the axes of the MCS.

I If the WCS axes are along the MCS axes, then the direction cosines
become 1, -1, or 0, and if Xw and Yw are aligned along the Z and X
axes of the MCS, respectively, the transformation between the WCS
and MCS is given by:

Observe that one of the matrix in eqn. is inverse of the other; their
manipulation produces the identity Matrix, I.

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Screen Coordinate System

⮚ In contrast to the MCS and WCS, the screen coordinate system

(SCS) is defined as a 2D device-dependent coordinate system
whose origin is usually located at the lower left comer of the
graphics display, as shown in Figure.
⮚ The physical dimensions of a device screen (aspect ratio) and the type of
device (raster) determine the range of the SCS. The SCS is
mostly used in view-related clicks such as definitions of view
origin and window or clicking a view to select it for graphics
operations
⮚ . ¬ A 1024 x 1024 display has an SCS with a range of (0, 0) to (1024,
1024). The center of the screen has coordinates of (512,512).
This SCS is used by the CAD/CAM software to display relevant
graphics by converting directly from MCS coordinates to SCS
(physical device) coordinates. A normalized SCS can also be
utilized. The range of the SCS can be chosen from (0, 0) to (I,
1).
⮚ Such representation can be translated by device-dependent codes to the
appropriate physical device coordinates. The third method of
defining an SCS is by using the drawing size that the user
chooses.
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⮚ If a size A drawing is chosen, the range of the SCS becomes (0,0) to

(11,8.5) while size B produces the range (0,0) to (17,11). The
rationale behind this method stems from the conventional
drawing board so that the drafting paper is represented by the
device screen.

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A transformation operation from MCS coordinates to SCS coordinates is

performed by the software before displaying the model views and graphics.
Typically, for a geometric model, there is a data structure to store its geometric
data (relative to MCS), and a display file to store its display data (relative to SCS).

Explain the concepts of translation, scaling and rotators in 2-D transformation.

Geometric transformations have numerous applications in geometric modeling,

e.g., manipulation of size, shape, and location of an object.

In CAD, transformation is also used to generate surfaces and solids by sweeping

curves and surfaces, respectively. The term ‘sweeping’ refers to parametric
transformations, which are utilized to generate surfaces and solids. When we
sweep a curve, it is transformed through several positions along or around an axis,
generating a surface.

The appearance of the generated surface depends on the number of

instances of the transformation.

There are two types of transformations:

Modeling Transformation: This transformation alters the coordinate values of the object.
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Basic operations are scaling, translation, rotation and, combination of one or more of these
basic

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transformations. Examples of these transformations can be easily found in any

commercial CAD software. For instance, AutoCAD uses SCALE, MOVE, and
ROTATE commands for scaling, translation, and rotation transformations,
respectively.

Visual Transformation: In this transformation there is no change in either the

geometry or the coordinates of the object. A copy of the object is placed at the
desired sight, without changing the coordinate values of the object. In AutoCAD,
the ZOOM and PAN commands are good examples of visual transformation.

Two-Dimensional (2D) Geometric Transformation:

A geometric transformation is an operation that modifies its shape, size, position,

orientation etc. with respect to its current configuration operating on the vertices
(position vectors). Some of the important 2D transformations include:

1. Translation
2. Scaling
3. Rotation
4. Reflection
5. Shear
6. Twist

2D

translation

Translation is nothing but moving an object across the screen from one position to
another. The translation transformation positions the object to a new location.

⮚ Translation is the process of moving an object from one position to another.

⮚ The translation transformation positions the object to a new location.

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⮚ The translation is accomplished by adding the coordinates of each

corner point the distance through which the object is to moved.

Translation of a point:

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Consider a 2D point P, having coordinates x, y. To translate point P by a

distance ∆⮚ in x-direction and ∆⮚ in y-direction, a translation matrix T is
added to the original matrix. Now the point has new coordinates P(⮚′,⮚’)

The translation distance (∆⮚,∆⮚) is called translation vector.

Translation of a

point Let

P= Original position of the

point, P’= New position of

the point, and

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T= Translation matrix tx(∆⮚), ty(∆⮚)are the Translation distance along the x and y
axis
respectively.

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The new coordinates of the translated triangle are A’(4,3), B’(8,4) and C’(6,5).

2D Rotation

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⮚ Rotation refers to the movement an object in such a way that the

distance between a certain fixed point and any given point of that body
remains constant.
⮚ Rotation transformation techniques is commonly used in rendering
and animation tehniques.

⮚ Consider the rotation of a point from initial position a P(x,y) to a new

position P’(x’,y’) by an angle θ about the origin
⮚ Here counterclockwise rotation is consider as positive and clockwise rotation as
negative.

2D Scaling

¬ Scaling is the transformation used to change, increase or decrease, the size of an

object. ¬ Scaling can be achieved by multiplying the original coordinates of an
object by the scaling factor Sx along x-direction and Sy along y-direction.

¬ Scaling factor is always positive, if scaling factor is less than 1, the object is
compressed; if more than 1, the object is stretched.

¬ If scale factors are equal i.e., Sx=Sy=S, the object changes in size only and not
in shape. This scaling is known as uniform scaling.

¬ If scale factors are different i.e., Sx≠Sy, the object changes in size
only and not in shape. This scaling is known as non-uniform scaling. ( )
Rotation in angle about a pivot (rotation) point , .r rx y θ

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2D reflection

⮚ Reflection is a transformation in which the direction of one axis is reversed.

⮚ Reflection transformation produces a mirror image of an object.
⮚ The reflection transformation is useful in the construction of symmetric
objects. If the object is symmetric with respect to plane, only half of the
geometry is created and then the half model is copied by reflection to
develop the full model.

In scaling transformation, the original coordinates of an object are multiplied by

the given scale factor. There are two types of scaling transformations: uniform and
non-uniform.

In the uniform scaling, the coordinate values change uniformly along the x, y, and
z coordinates, whereas, in non-uniform scaling, the change is not necessarily the
same in all the coordinate directions

Homogeneous Coordinates

Each of the above transformations with the exception of translation can be

represented as a row vector X, Y and a 2 X 2 matrix. However, all the four
transformations discussed above can be represented as a product of a 1 X 3 row
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vector and an appropriate 3 X 3 matrix. The conversion of a two-dimensional co-

ordinate pair (X, Y) into a 3-dimensional vector can be achieved by representing
the point as [X Y 1].

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After multiplying this vector by a 3 X 3 matrix, another homogeneous row vector

is obtained [X1 Y1 1]. The first two terms in this vector are the co-ordinate pair
which is the transform of (X, Y). This three dimensional representation of a two
dimensional plane is called homogeneous co- ordinates and the transformation
using the homogeneous co-ordinates is called homogeneous transformation.

Explain the concept of 3D transformation. (JAN 2014)

A three-dimensional object has a three-dimensional geometry, and therefore, it

requires a three- dimensional coordinate transformation. A right handed
coordinate system is used to carry out a 3-D transformation.

The scaling and translation transformations are essentially the same as two-
dimensional transformations. However, the points matrix will have a non-zero 3rd
column. Additionally, the transformation matrices contain some non-zero values in
the third row and third column.

Translation

In three-dimensional homogeneous coordinate representation, a point is

transformed from position P(x,y,z) to P’= (x’,y’,z’) this can be written as:

x’ = x+

tx y’ =

y+ ty z’

= z+ tz

P’=T.P

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Parallel to one of the Coordinate Axis

In special cases where an object is to be rotated about an axis that is parallel to one
of the coordinate axis, we can obtain the desired rotation with the following
transformation sequence.
1. Translate the object so that the rotation axis coincides with the parallel

coordinate axis (for simplicity, let us take x-axis).

2. Perform the specified rotation about that axis.

3. Translate the object so that the rotation axis is moved back to its original position.

Scaling

The matrix expression for the scaling transformation of a position P = (x, y, z)

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relative to coordinate origin can be written

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The matrix representation for an arbitrary fixed-point (xf, yf, zf) can be expressed as:

Reflection

¬ The matrix expression for the reflection transformation of a position P = (x, y,

z) relative to x- y plane can be written as:

¬ Transformation matrices for inverting x and y values are defined similarly, as

reflections relative to yz plane and xz plane, respectively.

Shears:

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The matrix expression for the shearing transformation of a position P = (x, y, z), t
produce z-axis shear, can be written as:

• Parameters a and b can be assigned any real values. The effect of this

transformation is to alter x- and y- coordinate values by an amount that is

proportional to the z value, while leaving the z coordinate unchanged

. • Shearing transformations for the x axis and y axis are defined similarly.

Explain computer graphics. (Or) What is meant by Interactive Computer

Graphics? Explain its various elements.

Traditionally drawings are prepared on plane drawing sheets. This has several
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limitations. The sketches have to be made only in two dimensions. Though the
depth can be represented by

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pictorial projections like isometric and perspective projections, the projections

have to be necessarily reduced to two dimensions.

Use of computer graphics has opened up tremendous possibilities for the

designer. Some of them are listed below:

⮚ The object is represented by its geometric model in three dimensions (X, Y and Z).
⮚ The mathematical representation reduces creation of views like
orthographic, isometric, axonometric or perspective projections into
simple viewing transformations.
⮚ Though the size of the screen is limited, there is no need to scale the drawings.
⮚ Drawings can be made very accurate.
⮚ The geometric models can be represented in color and can be viewed from any angle
⮚ Sections can be automatically created.
⮚ The associativity ensures that any change made in one of the
related views will automatically reflect in other views.
⮚ Revision and revision control are easy.
⮚ Drawings (geometric models) can be modified easily.
⮚ More important than all, drawings can be reused conveniently.
⮚ Storage and retrieval of drawings are easy.

Modern computer graphics displays are simple in construction. They consist of basically
three components.

i. Monitor
ii. Digital Memory or Frame Buffer
iii. Display Controller

Most of the computer graphics displays use raster CRT which is a matrix of
discrete cells each of which can be made bright. A graphic entity like line or circle
is represented as a series of “points or dots” on the screen. Therefore, it is called as
a point plotting device.

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The video display screen is divided into very small rectangular elements called a
picture element or pixel. This happens to be the smallest addressable screen
element. Graphic images are formed by setting suitable intensity and color to the
pixels which compose the image.

Depending upon the resolution screens may have varying number of pixels. For
example, an SVGA monitor with a resolution of 1024 x 768 will have 1024 pixels
in every row (X - direction) and 768 pixels in every column (Y-direction).
Monitors of larger size will have resolution of 1024 x 1024 or more. A raster scan
system displays the image on a CRT in a certain fixed sequence.

The refresh rate is the number of complete images or frames scanned per second.
In the case of interlaced refresh cycle odd numbered raster lines are refreshed
during 1/60th of a second. Even numbered raster lines are refreshed during the
next 1/60th of a second. In non-interlaced displays, all lines are refreshed in
1/60th of a second. The quality of non- interlaced display is hence, superior. These
systems, however, require expensive frame buffer memory and display controller.

Graphic Primitives

A drawing is created by an assembly of points, lines, arcs, circles. For example,

drawing shown in Fig consists of several entities. In computer graphics also
drawings are created in a similar manner. Each of these is called an entity.

The drawing entities that a user may find in a typical CAD package include : point
line, construction line, multi-line, polyline,circle spline, arc ellipse polygon,
rectangle. A simple drawing

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Graphics System

Graphics system consists of four subsystems:

a) Geometry engine subsystem

b) Scan conversion subsystem
c) Raster subsystem
d) Display subsystem

These subsystems are shown in Fig schematically.

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Geometry Engine

The geometry engine accepts 3-D world co-ordinate data and converts them into X,
Y screen co- ordinates. Depth information is manipulated using Z-buffer. Colors
are also processed. The geometry pipeline facilitates among other functions
lighting, clipping, and 3D to 2D projection, viewing transformations, rotation,
scaling and translation.

Scan Conversion

The scan conversion subsystem carries out polygon decomposition, edge slope
calculations, span slope calculations and span interpolation. The output of the scan
conversion is the pixel information to the raster subsystem.

Raster Subsystem
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The raster subsystem will have usually 24 bit planes. This will provide eight bit
planes for each primary color (RGB) so that (28) shades of a single color can thus
obtain. Since the different colors are obtained by the three primary colors a total of
(28)3colors are available on the screen.

In a typical raster engine five 256K X 4D RAM provide 4 bits of Z-depth. The
raster information is stored in the frame buffer. Twenty 64 K X 4 video RAM
provide 4 bits for each pixel of 1280 X 1024 resolution. Entry level systems will
have 12 bit planes and high end systems will have 32 bit planes for the frame
buffer.

These provide the color and depth for the images.

Display Subsystem

The display subsystem has multi-mode graphics processors which manage the
display, send the Red, Green, Blue color (RGB) data to the respective digital to
analog converters as well as provide a video output. 12. Write short notes on
clipping, view ports, line drawing. (Or) Explain the Cohen - Sutherland line-
clipping approach with proper sketches.

Clipping

⮚ Clipping is the process of determining the visible portions of a drawing

lying within a window. In clipping each graphic element of the display is
examined to determine whether or not it is completely inside the
window, completely outside the window or crosses a window boundary.
⮚ Portions outside the boundary are not drawn. If the element of a drawing crosses the
boundary the point of inter-section is determined and only portions which lie
inside are drawn. Readers are advised to refer to books on computer graphics
for typical clipping algorithms like Cohen-Sutherland clipping algorithm.
Fig shows an example of clipping.
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⮚ There is something missing between projection and viewing.

⮚ Before projecting, we need to eliminate the portion of scene that is
outside the viewing frustum

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Modify end points of lines to lie in rectangle

Method: Is end-point inside the clip region - half-plane tests –If outside, calculate
intersection between the line and the clipping rectangle and make this the new end
point

● Both endpoints inside: trivial accept

● One inside: find intersection and clip
● Both outside: either clip or reject (tricky case)

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Rules:

– Trivial accept: outcode(end1) and outcode (end2) both zero

– Trivial reject: outcode(end1) & (bitwise and)

outcode (end2) Nonzero Else subdivide

If neither trivial accept nor reject:

–Pick an outside endpoint (with nonzero outcode)

–Pick an edge that is crossed (nonzero bit of outcode)

–Find line's intersection with that edge

–Replace outside endpoint with intersection point

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–Repeat until trivial accept or reject

Polygon clipping

Convert a polygon into one or more polygons that form the intersection of the
original with the clip window.

Sutherland-Hodgman

Polygon Clipping

Algorithm

¬ Subproblem:

Clip a polygon (vertex list) against a single clip

plane Output the vertex list(s) for the resulting

clipped polygon(s)
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• Clip against all four planes

–generalizes to 3D (6 planes)

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–generalizes to any convex clip

polygon/polyhedron To clip vertex list

against one half-plane:

• if first vertex is inside - output it

• loop through list testing inside/outside transition - output depends

on transition: in-to-in: output vertex

out-to-in: output intersection and

vertex out-to-out: no output

in-to-out: output

intersection View port

Drawing of Lines

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Straight line segments are used a great deal in computer generated pictures. The
following criteria have been stipulated for line drawing displays

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i. Lines should appear straight

ii. Lines should terminate accurately
iii. Lines should have constant density
iv. Line density should be independent of length and angle
v. Line should be drawn rapidly

The process of turning on the pixels for a line segment is called vector generation.
If the end points of the line segment are known, there are several schemes for
selecting the pixels between the end pixels. One method of generating a line
segment is a symmetrical digital differential analyzer (DDA).

ASSEMBLY OF PARTS

Assembly modelling – interferences of positions and orientation – tolerance

analysis- massproperty calculations – mechanism simulation and interference
checking.
Assembly of parts
. Introduction
In today’s global situation, two main things are significant for the industry: cost
reduction and environment protection. Since the late 70’s it has been developed
that the assembly procedure normally signify one third of the product cost. Hence,
it is essential to design appropriate plans for parts assembly: manufacturing, and
disassembly: recycling.
A realistic assembly procedure can increase efficiency, cost reduction and improve
the recycling of product. To overcome these problems, various simulations based
on digital mock-ups of products are required. Even though modeling and analysis
software, presently applied at various stages of the Product Development Process,
can suggest results to several of the above stated needs, the progress of a
committed assembly and disassembly combine simulation stage is still a need.
To attain an optimum assembly method, various complex software for assembly
analysis and, as well as simulation programs based on multi agent methods or
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which apply contact data between assembly components, were created. Newly,
Virtual Reality (VR) has broadly developed towards Assembly realistic simulation.

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As the contact between objects is at the basis of the assembly simulations

need 3D objects shapes, the contact detection is addressed here as the first
step in the Assembly simulation process. The equivalent procedure
establishes links between shapes, contact mock-ups and component
kinematics, which gives a basic set of meaningful data
All mechanical parts are applying one of the common CAD modelers. Thus, the
existing assembly modules of 3D CAD software and their definite method to
modeling assemblies have a tough influence on how products are calculated. Also,
for the realistic simulation, the data exchange CAD to Virtual Reality is one of the
significant problems presently faced by the virtual prototyping community.
. Assembly modeling
Assembly modeling is a technique applied by CAD and product visualization
software systems to utilize multiple files that shows components within a
product. The components within an assembly are called as solid / surface
models.
The designer usually has approach to models that others are functioning on
concurrently. For example, different people may be creating one machine that has
different components. New parts areextra to an assembly model as they are
generated. Every designer has approach to the assembly model, during a work in
progress, and while working in their own components. The design development is
noticeable to everyone participated. Based on the system, it might be essential for
the users to obtain the most recent versions saved of every individual component
to update the assembly.
The personal data files defining the 3D geometry of personal components are
assembled together via a number of sub assembly levels to generate an assembly
explaining the complete product.
Every CAD methods support the bottom-up construction. A few systems,
through associative copying of geometry between components allow top-down
construction. Components can be situated within the assembly applying
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absolute coordinate position methods.

Mating conditions are defines of the relative location of mechanism between each
other; for example axis position of two holes or distance between two faces. The
final place of all objects based on these relationships is computing using a
geometry constraint engine built into the CAD package.
The significance of assembly modeling in obtaining the full advantages of Product
Life-cycle Management has directed to ongoing benefits in this technology. These
contain the benefit of

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lightweight data structures that accept visualization of and interaction with huge
amounts of data related to product, interface between PDM systems and active
digital mock up method that combine the skill to
visualize the assembly mock up with the skill to design and redesign with measure,
analyze and simulate.
. Assembly Concepts
When components are additional to an assembly, parent and child relationships are
created. These relationships are displayed by graphically as an assembly tree. Parts
are parametrically connected by position constraints. These constraints have data
about how a part should be placed within the
assembly hierarchy and how it should respond if other components are edited.
Functioning within the framework of an assembly is prepared easier by accepting
to apply more commands to other parts and sub-assemblies. These contain the
Annotation Text, Inquire, Point, Datum Plane and Pattern Component commands.
Bigger assembly performance is improved by removing
unwanted redraws and improved display management while zooming.

Assembly models have additional data than simply the sum of their components.
With assembly modeling interference verifies between parts and assembly specific
data such as mass properties.

Bottom up Assembly design

In a ‘bottom up’ assembly design, complex assemblies are divided into minor
subassemblies and parts. Every part is considered as individual part by one or more
designers. The parts can be archived in a library in one or more 3D Files. This is
the high effective way to generate and manage complex assemblies.
Every part is included into the active part making a component request and thus an
assembly. The component will be the child of the active part and then it will be the
active part. Hence an instance of the actual part is applied; it revises automatically
if the archived part is edited by activating.

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Bottom up Hierarchy:

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The ‘bottom up’ assembly design hierarchy of the basic assembly is shown in
figure 4.2. All the parts exist prior to Part1. When Part1 is generated, it becomes
the active. It would utilize the menu sequence to add Bracket and it becomes the
active part.
Insert > Component
Or
Assembly Design Tool Bar >
As per example shown in figure 4.2., ‘Bracket’ is a child of Part1. The dashed
line represents that ‘Bracket’ exists in the 3D file Parts Z3. The dotted line
represents that ‘Bracket’ is inserted into Part-1. After Bracket is added, Part1 is
redefined. Bolt and Washer are then added the same
process and Part-1 is reactivated again.

Module of subassembly is added similar as ‘Bracket’, ‘Bolt’, and ‘Washer’

again becoming a child of Part-1. But, because Module Subassembly already has
the two items Seal and Module, they are added and continue as its children.
Sequence of operations (Fig. 4.2.):
● File-1 has 1 part.
● Part-1 has 4 components.
● Module Subassembly has 2 components.
● All of the items are illustrations of the original parts that reside in the
ZW3D file Parts Z3.
● If File-1 is eliminated from the active assembly before it is saved and Part1
are removed. The original parts placed in the file Parts Z3 are not changed.
● If File-1 is saved and Part1 is also saved.
● If File-1 is erased and Part1 is also erased.

Top down Assembly Design

In a ‘top down’ assembly design all parts are classically designed by the similar
person within a single part. 3D assembly handles ‘top down’ method by allowing
to design and creation of a component while work in the active part. Hence, the
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active part will be an assembly part.

The part becomes a child of the active part and then it will be the active part. The
part, when generated, is an instance of a base part which will be a root object
located in the active file.

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Every part is activated and modified as needed. The ‘top down’ assembly design
has its benefits. If the project is terminated or to go in a different new direction,
removing the file will remove the part and all of its components.
Top down Hierarchy
The ‘top down’ assembly method is shown in a figure 4.3 and one of the
components exist prior to Part-1. When Part-1 is generated, it will be the active
part. The following command sequence to generate Bracket and create it the active
part.

Interference of position and orientation

Designers and manufacturers should check jointly that a provided product can be
assembled, without interference between parts, before the product to be
manufactured. Similarly, all the CAD tools presently have the potential to directly
analyze the possibility of a specified assembly plan for a product.
An assessment of previous assembly sequence and optimization research explains
that most previous assembly planners apply either feature-mating or interference-
free techniques to find assembly part interference interaction. In both feature-
mating and interference-free techniques focused upon the basic geometrical data
and restrictions for the designed product, which are generally contained in
connected CAD files.
When completely automate the procedure of creating a professional assembly
plan, geometrical information for CAD models should be automatically taken
from CAD files, analyzed for interference relationships between components in
the assembly, and then designed for utilized the assembly analysis tools. Most of
the previous assembly sequence planners do not have the potential to complete the
three tasks; they need users to manually input part attributes or interference data,
which is so time-consuming.
Determining Interference Relationships between Parts
In automated assembly schemes, most parts are assembled along with the principal
axis. Hence, to fine interference between parts while assembly, the projected
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technique referred six assembly directions along with the principal assembly axis:
+x, -x, +y, -y, +z, and -z. But, the method could be improved, to think other
assembly directions, as required. The projected system uses projection of part
coordinates onto planes in three principal axis (x, y ,z) to find the obstruction
between parts sliding along some of the six principal assembly axis. The
projections overlap between any two parts in a specified axis direction shows a
potential interference between the

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two parts, when one of the two parts slides along the specified direction, with
respect to the other. Vertex coordinates for overlapped projections are then
evaluated to find if real collisions would happen between parts with overlapped
projections. The planned process stores the determined interference data for
allocated assembly direction in a group of interference free matrices, for
compatibility with previous planners of assembly.
The swept volume interference and the multiple interference detection systems are
appropriate for three-dimensional interference determination between B-REP
entities. But, both techniques were developed for real-time interference detection
between two moving parts in a simulation environment. As a result, these two
techniques are expensive in computationally. For the assembly planning issue,
actual collision finding capacity along subjective relative motion vectors is not
require. Instead, a efficient computational technique is required for finding if two
parts will collide when they are assembled in a specified order along any one of
the six principle assembly axis.
Interference-free matrix
An interference-free matrix shows interference between two components, when
one component is moved, in a given assembly direction, into an assembled
location, with another component already in an assembled location. Assembly
actions that result in interferences are denoted as ‘0’ in the matrix, and assembly
actions that do not result in interferences are denoted as ‘1’ in the matrix.
As shown in figure 4.4., the interference-free matrix of an assembly having three
parts, for assembly movement sliding from infinity of negative toward infinity of
positive along the +x direction

Geometric Tolerance
The function of geometric tolerance is to explain the engineering objective of
components and assemblies. The datum reference frame can explain how the part.
Tolerance can accurately define the dimensional needs for a part, permitting over
50% more tolerance than coordinate dimensioning in a few cases. Suitable purpose
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of tolerance will confirm that the part described on the drawing has the preferred
form, fit and purpose with the highest possible tolerances

Fundamental rules for Geometric Tolerance

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All dimensions should have a tolerance. Each attribute on every manufactured

component is subject to change; hence, the limits of acceptable difference must
be defined. Plus and minus tolerances may be used to dimensions from a
common tolerance block.
1. Dimensions describe the geometry and allowable change. Measurement

and scaling of the drawing is not permitted excluding in certain cases.

2. Engineering drawings describe the necessities of completed parts. Each

dimension and tolerance needed to define the completed part shall be

shown on the drawing. If extra dimensions would be useful, but are not
necessary, they may be noted as reference.
3. Dimensions should be used to attributes and arranged in such a way as to

show the purpose of the features. In addition, dimensions should not be

subject to more than one explanation.
4. Descriptions of manufacturing systems should be avoided. The

geometry should be explained without defining the technique of

manufacture.
5. If some sizes are needed during manufacturing but are not wanted in the

final geometry they should be noticeable as non-mandatory.

6. All dimensioning and tolerance should be placed for utmost readability

and should be used to visible lines in true profiles.

7. When geometry is usually restricted by code, the dimension(s) shall be

integrated with code number in comments below the dimension.

8. If not openly declared, all dimensions and tolerances are only suitable when

the item is in free.

9. Dimensions and tolerances indicate to the full length, width, and depth.
Tolerance Symbols
Symbols for tolerances are bilateral unless otherwise defined. For example, the
location of a hole has a tolerance of .020mm. This indicates that the hole can move
+/- .010 mm, which is an equal bilateral tolerance. It does not consider that the
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hole can move +.015/-.005 mm, which is an unequal bilateral tolerance.

Tolerance Analysis
. Symbols for Geometric Tolerance
Tolerance analysis is a title to a different approaches applied in product design to
know how deficiencies in parts as they are manufactured, and in assemblies,
influence the ability of a

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product to meet customer needs. Tolerance analysis is a way of accepting how

basis of deviation in part dimensions and assembly constraints distribute across
parts and assemblies, and how that total deviation affects the ability of a drawing
to reach its design necessities within the process capabilities of organizations and
supply chains.
Tolerance openly affects the cost and performance of products. In electrical
machines, safety needs that the power supply to be situated a minimum gap from
adjacent components, such as one more sheet-metal component, in order to
remove electrical short circuits. Tolerance analysis will describe whether the small
clearances specified will meet the safety requirement, assigned manufacturing and
assembly variability force on the minimum clearance.
Tolerance stack-up
Tolerance stack-up computations show the collective effect of part tolerance with
respect to an assembly need. The tolerances ‘stacking up’ would describe to adding
tolerances to obtain total part tolerance, then evaluating that to the existing gap in
order to see if the design will work suitably. This simple evaluation is also defined
as ‘worst case analyses’. Worst case analysis is suitable for definite needs where
failure would signify failure for a company. It is also needful and suitable for
problems that occupy a low number of parts. Worst case analysis is always carried
out in a single direction that is a 1- D analysis. If the analysis has part dimensions
that are not parallel to the assembly measurement being defined, the stack-up
approach must be edited since 2D variation such as angles, or any variation that is
not parallel with the 1-D direction, does not influence the measurement of
assembly with a 1-to-1 ratio.
The tolerance stacking issue occurs in the perception of assemblies from
interchangeable parts because of the inability to create or join parts accurately
according to nominal. Either the applicable part dimension changes around various
nominal value from part by part or it is the act of assembly that directs to variation.
For example, as two parts are combined through matching holes pair there is not
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only variation in the location of the holes relative to nominal centers on the parts
but also the slippage difference of matching holes relative to each other when safe.
Thus there is the opportunity that the assembly of such interacting parts will not
move or won’t come closer as planned. This can generally be judged by different
assembly criteria, say G1, G2,... Here we will be discussed with just one assembly
criterion, say G, which can be noted as a function of the part dimensions L1,...,Ln.
A example is shown in Figure 4.7., where n = 6 and is the clearance gap of interest.
It finds whether the stack of cogwheels will locate within the case

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or not. Thus it is preferred to have G > 0, but for performance of functional causes
one may also require to limit G.

Importance of Tolerance Analysis

With smaller product lifecycles, quicker to market, and higher cost pressures, the
uniqueness that distinguishes a product from its competitors. Engineers are
moving to the next order of resolution in order to improve cycle time and quality
and to reduce costs. They are showing nearer at why they did not get the correct
part and assembly dimension values they needed from manufacturing and then are
trying to optimize the tolerances on the following version of the product.
Optimization of tolerance during design has a high impact on the output of
manufacturing, and better yields direct impact on product cost and quality.
Tolerance Analysis before trying to manufacture a product helps engineers avoid
time taking iterations later in the design cycle.
The electronics industry is attaining customer satisfaction purposes via a physical
shrinking of their components while adding more capabilities. As electronic
devices high densely packaged, the significance increases to more accurately
understanding the interaction of manufacturing variation and tolerances in design.
Similarly, in the aircraft, automotive and medical device productions, liability costs
are increasing while environmental needs are being more forcefully forced such
that companies requires to understand high precisely what may reason a failure.
Advantages of Tolerance Analysis
1. Accurate part assembly.
2. Elimination of assembly rework
3. Improvement in assembly quality.
4. Reduction of assembly cost.
5. High customer satisfaction.
6. Effectiveness of out-sourcing.
Limitations of Tolerance Analysis
1. Time consuming process.
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2. Skill require for complex assemblies.

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Mass property calculations

The first step in finding mass properties is to set up the location of the X, Y, and Z
axis. The correctness of the calculations will depend completely on the knowledge
used in choosing the axis. Hypothetically, these axes can be at any position relative
to the object being considered, offered the axes are equally perpendicular. But, in
reality, except the axes are chosen to be at a position that can be precisely
measured and identified, the calculations are meaningless.

Calculating Center of gravity location

The center of gravity of an object is:
● described the ‘center of mass’ of the object.
● the location where the object would balance.
● the single point where the static balance moments are all zero about
three mutually perpendicular axis.
● the centroid of object the volume when the object is homogeneous.
● the point where the total mass of the component could be measured to be
concentrated while static calculations.
● the point about where the component rotates in free space
● the point via the gravity force can be considered to perform
● the point at which an exterior force must be used to create translation of
an object in space
Center of gravity location is stated in units of length along the three axes (X, Y,
and Z). These three components of the vector distance from the base of the
coordinate system to the Center of gravity location. CG of composite masses is
computed from moments considered about the origin. The essential dimensions of
moment are Force and Distance. On the other hand, Mass moment may be utilized
any
units of Mass times Distance. For homogeneous components, volume moments
may also be considered. Care should be taken to be confident that moments for all
parts are defined in compatible units.
Component distances for CG position may be either positive or negative, and in
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reality their polarity based on the reference axis position. The CG of a

homogeneous component is determined by determining the Centroid of its
volume. In practical, the majority of components

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are not homogeneous, so that the CG must be calculated by adding the offset
moments along all of the three axes.

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