Madda walabu University

College of Agriculture and Natural Resources

Department of Plant Sciences

Program: Plant Sciences

Compiled Notes for the Course “Seed Science and Technology” (PlSc352)
Credit 2 (1+1) 3 ECTS

By

Tefera Regasa (MSc, Assistant Professor)

October, 2024

Maddaa walabu University

Seed Science and Technology Handout By: Tefera Regasa (MSc. Assistant professor)
Page 1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Pages
1. INTRODUCTION 4
1.1 Seed and Seed Technology 4
1.2. Seed and Agriculture 5
2. FLOWERING PROCESSES, SEED FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT 7
2.1. Floral Induction 7
2.1.1. Factors affecting floral induction 7
2.2. Floral Initiation 8
2.3. Seed Formation 8
2.4. Seed Development 11
2.5. Environmental Factors Affecting Seed Development 13
3. SEED GERMINATION PHYSIOLOGY AND SEED DORMANCY 14
3.1 Seed Germination Physiology 14
3.2. Seed Dormancy 15
4. SEED QUALITY TESTING 20
4.1. Seed Testing 20
4.1.1. Physical purity testing 23
4.1.2 Germination testing 23
4.1.3. Seed moisture test 25
4.1.4. Seed viability test 26
4.1.5. Seed vigour test 27
4.1.6. Seed health test 28
5. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SEED PRODUCTION AND MAINTENANCE 30
5.1 Genetic Aspects of Seed Production 30
A. Variety development 30
B. Seed generation systems 33
C. Maintenance and production of breeder, basic and certified seeds 35
D. Mechanisms of seed deterioration 37
5.2 Agronomic Principles of Seed Production 38
5.3 Biotic Stresses in Seed Production 40
6. SEED PROCESSING, STORAGE AND MARKETING 42
6.1 Seed Processing (seed conditioning) 42
6.1.1 Threshing /shelling 42
6.1.2 Seed drying 42
6.1.3 Seed cleaning and upgrading: 46
6.1.4 Seed grading 47
6.1.5 Seed treatment 47
6.1.6 Seed packing 49
6.1. 7 Seed labelling 50
6.2 Seed Storage 50
6.3 Seed Marketing and Distribution 51

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 6.3.1 Seed marketing activities 52
6.3.2 Marketing strategy 52
6.3.3 Seed marketing research/study 53
6.3.4 Market communication 54
6.3.5 Seed pricing 54
6.3.6 Seed distribution and selling 55
7. SEED QUALITY CONTROL 57
7.1. Seed Certification 57
7.2. Seed Legislation 62
7.3. Intellectual Property Rights 63
8. SEED SUPPLY SYSTEM 64

Seed Science and Technology Handout By: Tefera Regasa (MSc. Assistant professor)
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 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Seed and Seed Technology

What is seed?
Botanically: Seed refers to a fertilized (matured) ovule consisting of an embryonic plant
together with a stored food (endosperm), all surrounded by protective coat. It is the result of
fusion of mature male and female gametophytes. E.g. Seed of cereals, pulses, oil crops,
forages, etc. Seed is the basic input for agricultural / crop production.
In agricultural functional sense:-seed is any plant propagating living materials used for crop
reproduction. It is dispersal or a reproductive unit which can be a true botanical seed (cereals,
pulses, oil crops, forages etc), one seeded or multi-seeded fruits with accessory structure
(mango, citrus species, apples, papaya, etc), vegetative propagate of most horticultural crops
and various ornamentals (stems, leaves, roots, branches, tubers, bulbs and rhizomes) and
vegetative reproductive organs/ seeds that are very similar to true seeds but result from
apomixes through parthenogenesis and psedudogamy.

Seed versus Grain

Seed:
Possesses the vegetative and reproductive materials for the regeneration of the plant
Associated to seed technology and more interested in the improvement of seed embryo
Grain:
Possesses the vegetative materials only
Associated to food technology and more interested in the improvement of seed endosperm
NB. All true seed can be grains but not the reverse
Seed Technology: - is a science dealing with the methods of improving genetic and physical
characteristics of seeds. It involves such activities as variety development, evaluation and
release, seed production, processing, storage and certification. Thus, seed technology is
essentially an interdisciplinary science which encompasses a broad range of subjects.

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 Why seed technology is necessary to study?
 Seed is living material and its production and processing is a biological process .It
therefore, needs careful handling and management at all these processes.
 Unlike products such as fertilizers, which are factory –manufactured in large
quantities with in-built quality control arrangements, farmers under different farming
conditions usually produce seed lots that need to be tested individually for quality
before being offered for sale.
 for seed quality test required before distribution
 . Since the main objective of seed technology is distribution of improved seeds to the
farmers and production of higher and quality yield and increase economic returns
from agricultural sector. Thus, it is necessary to develop and maintain separate seed
production enterprise from crop production system, which requires skilled manpower
in the field.
Goals of Seed Technology
1. Increase agricultural production through rapid multiplication and distribution of
improved seed
2. Timely supply seed of right type, in right place and required quantity
3. Assured high quality seeds
4. Reasonable price (affordable by many farmers)
5. The development of seed program- is one of the most important steps in agricultural
development.
1.2. Seed and Agriculture
Historically, human use of seed marks the transition from nomadic food gathering to
sedentary civilizations based on agriculture. Thus, seed is the starting point of agriculture, its
source of continuity, change and restoration. Seed is the most vital and cheapest agricultural
input. It is the basic unit for the distribution and maintenance of plant populations. It carries
the genetic potential of the crop plant, determining the upper limit of yield and other desirable
agronomical and physiological traits. Crop productivity is directly related to the genetic
potential of the seed planted, which dictates the ultimate productivity of other inputs
(fertilizer, pesticide, irrigation water, etc) and appropriate crop management practices, which
built the environment that enable the plant to perform. Similarly, improved farming

Seed Science and Technology Handout By: Tefera Regasa (MSc. Assistant professor)
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techniques and machinery are only as effective as the germplasm they support. Therefore,
seed is an agent of change. Plant crop changes as seed changes. As a production input
improved seed has several advantages over other inputs. It is required in a relatively small
quantity, it is increased rather than consumed in the production process and its use does not
required substantial changes in the farming practices. On the other hand, seed has two major
disadvantages. It must yet alive to fulfil its propagative function, and its production must be
planned well in advance of the time it will be needed.
Role of seed in agriculture
The potential benefits from the spread and use of improved seed are enormous. At the farm
level, this means enhanced productivity, reduced risk and increased net income through
higher yield, more efficient use of available nutrients, faster maturation, and better resistance
to pests and higher nutrient content in the harvested crop. At the regional and national levels,
more flexible and diversified agricultural production systems are made possible by multiple
cropping and the spread of crops to a wider set of agro-ecological zones. This greater
flexibility, together with enhanced yield and nutritional value, can contribute to increased
food security. It is a means of survival and multiplication under adverse condition, which can
be used to rapidly rehabilitate agriculture in the wake of natural disaster such as flood,
drought or blight due to insect or plant disease. Seed, which can be efficiently maintained and
multiplied, is the primary means of delivering crop improvements to farmers’ field.
Other potential benefits related to the multiplier effect of enhanced productivity. When the
diffusion of improved seed contributes to increased yield and multiplied cropping, greater
opportunities for farm and post harvest employment are generated. Where improved seed
contributes to higher yield and higher quality crops, both processors and consumers may
benefit through more plentiful. Low cost, and high quality supplies of raw materials and food.
The spread improved seed may also spread up both the adoption of agricultural production
technologies and the economic return on the existing or planned investments in the rural
agricultural infrastructure. Thus in the development and spread of improved seed, a multiple
set of agricultural and rural development objectives can be pursued: economic growth,
rendering the existing agricultural system more sustainable and promoting socioeconomic
welfare.

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2. FLOWERING PROCESSES, SEED FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT
2.1. Floral Induction
It is the physiology change in response to external stimuli that occur in vegetative meristems
and allow becoming reproductive meristems and undergoing floral initiation. The ability to
support reproductive processes requires tremendous do not begin to form flowers, and
eventually seeds, until substantial vegetative growth has been accomplished. In some cases
(annuals) it happens at the end of life cycle. In others, the plant may not become reproductive
for several growing seasons as with many fruit trees. During this phase the pants is unable to
form flowers because it does not possess sufficient vegetative structure, and it is said to be
juvenile. Certain external stimuli trigger floral induction, a physiological change that permits
the development of reproductive primordial. The physiological change may precede actual
flowering by several days, weeks or even months.
2.1.1. Factors affecting floral induction
1. Temperature stimuli: - for floral induction to occur, many plants require exposure to
low temperature. This process has been called vernalization. The optimum Temperature
for vernalization lies between 1oc and 7oc. In the chrysanthemum and tomato, floral
induction is accomplished by repeated exposure to low night temperatures, separated by
periods of higher temperature. This phenomenon occurs in many plants and has been
called Thermoperiodism.
2. Day length stimuli: - In many species floral induction occurs in response to day length,
or photoperiod. The photoperiod requirements for flowering may be qualitative or
quantitative. It now appears that flowering is controlled not by one but by several
different hormone-like substances.
3. Phytochrome:- Seed germination, bud dormancy, stem elongation and petiole
development are controlled by the light-receptive substances called phytochromes. Two
photo reversible forms of phytochromes exist in plants. These are: PR-
phytochrome(receptive to red light (600-680nm) and inhibits flowering) and PF-R-
phytochrome (receptive to far-red light (700-760nm) and induces flowering). The
conversion from PF-R phytochrome to PR phytochrome takes place in the dark, but at a
much slower rate than induced by far-red light. By successive exposure to red and far-red
light flowering of light sensitive plants can be repeatedly induced or inhibited.

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 4. Chemical stimuli: - Certain natural and synthetic chemical substances can cause floral
induction. Some are auxin-like compounds e.g. IAA (Indoleacetic acid), NAA (
Naphthalenacetic acid), 2,4-D ( 2,4 – dichlorophenoxy acetic acid), Gibberellic acid
(G.A). GA promotes flowering of long-day plants held in short-day conditions, however,
it inhibits flowering of short-day plants under the same conditions. It has been
demonstrated that the gibberellin content increased markedly during floral induction of
Hyoscyamus niger; this is consistent with the effects of GA in promoting floral
induction. Other substances known to cause flowering or to increase flower production
are: Cytokinins, Ethylene, Acetylene, Ethylene chlorhydrin and 2, 3-5 tri-iodlnzoic acid.
In contrast malic hydrazide inhibits flowering. It is becoming convenient and
commercially profitable to manipulate flowering and fruit development in certain crops.
5. Nutrition status: - Construction of the flowering parts is dependent on food availability
and translocation. The C/N ratio is particularly influential in some species, such as holly,
that bear male and female flowers on separate plants, high Nitrogen to carbon (N/C) ratio
favours pistillate rather than staminate flowers. In tomatoes carbohydrate deficiencies
cause microspore degeneration. Leading to pollen sterility however, an N-deficiency has
no such effect.
2.2. Floral Initiation
It is morphological change in the development of reproductive meristem from a vegetative
meristem. Floral initiation is the morphological expression of the induced state and usually
occurs more or less deeply within the meristem of a plant. In monocotyledonous spp or
flowering plants in which a single embryonic seed leaf appears in germination, floral
initiation begins dermatogens, which also give rise to the epidermis. In dicotyledonous spp or
flowering plants in which pair of embryonic seed leaves appears at germination floral
initiation occurs in the lateral, terminal, or axillary buds. Early in their development,
reproductive meristem is similar to vegetative meristem; however, as development precedes
the configuration develop into recognizable flower parts.
2.3. Seed Formation
True seed formation is originated from meristematic tissue of the ovary wall called ovule
premordia through the process of gametogenesis. Seed formation begins with the combination
of mature male and female gametophytes resulted from the process called gametogenesis

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(fertilization). True seeds originated from meristematic tissue of the ovary wall called ovule
primordial. Fertilization or syngamy can occur when both male and female gametophytes are
fully mature. This usually occurs is a dual fusion process known as double fertilization. When
the pollen grain lands on the stigma, it germinates by sending out a pollen tube, which grows
down the style, through the microple and into the embryo sac, with the tube nucleus closely
following the tube apex downward. The tube nucleus soon degenerates, but the two pollen
sperm cells enter the embryo sac, one fusing with the 2n ( diploid) polar nucleus to form a
triploid ( 3n) endosperm nucleus and the other fusing with the egg cell to form a diploid ( 2n)
Zygote, or fertilized egg. The process of fertilization is very important because it is not only
results in the formation of a seed but also dictates the level of genetic diversity present in the
zygote. Fertilization in angiosperms typically occurs either by self or cross fertilization.
Self-fertilization: occurs when pollen from the anthers of a flower transferred to the stigma
of the same flower resulting in fertilization. In most cases, this happened when flowers do not
open until once the pollination and fertilization of flower is complete.
Cross-Fertilization: Occurs when pollen from one flower is transferred to stigma of another
flower to cause fertilization. The flowers can be on the same or different plants. In most
agricultural crops, cross fertilization occurs by two principal methods: Wind (anemophily)
and insects (entomophily). Unlike self- fertilization, where progeny are genetically similar,
cross- fertilization results in progeny that are more dissimilar. This evolutionary approach
produces a population of individuals that are more adaptable to a wide array of environmental
condition.
A. Development of mature gametophytes
In the ovary of female reproductive organ, a specialized cell within the nucellus (special
tissue originated from ovary wall/ovule primordial) called archesporial cell directly/through
cell division developed into the megaspore mother cell which has diploid chromosome (2n).
The megaspore mother cell (2n) undertakes two successive nuclear divisions (Meiosis I and
II) and gives rise to four megaspores, each with haploid number of chromosome (n) by the
process called megasporogenesis (macrosporogenesis). Among these four megaspores only
one megaspore is functional (the other three are degenerate) and undergoes a series of three
successive nuclear divisions known as mitosis occur, culminating in eight haploid nuclei.
Soon these nuclei arrange themselves within the enlarging embryo sac and cell walls form,

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resulting in three antipodal cells at one end, two polar nuclei (without cell walls) near the
centre, and the egg apparatus (composed of the egg between two synergid cells) at the other
end. After the two polar nuclei fuse to form a diploid (2n) nucleus, the resulting seven-called
structure is known as the mature female gametophyte (eight-nucleated embryo sac), or mega
gametophyte, which is produced through the process called megagametogenesis
(macrogametogenesis). This mega gametophyte is ready to receive the mature male
gametophyte. The egg cell comprises most of the egg apparatus. It is a complete cell
containing a haploid nucleus, with surrounding cytoplasm enclosed in a thin wall, or follicle.
The egg cell is positioned near the small opening (micropyle) of the ovule formed by the
surrounding integuments. A small vacuole may be present near the point of attachment away
from the micropyle.
On the other hand, specialized cells within the micro sporangia/pollen sac of the anther (male
reproductive organ) developed into diploid microspore mother cells (2n). These microspore
mother cells similarly undergo a two step reduction cell division (meiosis) to yield four
microspores, each with haploid chromosome number (n) by the same process called
microsporogenesis. In this case, all are functional (effecting fertilization) and undergo two
successive cell divisions (mitosis) and give rise to a mature micro gametophyte or mature
pollen grain through the process of microgametogenesis. The above four processes by which
mature male and female gametophyte produced through successive nuclear/cell divisions
collectively known as gametogenesis. After pollination, mature pollen grains lands on the
stigma and germinates into the embryo sac through the micropyle. The two pollen sperm cells
enter embryo sac, one fertilizing the egg cell (n) to form a diploid (2n) zygote, and the anther
fusing with two polar nuclei (n+n) to form a triploid (3n) endosperm. Finally, seed coat
formed inner and outer integuments on the course of seed development after fertilization.
B. Development of Ovule
Ovule development occurs within the ovary during megasporogenesis and mega
gametogenesis from primary outgrowth of nucellus/ovule primordial cell with in the ovary. It
provides space for nurture and development of the female gametophyte, its sexual fusion with
the male gametophyte and embryo development, survival and eventual re-growth. The effect
of the ovule arrangement is often visible externally as hilum, chalaza, micropyle and raphe
which can be used as a means of plant/seed classification.

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C. Development of Integument
Integument is secondary out growth tissue (collars) from nucellus cell consist of the inner and
outer integuments and ultimately become the testa (seed coat) of the mature ovule. It also
contributes embryo sac and ovule development. The developing ovule is commonly attached
to the placenta by the funiculus. The sear on the ovule made where the funiculus detaches at
the maturity is known as the hilum.
The point where the integument meets at the nucellar apex is the micropyle, and the region of
integumentary origin and the attachment, usually opposite the micropyle, is the chalaza.
Between the chalaza and hilum of many species is an area known as the raphe, which may be
visible on the seed coat of some species.
2.4. Seed Development
Right after fertilization, seed development begins within the minute embryo sac which, with
certain exceptions, is in shape, size, and arrangement. In spite of initial similarities, the seed
develops according to the genetic specifications for each species, which are coded in the
nucleus of the each cell.
The embryo sac is a biochemical and biophysical system of considerable complexity. As a
growing, differentiating structure, it requires a constant nutritive supply, which is provided
through the chalaza, establishing a polar gradient from the antipodal to the micropylar end.
Nutrition is also obtained from the nucellus and integumentary layers directly through the
wall of the embryo sac. A number of successive cell divisions occurred in the embryo and
endosperm after fertilization result in development of cell organelles and morphological
development in the seed.
Important changes in the course of seed development
There are three important changes during seed development. These includes; cytological
change, change in seed element composition (chemical changes) and change in seed weight.
A. Embryo Development: - The first few cell divisions from the zygote form the proembryo,
which also undergoes subsequent cellular divisions and developed to primordial shoot and
root tissues which differentiated to cotyledons, epicotyls, root and root cap of mature embryo.
Although the mature embryos of monocotyledons and dicotyledons appear considerably
different, their patterns of embryogeny are similar.

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B. Endosperm development: - division of the primary endosperm nucleus yields micropylar
and chalaza chamber, one or both of which may contribute to the mature endosperm.
Monocotyledons endosperms usually reach their maximum morphological development at
physiological maturity and remain to comprise a major part of the seed. In dicotyledonous
species, the endosperm may not develop or may be used up by the developing embryo and
comprises none or only a small part of the mature seed. i.e. in most dicotyledonous species,
the endosperm is formed but it almost completely consumed during seed development so that
the mature seed composed almost entirely of embryo. The outer most layers of the endosperm
are known as the aleurone layer. These layers function both as storage tissue (protein
granules) and for secretion of hydrolytic enzymes, which upon activation during germination
help break down storage tissues. The endosperm serves as the principal nutritive support for
the embryo of many species during both seed development and germination. Morphological
development of the seed occurs concurrently with the cytological (change in DNA and RNA),
chemical and weight changes in the course of seed development.
C. Change in weight: - the developing seed begins to increase in weight as a result of
nutrient and water intake associated with rapidly accelerating cell division and elongation.
Typically in monocots, the developing endosperm accounts for most of the weight increase,
with the testa-pericarp weighting somewhat less, and the embryo’s weight almost negligible.
D. Chemical change: - immediately after fertilization, seed development begins and the seed
becomes the primary recipient (sink) of assimilates from the plant. As the development
proceeds, chemical composition of the seed is changed and the seed possesses its maximum
dry weight and seed quality at physiological maturity. Seed storage proteins (prolamins and
globulins/glutelins) increase rapidly in seed development and reach its maximum content in
endosperm and minimum in the embryo and aleurone layer at seed maturity. Lower molecular
weight seed carbohydrates decrease on seed maturity and stored in embryo tissue, while
starch content increases on seed development and stored in endosperm, aleurone layer and
seed coat. Other seed chemical composition such as lipids (fatty acids and oils) and inorganic
substances (water, minerals, vitamins, etc) increase on seed development and mainly stored in
the endosperm, which accounts for the increment of total seed weight.

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In addition to the genetic factors of the plant, different environmental factors such as soil
fertility, moisture, temperature, and light, position of seed on plant, pests and crop
management practices can affect seed formation and development.
2.5. Environmental Factors Affecting Seed Development
Components of the environment that influence seed development and weight include:
1. Soil fertility
2. Moisture
3. Temperature
4. Light
5. Position of seed on the plant

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3. SEED GERMINATION PHYSIOLOGY AND SEED DORMANCY
Seed Germination: - various definition of seed germination have been proposed, it is
important to understand their distinctions.
To the seed physiologist: germination is defined as the emergence of radicle through the
seed coat. Such a definition says nothing about other essential structures such as the epicotyl
or hypocotyls that become the above ground parts of a successful seedling
To the seed analyst: germination is “the emergence and development from the seed embryo
of those essential structures which, for the kind of seed in question, are indicative of the
ability to produce a normal plant under favourable conditions.” This definition focuses on the
reproductive ability of the seed, an essential objective in agriculture. This definition presumes
that the seed has been in a state of quiescence, or rest, after its formation and development.
During this period of rest, the seed is in a relatively inactive state and has a low rate of
metabolism. It can remain in that state until environmental conditions trigger the resumption
of active growth. Regardless of which definition is preferred, it should be emphasized that
one cannot actually see the process of germination unfolds. Therefore all definitions include
some measure of seedling development, even though this occurs subsequent to the
germination event.
3.1 Seed Germination Physiology
Germination begins with the imbibitions or uptake of water. The major sequence of events
leading to germination is imbibitions, enzyme activation, initiation of embryo growth, rupture
of the seed coat and emergence of the seedling. Germination occurs in three phases:
Phase I: water uptake by imbibitions
Phase II: Lag phase. Period of active metabolism and Enzyme activation but there is no
visible growth
Phase III: radical emergence. Associated only with germination Period when primary root
protrusion occurs and active growth resumes.

Physiological changes during germination:

1. Imbibitions:-Water is essential for germination as it enters in the seed by imbibitions.
During water imbibitions, the dry seed coat become softened and more permeable to water
and gaseous which result into swelling of the seed.

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2. Digestion:-The stored food materials in the seed need to break down through digestion
before it can be used in the germination process. Starches are digested to sugar, fats to fatty
acid and the proteins to amino acid used in respiration during seed germination

3. Respiration: - Respiration is the breakdown of sugars to produce energy molecules such

as ATP and takes place in all living cells. During germination, the respiration rate is high
energy is mainly librated from carbohydrate. The proteins are used mainly in constructive
metabolism.
4. Emergence of essential structures
The radicle emerges usually through the micropyle. Some seeds possess structures and
secrete substances, which aid in removing the seed coat during germination.
Morphology of Germination
Based on the fate of the cotyledon or storage organs, two kinds of seed germination occur
1. Hypogeal germination: In hypogeal germination, the cotyledon and other storage organs
(endosperm mostly) remain beneath the soil, while the plumule pushes upward and emerges
above ground. E.g. corn.
2. Epigeal germination:- In epigeal germination, the hypocotyls elongate and push the
epicotyls and cotyledons above the ground and leaving the remainder of the seed below the
surface .E.g. bean
Requirements for seed germination
1. Sufficient moisture
2. Suitable temperature
3. Suitable composition of atmospheric gaseous
4. Light for certain seed species
3.2. Seed Dormancy
Seed dormancy is a physical and physiological state in which viable seeds are prevented from
germination even under environmental condition normally favourable for germination. The
ability of seeds to delay their germination until the time and place are right is an important
survival mechanism in plants. Seed dormancy is a genetically inherited trait whose intensity
is modified by environment during seed development. Seed dormancy is where the viable
seed of a given species fail to germinate under conditions of moisture, temperature and
oxygen supply which are normally favourable for the later stages of germination and growth

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of that species. A common misconception of seed dormancy is that it is merely a resting state
in the absence of suitable germination conditions. This state is often called quiescence.
Quiescence is a resting state of arrested development of the seed due to the absence of
suitable germination conditions. However, true seed dormancy is a state in which seed is
prevented from germination even under environmental condition normally favourable for
germination. Quiescent seeds can germinate when they get favourable conditions, but
dormant seed not germinate.
Types of seed dormancy
There are two types of seed dormancy based on physical and physiological condition
A. Primary Dormancy:

Primary dormancy is the most common form of dormancy in which seeds are released from
the plant in dormant state and it takes place in two forms:
1. Exogenous dormancy
2. Endogenous dormancy
I. Exogenous dormancy: - is the condition in which the essential germination components
(e.g. water, light and temperature) are not available to the seed and thus it fails to germinate.
This type of dormancy is generally related to the physical properties of seed coat.
Factors responsible for exogenous dormancy
There are three factors responsible for exogenous dormancy: water, gases and mechanical
restriction.
1. Water: - hard seed coat is responsible to hidden absorption of water by seed. Water
impermeability is caused by both environment and genetic factors. Several complex
environmental interactions (weather and soil conditions) during seed development and
ripening contribute to the seed coat’s impermeability to water. Agriculturally, seeds that
exhibit seed dormancy via impermeability of water due to seed coat are known as hard seeds.
The impermeability to water may be due to the presence of cuticle and well-developed layers
of palisade cells or both. Heavy deposits of cutin, suberin and lignin are common in the
teguments of many legume seeds and other hard seed coated species.
2. Gases: - The Impermeability of gases through the seed coat has been described as a
mechanism of dormancy governed by the seed coat. Less permeability to oxygen cause
anaerobic respiration. The several layers of tissue surrounding the embryo might limit the

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capacity for gases exchange by the embryo either the entry of oxygen may be hampered or
the escape of CO2 may be hindered. In many species seeds such as graminae and
compositeae, the seed coat is selectively permeable, permitting water to enter but not for
oxygen.
3. Mechanical restriction of the embryo growth: - Dormancy has also been attributed to
the physical restraint by the seed coats on an enlarging embryo. The coats of many seeds are
made up of very hard, tough tissues, which clearly offer mechanical resistance to the growth
of the embryo. This assumed due to the embryo cannot develop enough trust to rapture the
seed coat during imbibitions and it is remaining ungeminated.
Methods of breaking exogenous dormancy
Under natural conditions, exogenous dormancy is overcome by freezing of the soil, ingestion
by animals, microorganism activity, forest fire, natural soil acidity, and other factors.
Overcoming this dormancy is accomplished also by scarification. Scarification is
mechanical and chemical treatments that weaken or rapture the hard seed coat.
a. Mechanical scarification
 Grinding Seeds by sand paper or mechanically scarified.
 Absorption of water by seed is accomplished by piercing the seed coat with needle.
 Brief immersion of the seed in boiling water is an effective method of breaking the
hardiness of the seed coat of legumes.
 Drastic temperature shift
 Vigorous shaking of the seed
 Heating and chilling
b. Chemical scarification
Many chemicals used to cause degradation of seed coat. These include:
 Soaking hard-coated seed in concentrated or diluted sulphuric acid removes seed
impermeability.
 Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
 Use of selective seed coat enzymes such as pectinase and cellulose to degrade the
seed coat

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Many seed coats contain water-insoluble compounds that retard water entry into the seed,
organic solvents such as acetone and alcohol have been used to dissolve and remove those
compounds and permit water into the seed
II. Endogenous dormancy
This type of dormancy is the most prevalent seed dormancy found in seeds and it is caused
mainly due to the inherent property of the seed. The seed may possess an excess of inhibitors
that must be removed or reduced prior to germination.
1. Undeveloped embryo (morphological dormancy)
Seeds of some species are shed before they are morphologically mature .This results in
dormancy because the immature or underdeveloped and under differentiated embryos are
unable to germinate. Immature embryos are relatively small and poorly differentiated and
must grow and develop to ready for germination.
2. Physiological dormancy
This is a type of dormancy caused by the presence of inhibitors. Seed dormancy of higher
plants is regulated by a balance of endogenous growth inhibitors and promoters. Thus,
dormancy may be a result of the presence of growth inhibitors, the absence of growth
promoters or a combination of both. The level of these compounds is controlled by a certain
environmental stimuli, such as light and temperature. For example, gibberellins present for
seed germination to occur and cytokines can prevent this expression. Inhibitors could be
metabolic or osmotic.
a. Metabolic inhibitors
Certain compounds present in the seed may inhibit specific metabolic pathways. For example,
Cyanide (CN3) inhibits seed germination through their effect on respiration. Phenolic
compounds (caumarin) can also inhibit seed germination and widely occurred in agricultural
seed and regarded as natural germination inhibitors. Abscises acid (ABA) inhibit the enzyme
syntheses that are important in the early stages of germination.
b. Osmotic Inhibitors
Many substances possessing high osmotic potential can inhibit the germination of seeds.
Compounds such as sugars and salts in sufficient concentration may compete so successfully
for water that the seed never becomes fully imbibed and thus remain un germinated.
Methods breaking physiological dormancy

Seed Science and Technology By: Jima Nego (MSc.s Assistant professor) Page 18
1. Leaching: Diluting the inhibitors from around the seed
2. Scarification: Softening or removal of seed coat, because seed coat contain many
inhibitors and sometimes impermeably.
3. Stratifications (pre-chilling):
4. Light treatment: Some seed does not germinate in the dark, therefore, continuous or
periodic exposure to light can be essential to break endogenous dormancy. The position of
seeds in the soil determines the quantity and quality of light reaching the seed.
5. Treatment with growth regulators and other chemicals
Since endogenous dormancy may be due to the presence of germination inhibitors,
application of low levels of growth regulators may break dormancy. Different groups of
chemical have been reported to break dormancy. GA3 is the widely used chemical and found
to be most effective in breaking dormancy in many cased. Potassium nitrate (0.2%) has also
been found to be effective in breaking dormancy.
B. Secondary seed dormancy
Seed dormancy in which seeds are released from the mother plant in a non-dormant state but
which become dormant if the conditions for germination are unfavorable. The dormancy is
due to the exposure of the seeds to environmental conditions that are not favor germination. It
can be either thermo (temperature), photo (light) or skoto (darkness) imposed and also other
cases such as imposition by excess or adverse amount of water and chemicals. Secondary
dormancy could be controlled by Seed treatment with Gibberellic acid, treatment with
ethanol, removal of seed pericarp above embryo and storage at 200c, stratifications by low
temperature.

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 4. SEED QUALITY TESTING
Seed quality is one of the main factors affecting crop production potential. For seed to play a
catalytic role in crop production, it should reach farmers in good quality.
High quality seed can be defined as seed of an adapted variety with high varietal, species,
and physical purity; high germination and vigor; free from seed borne pests; and properly
cleaned, treated, tested and labelled. Seed quality is a multiple concept made up of different
attributes. In technical terms, seed quality can be categorized into four major components:
1. Genetic seed quality: is the inherent genetic make-up of the variety contained in the seed,
which provides the potential for higher yield, better grain quality, and greater tolerance to
biotic or abiotic stresses. It is determined by those plant characteristics that result from the
genetic potential of the embryo. The gene and combinations of genes constituted in the
variety define the genetic seed quality and therefore, its potential attributes such as grain yield
and other agronomic characteristics. The physical, physiological and health seed quality
contributes towards realizing these potential of the variety.
2. Physiological seed quality: the ability of the seed to germinate to at desired time and
assures its adequate level of initial growth (vigorisity) of all essential parts of the seedling. it
includes viability, germination capacity, seed dormancy and vigor of seed
3. Physical seed quality: Refers to freedom from contamination with other crops, noxious
and parasitic weed seeds, undersized and underweight seeds and seed lot uniformity. The
percentage of un damaged seed of desired crop of specific variety.
4. Health (sanitary) quality: It is the presence or absence of disease causing pathogen in or
on the seed. The major objectives of seed quality control are to prevent low quality seed
being available on the market.A complete formal seed quality control has comprises the
following operations
1. Seed testing 2. Post control 3. Seed certification
4.1. Seed Testing
Seed testing is the science of evaluating seed quality to determine its value for planting
purposes. Although initially developed for evaluating the planting quality of field crop and
vegetable seeds, it is also valuable for determining the quality of lawn, flower, and tree seeds.
Seed testing involves the assessment of physical, physiological and health quality of the seed.

Seed Science and Technology By: Jima Nego (MSc.s Assistant professor) Page 20
The objective of seed testing is
1. To determine the quality of the seed
2. To identify seed quality problem and their probable cause
3. To determine if seed meets established quality standards or labelling specification
4. To establish quality and provide a basis for price and consumer discrimination among
lots in the market.
The standardized testing of seeds required that a brief of test procedures be developed. The
rules for testing seeds of the Association of Official seed Analysts (AOSA) were developed to
meet these objectives.
Obtaining seed sample
Various aspects of seed quality is done at routine manner and its result depends on proper
sampling and sub sampling methods. The objective of seed sampling is to obtain suitable size
of sample which is representative of the bulk of the seed lot. The sample must truthfully
represent the quality of the seed lot from which it is drawn because the result of the seed test
for seed quality depends on seed sample. It is generally assumed that a seed lot is
homogenous. If this was the case, it would be satisfactory to extract a portion (sample) from
the seed lot and presume that it represents the bulk of the seed. However, this seldom occurs.
Seed lots are almost never completely homogenous for at least four reasons.
1. Heavy and light seeds segregate within the bulk or bag due to gravity with heavier seeds
being found predominantly at the bottom of the container.
2. Harvesting of the crop from the field combines seed from differing locations, thus
altering the composition of the seed as a result of variations in maturity, lodging, disease,
or the occurrence of weeds.
3. Failure to adequately blend two or more lots from differing locations at the time of
bagging can result in seed lot heterogeneity.
4. Lack of uniformity in harvesting, storage, and conditioning result in seed lot
heterogeneity.
As a result of this heterogeneity in most seed lots, a seed lot must be sampled and the sample
must be representative of the seed lot. Sampling is usually done in two steps. First, the sample
to be submitted to a seed laboratory is drawn from the bulk seed lot and sent to the laboratory
for analysis. This is known as the submitted sample. Second, when it reaches the laboratory,

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it must be divided further to a size that can be analyzed. This latter sample is used for the
actual analysis and is called the working sample.
Classes of seed sampling
1. Primary sample, 2. Composite sample, 3. Submitted sample, 4. Working sample:
The sample may be drawn at any time during seed conditioning or after the seed is offered for
sale. Seed is usually sampled for testing while still in storage or as it is offered for sale.
Because of the variety of ways in which seeds are stored and offered for sale, they may be
found in various types of containers, from small vegetable and flower seed packets, to boxes
and cans of grass seed, to large bulk lots of cereal grain seed. Regardless of the container, the
seed lot must be properly sampled so that the sample is representative. Rules and procedures
for sampling under various conditions have been established by the Association of Official
Seed Analysts (AOSA) and the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA). These rules
provide for sampling by mechanical samplers, by use of standard sampling probes, by hand,
or by taking the entire container as the submitted sample.
The sampling process
Bulk Seed: Trier or probe is recommended for sampling bulk seed, although hand sampling
may also be performed if handful is taken from well-distributed points throughout the bulk.
Hand sampling is limited by the difficulty of reaching all portions of large bulk lots, whereas
large probes up to 72 inch length can be used to sample hard-to –reach location within the
seed lot.
Seed in Bags: When a seed lot consists of six bags or less, each bag should be sampled from
well-distributed points throughout the bags. When lots consist of more than six bags, samples
should be taken from five bags plus 10% of the remaining bags. Regardless of the lot size,
however, it is not necessary to sample form more than 30 bags. Here are some examples:
No. of bags in lot 5 7 10 23 50 100 200 300 400
No. of bags to sample 5 5 6 7 10 15 25 35 45

Seed in small containers: Seed in small containers should be sampled by taking at random
an entire unopened container from the supply in order to obtain the minimum amount
required for the working sample.

Seed Science and Technology By: Jima Nego (MSc.s Assistant professor) Page 22
4.1.1. Physical purity testing
The objective of purity analysis is to provide the percentage of pure seed by weight and
identifies any kinds of impurities especially with regard to weed seeds. Seed purity denotes
the composition of a particular seed lot. It is based on a physical determination of the
components present and includes percentages by weight of: (1) pure seed, (2) other crop seed,
(3) weed seed, and (4) inert matter.
Pure seed: Refers to any seed fragments which are larger than half the size of whole seed.
Any damaged seed, shrivelled seed, immature seed are also considered as pure seed, provided
their size is greater than half size of the whole seed. It is the portion of the working sample
represented by the crop species for which the lot is being tested.
Other crop seed: Any kind seed of other plant species other than pure seed (species being
tested).
Weed seed: indicates seeds of weed species including bulbs and corms etc.
Inert matter: denotes the portion of the sample that is not seed. It is any materials such as
(chaff, stems, leaves, soil and small stones) and any seed fragments which have a size smaller
than half sized of whole seed size( pieces of broken, damaged, or immature crop or weed
seeds that do not qualify as entire seeds).

The fractions of each component weighed separately in precision of 0.1g or 100mg sensitive
balance. The result of purity analysis shall be given in the percentage and percentage of all
components should add up to 100%.
E.g. If weight of pure seed= A gm, Weight of inert matter = C gm,

Weight of other seed = B gm and Weight of weed seed = D gm, then:

4.1.2 Germination testing

The main objective of seed germination test is to obtain information about the field planting
value of the seed lot. Germination in a laboratory refers to the emergence and development of
those essential structures from the seed embryo for which seed being tested. It indicates the
ability of the seed develop into a normal plant under favourable conditions in the soil.

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Probably the single most convincing (believable) and acceptable index of seed quality is the
ability to germinate. Seeds are tested for germination because a seed lot is composed of a
population of individual seed units; each possessing its own distinct capability to grow and
produce a mature plant. A seed germination test is analytical procedure to evaluate seed
viability and germination under standardized (favourable) conditions. It enables a seed seller
to determine and compare the quality of a seed lot before it is marketed to the consumer.
Furthermore, the percent germination can be used to determine the planting value a seed lot,
its storage potential, and labelling information required to provide for standardized marketing
of seed lots. Thus, germination testing is perhaps the most important function of a seed
testing laboratory. Since the process of seed germination is covered in chapter 3, this
discussion will cover only the laboratory techniques used for performing the analysis.
Procedures for germination test
Germination tests are carried out on pure seed fraction derived from purity analysis.
1. Randomly select seeds from the pure seed component of the purity test
2. place replicate (usually containing 100, 50 or 25 seeds) on or roll them in moistened
paper or sand or Petri dish
3. Germinate the seeds in incubators and count germination at regular intervals during the
test period. A minimum sample of 400 seeds is recommended for a statistically
dependable germination test. These are usually planted in four replicates of 100 seeds
each, although various other arrangements are sometimes used. Each replicated is
evaluated separately, but the official germination report is an average of all replicates.
Seedling Evaluation
At the end of germination test, seedlings are classified into:-
1. Normal seedling: Are those which show a capacity to continued development into a
normal plant when grown in good quality soil under favourable conditions of sufficient
moisture supply, suitable and temperature light condition. The assessment of normal seedling
made on:
 Well-developed root system ( primary root should be intact with root hairs)
 Well-developed shoot system (hypocotyls, coleoptiles, terminal buds and cotyledons
should be intact with only slight defects).

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2. Abnormal seedling: seedlings which are unable to develop into a normal plant when it is
grown under favourable conditions in good quality soil. These could be:
 Damaged seedling: any essential structure is missing or badly damaged
 Deformed/unbalanced seedling: caused by internal disturbances of physiological or
biochemical e.g. Chlorophyll deficiency.
 Decayed seedlings: essential structure is diseased /decayed due to fungal/bacterial
infection.
3. Hard seed: seeds containing hard seed coat which is impermeable to water during
germination.
4. Fresh un germinated seed: dormant seed that absorbed water and maintained its fresh
condition i.e. is not discoloured or mouldy and has a firm turgid texture.
5. Dead seed: that has absorbed water and soft, discoloured and is often mouldy.
Moistened paper, sandy method and the rolled towel method usually used because they are
relatively cheap and easy to prepare. Petri dishes used for small seeds. Evaluation of
seedlings is done when all essential seedling structures are visible and have grown or
developed to such an extent that their characteristics can be clearly seen.

4.1.3. Seed moisture test

Evaluation of seed moisture content is an extremely important determination in seed testing.
Knowledge of the seed moisture content is useful because it provides information regarding
the potential for harvesting, cleaning, and planting injury (ies) as well as the likelihood for
successful long-term storage. The moisture content of the seed in the storage has greatest
effect on seed viability. Moisture testing is necessary at various stages in the seed chain:
1. Before harvesting: to assess whether the optimum harvesting (threshing) moisture content
has been reached or not
2. Before or during seed drying: to assess the drying needs of the lot (for setting drier)
3. Before or at storage
4. At final packing
Methods of Seed Moisture Determination
There are two methods of moisture determination:

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1. Direct method: The most standard and accurate for determination of moisture which is
based on calculation. It is hot-air oven method. The principle of this method is the
elimination of water by heating under precisely controlled condition. Moisture analysis is
carried out in independently drawn working sample. Larger seeds of cereals and legumes
grounded into small pieces before analysis and weighted with an accuracy of 1gm while the
oil seeds are heated in lower temperature (1030c) for longer period of time (17 hours) without
grinding as compared to other seeds (130-1330c) for four hours depending on the crops.
Procedures
1. Empty container (glasses) is weighted together with lids (M1).
2. The submitted sample grounding and thoroughly mixed and 4-5 gm and direct into empty
container (M2).
3. After weighing the container, place in oven at prescribed temperature of drying.
4. At the end of drying period, allow for 30 minutes in desiccators for cooling & weigh (M 3).
5. Calculate the moisture content in percent using the following formula.
Where,

MC= Moisture content of the seed.

M1= Weight of empty container and lids
M2= Weight of empty container with lids + Weight of wet sample.
M3= Weight of empty container with lids + Dry seed after cooling.
2. Indirect method: Many electronic moisture testers are available on the market for
moisture determination. These include:
1. Digital moisture tester 4. Steinlit moisture tester
2. Infrared moisture tester 5. Karl fisher apparatus
3. Agromatic mark II 6. Koster moisture tester
They determine moisture content based on the electronic conductivity of the seed.
4.1.4. Seed viability test
Seed viability (germination potential) means the seed is capable to germinate and produce
normal seedlings. In other words, viability of a seed refers the state of being aliveness,
metabolically active and possesses enzymes capable in catalyzing metabolic reactions needed
for germination and seedling growth. Germination test is usually the best method for
estimation seed viability. However, all viable seeds may or may not germinate because of the

Seed Science and Technology By: Jima Nego (MSc.s Assistant professor) Page 26
seed may be dormant, hard seed or very slow germinating seed. In such cases, it is necessary
to carry out a viability test on the seeds, which remain un germinated at the end of the test.
The most commonly used test for viability test is Tetrazolium test, which utilize 2,3,5 –
triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) or Bromide some time. The principle of TTC test is
based on the response of all living cells of the seed which can reduces a colorless solution of
2, 3, 5 – triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) in to red colored compound. Reduction of the
chemical (TTC) takes place in the seed by action of group of enzymes known as
dehydrogenase (found in many seeds of plants).

Procedures for TTC test

1. Seeds are soaked into water for a few hours and then cut the seed into two longitudinal
dimensions to expose the embryo to the solution.
2. the seeds are then soaked into 1% solution of TTC in the dark for one or two hours
3. At the end of this period, the embryo of living seeds will stained reddish while the dead
embryo and dead parts of the embryo will remained unstained.
Advantages of TTC test
 Quick in estimating seed viability
 When the seed is dormant, or very slow in germination, it is extremely useful.
Disadvantages of TTC test
 Difficult to distinguish normal and abnormal seedlings.
 Doesn’t differentiate dormant and non-dormant seeds
 Since TTC test does not involves germination test, the micro-organisms harmful to
germinating seedlings are not detected.
o Require the knowledge of seed and seedling structure for conduction this test.
4.1.5. Seed vigour test
The shortcoming of the standard germination test is that it gives little information about the
seedling vigor and germination potential (seed viability) of the seed lot. Seed vigour
(germination energy) comprises those seed properties which determine the potential for
rapid, uniform emergence and development of normal seedlings under a wide range of field
conditions. It indicates the capacity of the seed lots to produce a good crop stand under sub-
optimal field conditions. Seed vigour is affected by genetic constitution, environment and

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Page 27
nutrition of the mother plant, stage of maturity at harvest, seed size, weight, pathogen attack,
mechanical damage to the embryo or seed coat, drying temperature etc. E.g. higher
temperature speed up drying, but drying injuries may occur. This is not immediately detected
by normal germination test. However, vigour tests may show that the slowly dried seed is
more vigorous than seed that is dried fast at a higher temperature. When such seed is stored
under less ideal storage conditions, the fast dried seed deteriorates much more rapidly than
the slowly dried seed lot. Due to variations in seed vigor, seed lots with similar germinations
may respond differently when subjected to adverse field conditions. Generally, high
germination capacity is believed to be associated with high vigor, and low germinated must
be rejected since field emergence is reduced drastically and cannot be compensated by
increasing seed rates. Vigour tests seek to quantify the expected reaction of the seed lot to the
various stresses in the field. Most common seed vigor tests are: Physical, physiological and
biochemical test.
Many of the vigor tests are, however, to complicate to carry out as a routine test in a seed
laboratory. So far not a single test, whether physiological or biochemical, has proved
successful even for a single species under field conditions.
4.1.6. Seed health test
Seed can be carries certain seed-borne pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, fungus and
nematodes. Some of these are transmitted to germinated seedling or to the final plants.
Cultural practices are carried out to reduce the risk of infection and chemical treatments may
apply to cure an infection.
Seed health testing can be done to check the effect of these measures and can be especially
useful in preventing the introduction of new pathogen into an area free from pathogen
(quarantine is important). The health testing method should be simple, cheap, and quick and
also should facilitate identification of the pathogens. Seed health testing may be done by
visual assessment or followed more advanced seed health testing.
Visual assessment: by observing the presence of sclerotic, spots on seeds.
Advanced seed health testing includes:

1.Blotter method: incubation of the seed on blotting paper. Seed-borne pathogen can be
identified and the severity of the infection assessed based on vegetative growth rate,
emergence of the fruiting bodies and symptoms on the seedlings.

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 2. Agar test:- incubation of the seed on a sterile media or general agar that specifically
promote the growth of certain pathogens
3. Serological technique: based on the interaction of antigens and antibodies which are
specific test for particular viral diseases.
4. Grow-out tests- observe symptoms on the seedlings.

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 5. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SEED PRODUCTION AND MAINTENANCE
5.1 Genetic Aspects of Seed Production
A. Variety development
Variety improvement (development) is the incorporation of genetic characteristics that
enable the plant to cope better with its environment, to respond better to other agricultural
inputs and practices that yield higher economic return or to more effectively meet ecological
or social demands. With the advent of plant breeding research, substantial improvements in
varietals development have occurred, offering the potential for major advances in
productivity and product quality.
There are two important ways in seed improvement. The first is to improve the information
contained within the seed itself through breeding, which results in improved varieties. These
improvements in the seed’s genetic makeup provide the potential for higher yield, greater
pest resistance, and quality of harvested crops. The resulting higher quality seed provides
value through enhanced performance and compatibility with other production inputs. The
second source of improvement relates to the physical properties of the seed, such as size,
purity, germination capacity, moisture content of the seed, and seed health (free from pests).
These improvements stem from effective processing, quality control, chemical dressing,
handling and storage. Production of genetically pure and high quality seed requires high
technical skill and relatively heavy investment. So seed production must be carried out under
standardized and well organized conditions.
What is a Cultivar/Variety?
A cultivar is a population of individuals known to have certain morphological, physiological,
cytological, chemical and other characteristics which remain stable from generation to
generation in the course of sexually or asexually reproduction. The general breeding methods
that are more usually utilized for the genetic improvement of several crop plants consist of a
programs like introduction, selection (pure line selection, mass selection, progeny selection),
hybridization (pedigree, bulk and back cross methods), heterosis breeding, synthetic and
composite breeding. New variety can be developed through established breeding programs
such as selection, varietal introduction and hybridization from public or private agricultural
research centers and universities.

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a. Selection: consists of screening the most promising plants from heterogeneous population.
Practiced by farmers for centuries, the technique has been adopted by plant breeders for
selecting the offspring of crosses.
b. Varietals introduction: varieties that have proved themselves elsewhere under similar
climatic conditions are imported and introduced.
c. Hybridization: this involves planned crosses and subsequent selection of desired plants
from the segregating population to combine the most desirable characteristics of two or more
varieties.
Continuous development of new superior varieties adopted at the farm level is the
cornerstone of improved and sustainable agricultural development and growth. The varieties
used in self-pollinated crop usually pure-line and multi-lines, where as varieties used in
cross-pollinated crops are F1 hybrids, synthetics and open pollinating varieties (OPV).
These varieties can be developed through different breeding methodologies such as pure line
selection, mass selection, pedigree selection, back crossing, bulk breeding, single seed
dencest methods, progeny and recurrent selections.
Pure-line variety: comprises genetically identical plants (true-to-type) resulted from
heterogeneous population or crossing and repeated selection in the segregating population.
Multi-line variety: a mixture of iso-genic or near iso-genic lines which differ from one
another by being resistance to different races of the same pathogen. This is done to introduce
some variability into the variety to improve field resistance against diseases and non-stresses
mainly through back-crossing method and improve yield stability. The individual lines should
be maintained separately to avoid genetic drift during seed multiplication (Breeder to
Certified seed) and periodically renewed and mixed at breeder seed stage by breeders.
Hybrid variety: is the first generation from a cross between two different parents. It is a
commercial variety obtained after controlled crossing of two, often inbred; parents that are
selected to give optimum hybrid vigour (heterosis) in the offspring. The type of hybrid that is
developed is determined by the number and genetic constitution of the parents. Example
single-cross hybrid, three -way-cross-hybrid, double-cross hybrid, top-cross hybrid and
varietal hybrid.
Synthetic variety: is a variety obtained after combining a number of well-defined and
carefully-selected often inbred lines that are expected to generate a significant level of

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heterosis mainly through general combining ability test. A synthetic can be multiplied as an
open-pollinated variety but can be constituted afresh (periodically renewed) as long as the
parent genotypes marinated.
Open-pollinated variety (OP) : Is a variety obtained after combining a number of different
population and having acceptable level of uniformity for the most important characteristics
such as plant height, maturity period and consumer quality.
Variety Evaluation and Release
New varieties have to be evaluated before they are released to farmers for commercial use.
Different approaches to variety evaluation exist. In small or initial stage seed programs, the
breeder evaluates new at the breeding station and in different ecological zones. These trials
are required to obtain reliable information on agronomic value of new experimental varieties.
In comprehensive seed programs, the final evaluation is usually carried out by a separate
varietals evaluation agency. In many countries, the variety evaluation agency is an
independent governmental organization, charged with the final evaluation of new varieties
before release. The variety release committee, composed of different members representing
organizations, seed multiplication involved in the seed industry, such as agricultural research
institutions, seed multiplication organizations, seed firms, extension services and farmer
organizations. A variety release committee prepares minimum standards for testing varieties
for value for cultivation and use (VCU) or variety performance test and for distinctness,
uniformity and stability (DUS). The test results are reviewed by variety releasing committee
and makes recommendations for release (full, temporary and restricted release) and
withdrawal of candidate varieties.
Performance Test (VCU test)
Performance trails aim to compare the agricultural value of new varieties with those of
existing commercial varieties, and to identify those that are superior in certain ecological
zones. I.e. candidate varieties from different breeders are objectively compared with existing
varietals at a large number of locations with a wide range of soil and climatic conditions.
Varieties with wide adaptability are also identified. For this a minimum of three seasons of
multi-locational trails is applied. Thus, VCU test assess the agronomic performance of the
variety. Variety trails in different agro-ecological zones are carried out by breeding

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institutions, universities, agricultural schools and training centers, and also in farmer’s fields
under the supervision of the varietals evaluation agency.
B. DUS Test
The second test is the test for distinctness, uniformity and stability. DUS tests are conducted
to establish whether or not a variety is sufficiently distinct from all other varieties,
sufficiently uniform and stable. Based on DUS tests, a variety description is produced that is
used for varietals recognition in the seed production program (field inspection, rouging, etc)
and granting proprietary rights.
Distinctness: This quality is essential because a new variety must be different from an
existing variety. Each variety must be recognized not only in the field inspection, but also for
seed growers and farmers. For granting proprietary rights (plant breeders’ rights), the variety
must be clearly recognizable.
Uniformity: To guarantee constant quality, and also for field inspection, a variety must be as
uniform as possible. The degree of uniformity depends on the mode of reproduction.
Varieties of self-pollinated crops are more uniform than varieties of cross-pollinating crops.
In a highly mechanized agricultural system in a region that is agriculturally and
climatologically homogenous, a high degree of uniformity may be desirable, but under other
conditions, a certain degree of variability may be advantageous.
Stability: During the various stages of seed multiplication, from breeder seed to certified, the
variety should not lose its distinctive characters. The genetic make-up should remain the same
as near as possible. Varieties of self-pollinating species are more stable than varieties of
cross-pollinating species; hybrids are not stable, and new hybrid seed must be produced each
year for farmers.
B. Seed generation systems
To ensure the genetic identity and purity of each seed lot, a strict generation system is used in
every certification scheme. Without strict control, seed will deteriorate after each generation
due to genetic contamination and mechanical admixtures. This is the reason why the original
breeder of a variety is normally charged with variety maintenance through breeder seed
production. The breeder seed has to be the purest form of the variety at particular time.
Because of the small quantities involved (from a few grams to a few kilograms, depending on
the crop), inspection can be done on minute morphological differences between individual

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plants. Inherent in the certification concept is a generation system whereby the pedigree of
superior crop varieties is maintained through subsequent seed production. Every certified
seed lot is derived from a particular lot of breeder seed via a known number of generations
which are named according to one of two widely used systems of nomenclature: that of the
organization for economic cooperation and development (OECD) system (originated in
Europe) or the association of official seed certifying agencies (AOSCA) system of the USA.
A four generation scheme has been devised to this and seed of each generation is identified
by a special color labeling tag. The term used to identify the generations may differ among
countries. Even within OECD countries different designations are used for different crops.
Accordingly, OECD countries seed certification schemes for seed moving in international
trade use breeder seed, pre-basic seed, basic seed and certified seed to identify different
generations and classes in a seed certification program. While, AOSCA uses the term breeder
seed, foundation seed, registered seed and certified seed. In Ethiopia, the OECD generation
system of formal seed production is used and each generation is the progeny of its precursor.
Breeder Seed
Very small quantity of new variety produced under the direct supervision of the plant breeder
on research station and represents the true pedigree of the variety. It produced following any
maintenance techniques using recommended isolation distance and labeled in white tag.
Pre-Basic Seed
This is available in small quantities, progeny of breeder seed and produced in an isolated
block by research station or seed enterprises. It is source for basic seed production and
labeled in white tag with diagonal violet stripe.
Basic Seed
This is vital link between breeder seed and certified seed, progeny of pre-basic or breeder
seed and available in large quantities. It produced by seed enterprises (private or public),
experienced state farm, cooperatives and certified seed growers on well isolated blocks under
careful supervision of authorized agency for certification. Genetic identity and purity
maintained, source of all certified seed classes and labelled in white/purple tag.
Certified Seed
Certified seed is produced from basic seed by seed enterprises, state farms, cooperatives,
farmers’ group and certified seed growers in an isolated field under the control of authorized

Seed Science and Technology By: Jima Nego (MSc.s Assistant professor) Page 34
agency. It must be handled so as to maintain sufficient genetic identity and purity of the
cultivar and represent the final product of the certification program. Certified seed may be
identified as certified seed-1, 2 and 3 based on the amount of basic seed. First generation
certified seed labelled with familiar blue tag and second generation in red, which has became
associated with the public image of certification and sold to commercial farmers.
Although the four –generation scheme for seed certification has been an integral part of
certification since the very beginning, it has not always been applied in the strictest sense.
Before seed multiplication of any classes need assessment should be done as demand for a
seed varies with: - release of new variety, changing the cropping system, increase in area
under production and seed price condition.
Throughout these multiplication cycles, a high level of genetic purity and disease free seed is
sustained to guarantee a high quality end product. To prevent genetic change, the early
generations are grown in areas to which the variety is adapted. No selection is attempted,
other than rouging off-types. The best possible agricultural practice and inputs are applied.
C. Maintenance and production of breeder, basic and certified seeds
New and superior varieties developed by plant breeder should be multiplied and made
available to farmers in the shortest possible time. To supply farmers every year with certified
seed, each year a new multiplication (from breeder to certified seed) should be started. The
objective of a variety maintenance program is to produce a new lots of breeder seed at regular
intervals, which are basis for further multiplication. It is the breeders’ task to maintain the
variety once it has been released. Variety maintenance is the basis for pure and disease free
seed for farmers and it necessary throughout the “economic life” of the variety.
I. Maintenance for Self-Pollinating Crops
Generally, strictly self-pollinating crops have very low out-crossing percentages, and using
recommended isolation distances will reduce out-crossing to a great extent. For varieties of
such self-pollinating species, the following techniques can be used to produce breeder seed.
 Producing enough breeder seed for the life time of the variety (need sophisticated
storage facility)
 Produce breeder seed every fifth year
 Use of basic seed as source for breeder seed without selection
 Use of basic seed as source for breeder seed with negative mass selection

Seed Science and Technology Handout By: Tefera Regasa (MSc. Assistant professor)
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  Ear-to-row or plat-to-row selection (pure-line selection)
The best approach for breeder seed maintenance and production of self-pollinated crops is an
ear-to-row or plant-to-row procedure. Single ear or single plants typical of the variety are
selected and harvested separately. The seed of each ear or plant are carefully observed and
any ear (or a plant) that produces one or more deviant seeds is discarded. The seed of selected
ear or plants are planted in ear row or plant rows. The ear rows are periodically examined
throughout the growing season. For wheat, at least five inspections should be made: (i) early
growth stage; (ii) before ear mergence; (iii) at ear emergence; (iv) at dough stages; and (v) at
maturity. The varietals characteristics are clearly expressed at these stages. Selected ear rows
are bulked up to constitute varietally pure and disease free breeder seed, which is used to
initiate the seed production cycle (pre-basic seed, basic seed and certified seed).
II. Maintenance for Cross-Pollinating Crops
Several approaches are possible for cross-pollinating species, where the risk of genetic
contamination through pollen of other varieties is obviously much larger. Consequently,
larger isolation distances are necessary to raise breeder seed. The methods used are more or
less the same as those described above.
Negative mass selection
Ear-to-row or plant-to-progeny selection (family selection)
Select single plants and row the progeny in the single row. For cross-pollinating crops,
rouging before flowering is important to ensure that off-type plants do not contribute to the
pollen that will fertilize. Any row with off-types detected after following will not be bulked
with breeder seed, but its pollen has contributed to the “pollen cloud” and possibly to
fertilization.
Hybrid (single, three-way and double-cross hybrids) and synthetic varieties are maintained
through the maintenance of their parental components, which are in most cases homozygous
inbred lines. Parental seed (inbred lines) is planted in the nursery, and a number of plants,
depending on the size of the operation, are selfing/sibbing and subjected to line selection or
family selection (half-sib and full-sib) in different generations. All these plants have to be
verified as being true-to-type. The verification producer involves an ear-to-row planting of
control seed from each self-pollinating/ sib-pollinating ear, while the rest of the seed is kept
as remnant. The remnant seed of the rows which are true-to-type is then bulked to form

Seed Science and Technology By: Jima Nego (MSc.s Assistant professor) Page 36
breeder seed. For example, stricter methods of variety maintenance of maize include sib-
selection with remnant seed procedure and family yield tests. A sufficient quantity of breeder
seed is kept in cold storage to provide the nucleus for future multiplication.
D. Mechanisms of seed deterioration
Due to the fact that deterioration will certainly take place during multiplication, new starting
materials cannot just be taken from any seed field. A special producer which aims a high
genetic purity and freedom from seed-borne disease is required. Three of deterioration can be
distinguished:
1. Genetic contamination
During seed multiplication genetic contamination can be resulted from:
A. Natural crossing: sexually propagated crops exposed to unwanted cross fertilization
which resulted to variety deterioration (diseased plants, unwanted crops and off-types). Off-
types are those plants, which exhibit different physiological and morphological variation from
the standard variety in population. The extent (degree) of genetic contamination of a variety
due to natural crossing depends on:
i. Breeding system of the species- cross vs. self fertilized crop
ii. Isolation distance-space and time difference- low distance and synchronization in time of
planting increase contamination due to out-crossing
iii. Varietals mass- high population high chance of contamination
iv. Pollinating agents- insects more than wind more than animals/water in order of
increasing out-crossing
B. Developmental variation: growing of the same variety in different agro-ecology
(different soil, climate condition or elevation, photoperiod for consecutive years) which
results genetic shift due to natural selection.
C. Techniques of plant breeder: releasing of a variety before it attain genetic stability and
uniformity. It resulted in loss of identity in course of seed multiplication due to varietals
segregation. So variety should be released after it fully attains its genetic stability and
uniformity across locations.
Avoiding genetic contamination
 Provide adequate isolation between seed fields

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  Periodic field inspection and Rouging seed fields prior to stage at which they could
contaminate the seed crop
 Periodic testing of varieties for their genetic purity
 Growing crops only in areas of their adaptation
 Seed Certification by seed certification agents
Adopting the generation system
2. Physical contamination (Mechanical Mixture)
The most important source of variety deterioration during seed production, which resulted
from different sources but is mainly due to insufficient cleanliness of fields (volunteers) and
equipment (planter, combiner, transporter vehicle, bags, store, seed clearing equipment), and
inadequate measures to combat such contamination (field selection, physical isolation,
equipment cleanliness).
Avoiding these problems:
 Periodic inspection and timely rouging the seed field
 Practice care during seed production (planting, harvesting, storage and distribution)
 Practice planned crop rotation. Precursor crop requirement-pulses vs. cereals, oil
crops, vegetables
 Take necessary cares in using production equipment
 Control of seed sources-it should be from appropriate class and approved source
3. Pathological contamination
Pathological contamination is resulted due to Selective Influence of disease on a new variety.
New race may have a chance to attack new variety. So mother seed should be tested under
laboratory and field condition before large scale production of any seed classes whether the
variety maintained its resistance and free of seed borne disease.
5.2 Agronomic Principles of Seed Production
To produce the grain needed to feed an even increasing population, a handful of breeder seed
has to be multiplied until there is enough seed to plant large areas. Several generations of
seed growing are often involved, and extreme care must be taken in early generations to
produce later generations of high quality. Producing seed and commercial crop can involve
two completely different technologies. Every farmer is not necessarily a good seed grower,
and in many countries farmers are thoroughly screened before they can become seed growers.

Seed Science and Technology By: Jima Nego (MSc.s Assistant professor) Page 38
Farmers must use proper production techniques to achieve high quality and high yield.
Special methods and precautions are needed. The seed farmer must be diligent and familiar
with crop to produce seed of sufficient quantity, high genetic, physiological, physical and
sanitary qualities. In general, seed producers should be more quality than quantity conscious
and some important agronomic practices to be followed during seed multiplication.
Selection of Fields Prevention of mechanical
Crop rotation contamination
Isolation Seed rate and row distance (spacing)
Fertilization Field inspection and rouging
Sowing
Field inspection and rouging are very important in seed multiplication to ensure that seed lots
have high genetic purity, physical purity, and free from seed diseases and noxious weeds.
Field Inspection
Seed fields need to be carefully inspected during the growing season to maintain the standard
of the variety (to assess trueness to cultivar)
The number of inspections depends on the species and cultivar. Frequent field inspection is
necessary for cross-pollinated species. For example, hybrids and inbred lines require 4-5
inspections; at vegetative growth to check morphological and physiological characters;
before/ at flowering (before fertilization) to remove plants which may show different
inflorescence characters; at dough and maturity to remove diseased plants and noxious weeds.
Steps during each inspection are:
 Check field details to ensure that field is located as indicated in the application
 Check the number of varieties (for a given species, each farm can grow only one variety of
each seed classes)
 Check the category of seed used (the seed growers must show the official tag from the seed
bag)
 Check that isolation distances are as required by regulation
 Check that the previous crop was a different species (it can be the same species only if the
seed grower grew the same variety in the previous year)
Variety identification and purity must confirm to regulations. Inspection is carried out by
walking through the field, following a rout, which allows the entire area to be covered.

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Inspection should be carried out on limited areas, or sample areas of at least 100m2. Off-type
counts in the sample areas are then related to the population estimate to determine the cultivar
purity for the crop. At the end of each inspection report is written including the decision to
approve or discard the seed field. If approved, recommendations that will improve the quality
of seed and increase yield may be given.
Rouging
Rouging is carried out to maintain purity of a variety, and is an important aspect of seed
production. During seed production control must be exercised to keep varietal variations with
in acceptance limits. This is achieved by inspecting the crop and removing those plants which
do not confirm to the characteristics of the variety.
Times of rouging
Off-types can be removed during:
 Vegetative stage (pre-flowering)- for cross pollinated crops
 Flowering stage- for those which cannot be distinguishable during the vegetative
stage. E.g. loose smut of wheat, which is manifested on the spikes during flowering
 After harvest- this is to separate damaged products. E.g. tomato and potato
Harvesting and harvesting rate
In many species the seed is capable of germinating a few weeks after the formation of the
embryo. However, this does not mean that harvesting can start at that time. In fact, at this
stage a loss of yield would result, because the seed is still in the filling stage; seed vigor is
low due to the incomplete accumulation of storage nutrients. Moreover, harvesting is almost
impossible because of the high moisture content. Even when physiologically mature (the seed
reaches physiological maturity at end of filling period, when its weight dies not further
increase) it is difficult to harvest because of the high seed moisture (eg. sorghum 26-30%,
wheat 28-34%, maize 30-35%, sunflower 35-45%).
5.3 Biotic Stresses in Seed Production
Diseases and Insects
Sanitary quality of seed is extremely important in most seed=production operations and
specific rules have to be developed by the seed quality control institutions in every country.
The incidence of disease and insect in crops is affected by their presence in the soil and
climate. They can reduce the yield potential and seed quality. Some diseases are systematic

Seed Science and Technology By: Jima Nego (MSc.s Assistant professor) Page 40
(remain their spore within the seed) and others are non-systemic (leave their spores on the
seed) that can affect seed yield and quality. There are large numbers o seed-borne diseases/
pathogens identified so far, of which bunt, smut, fusarium, aspergillus, septoria, spots, stripe
disease, bacteria blight, foot and root rot, at=re the most important seed transmitted cereal
diseases. While, Ascochyta blight, Fusarium wilt, root rot, bacterial blight and seed borne
mosaic viruses are the major seed-borne diseases in legumes crops. Seed-transmitted
diseases can be controlled through:-
 Use of health (treated) seeds
 Crop rotation, to avoid inoculum accumulation in the soil
 Reducing the spread of diseases through crop isolation
 Timely chemical control (fungicides) and Roguing of diseased plants
There are a wide range of storage insects which are very destructive to seed. Weevil, beetle,
grain borer, grain moth, mealworm, and mites are most important storage insects for cereal
crops. However, Callosobruchus spp. and Bruchidius spp. are typical storage insects for
legume crops. Storage insects are generally controlled chemically (insecticides).
Weed
In seed crops, other crop species and varieties are regarded as weeds. Weeds are
objectionable in all crops; mainly they compete for ecological factors, impede cultivation and
harvesting, and harbor insects and diseases. In seed crops they are particularly undesirable,
because some weed species have similar morphology, physiology, growth habit and maturity
similar to target crops and their seed is harvested with and resulted high physical
contamination. Some seeds are shed and remain in the soil to germinate and become source of
inoculum in subsequent years. The most effective method is planting absolutely clean seed on
a clean seedbed and roguing of foreign plants is an additional and effective method.

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 6. SEED PROCESSING, STORAGE AND MARKETING
After harvesting and threshing, partially field dried seeds must be further processed by drying
to an optimum moisture content to prevent seed germination, retain maximum quality
(genetic purity, viability and germination, analytical, physical and storage quality), prevent
bacterial and fungal growth, and retard infestation by mites and insects. The normal sequence
of operations included in the processing of seed after its harvest include threshing, drying,
pre-cleaning, cleaning, separation, treatment, package, storage and dispatching.
6.1 Seed Processing (seed conditioning)
When seeds harvested from field, it is mixed with different inert materials such as: trash,
chaffs, stones, broken seeds, immature seeds, small seeds, shrivelled seeds. To get physically
pure seed, these materials should be removed and the process of removing these materials and
maintaining high quality seed is called seed processing. It includes all steps involved in the
preparation of harvested seed for marketing. It includes activities such as harvesting,
threshing, shelling (maize), seed cleaning and upgrading, seed enhancement, seed packing,
handling and storage.
The objectives of seed processing (conditioning) include:
1. To concentrate the desired seed species 2. To remove all extraneous mater
3. To obtain as high as possible germination 4. To obtain a homogenous bulk (grading)
Operations in Seed processing
6.1.1 Threshing /shelling
Threshing involves separating the seed from panicles and straw by hand, animals or
machines. In all the techniques care must be taken to minimize physical damage, which can
affect germination or allow disease infestation. Timely shelling is important and shelling is
determined by the seed moisture content. This moisture content inturn determines the seed
germination capacity. Over dried threshing are more likely to crack the seed while shelling at
high moisture content may tear the seed coat. Therefore, threshing should be done at optimum
stage (at proper physical maturity).
6.1.2 Seed drying
Seed loss its viability during storage. The rate at which this occurs depends on the moisture
content (MC) of seed during storage. If the moisture content of the seed is high during

Seed Science and Technology By: Jima Nego (MSc.s Assistant professor) Page 42
storage, it is subjected to loss of viability. The moisture content in seeds varies according to
their grain type, chemical composition, moisture at harvest, harvesting methods, relative
humidity of the atmosphere, and seasonal fluctuations
Effects of high Moisture content during storage
1. Increases respiration rate of the seed or extending the life process of the seed
2. Microorganisms in the seed (at moisture levels above 20%) may produce heat which
rapidly damage the seed.
3. Some seeds may suffer in mechanical damage during seed handling or processing if their
moisture content is too high.
4. Fungi or moulds tend to grow in moist seed lots, especially through the cracked or
damaged seed coats.
5. Insect Damage is also related to seed moisture content
E.g. insect pests breed rapidly at seed moisture content above 8 %.
6. The damp seeds tend to stick together and interfere with the processing and handling
operation.
Basically, seed drying is the evaporation of moisture from the seed through external energy
or exposing the seed to the natural energy (sun). Seed drying takes place only when the
vapour pressure of the seed moisture is greater than the vapour pressure of the surrounding
air. The rate of drying is high when the difference in these two pressures is high and it
declines as the difference in pressure is less. Drying will stop when internal pressure of the
seed is equal to the external pressure. The seed moisture at this point is called the equilibrium
moisture content of the seed at that atmosphere condition. Evaporation (escape of water
molecules from the seed into the air) and absorption (entry of water from the atmosphere into
the seed) go on continuously. When evaporation exceeds absorption, the seed dries out, and
when the reverse happens, seed imbibes water from its surrounding. When both processes are
equal, the seed is in equilibrium with the humidity of the air. A saturated air carries the
maximum amount of water vapour. The water content of the air is expressed as relative
humidity, which is the amount of water that the same air can carry when saturated. At the
saturation point, relative humidity is 100. Both the water carrying capacity and the RH of air
vary with temperature. For drying to take place, the air must have a relative humidity below
the equilibrium point. If the RH of air is close to or above the equilibrium point, it must be

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Page 43
heated to increase its water carrying capacity and lower its RH. Newly harvested seeds of
cereals and legumes are quite moist. Freshly harvested seeds can have a moisture content of
40-70%. The seeds must therefore be dried to a safe moisture content (8-12%) to prevent loss
of germination, heating and infestation during storage. Each seed type has its own moisture
equilibrium levels and even different varieties may have different hygroscopic properties. The
rate at which a seed dries is a function of how fast the moisture evaporates from its surface.
This in turn depends on the temperature and relative humidity of the drying air, and the rate at
which moisture moves from inside the seed to the seed surface (i.e., permeability of the seed
to moisture).
Seed drying methods
There are two main methods of drying seed in sub-Saharan Africa. These are natural drying
(sun drying, natural forced air-drying) and artificial drying.
1. Natural drying
A. Sun or shade drying
The seed is spread on floor in the sun or shade to dry. It is important to dry seeds on a water
proof base to avoid transfer of moisture from the ground up to into the seeds. This method
relies solely on ambient conditions, which can dry or increase the seed moisture content
depending on wind, temperature and relative humidity. Drying is faster in well-ventilated
areas.
Advantages
Small quantities of seed can usually be quickly and efficiently dried in the shade
It is inexpensive and requires minimal supervision or attention to the seeds (turning every 1-2
hrs)
Disadvantages
 Weather dependent
 Incomplete drying in humid environment
 Some crop seeds are unable to withstand the high temperature in direct sunlight
 Seed can be blown away and lost or mixed with others.
B. Natural forced air-drying (ventilation drying)
Natural air driers are constructed to take advantage of ventilation. Seeds are spread in thin
layers on bed, which can be horizontally oriented. Supporting beds are made of perforated

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materials (sacking, wood or metal sieves) which permit air movement through the drying
seeds. The drier is oriented with the prevailing wind direction and works on the principle of
hot air rising, which removes the moisture.
Advantage
 Use natural but ambient air
 Local materials can be used for the constructions of ventilated driers
Disadvantage
 Weather dependent
 Not situated for use in the humid tropics
2. Artificial drying
Larger quantities of seed can be dried using the artificial method. This method allows early
harvesting of seed crops so that shattering and the possibility of weather damage are
minimized. Artificial drying equipment relies on increasing the airflow around the seed, with
or without dehumidification of the air by heating or using chemical desiccants.
An artificial drying facility should consist of the following:
 A fan of sufficient size to deliver a minimum dry air flow
 Efficient heating capacity to raise the air temperature to 35-400C
 Adequate control to maintain the air temperature at 35-400C or less
 Adequate drying capacity compatible with the harvesting rate at which seeds will be
received by the plan
Advantages
 Large quantity of seed can be dried
 Allows early harvesting of seed crop
 Provide better control of seed quality in all environments
 Independent of weather conditions
Disadvantages
 Equipment dependent
 Expensive equipment out of the reach of smallholders
 Difficult equipment to clean with a risk of seed contamination between seed lots
 Seed drying should reduce the moisture content to safe limits to maintain its viability and
vigour during storage,

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Depending upon the climate and the method of harvesting, the threshed seed may or may not
be dry enough for safe storage. In a dry climate, seed from the combine harvester may be
stored directly either temporarily or for a long term based on seed moisture content. Pre-
cleaning is partial cleaning and the main cleaning operation occurs later when the seed has
been dried and stored for some time. The seeds of most agricultural crops can retain their
viability even if they are dried to little moisture content of 5%.
Drying air temperatures of up to 45 oC are generally safe, although higher temperature may
be used in continuous flow driers than in batch driers, because the time of exposure in the
former is shorter. It is very important that after drying the seed is cooled by forced ventilation
before it is stored.
6.1.3 Seed cleaning and upgrading:
Seed cleaning: The removal of inert matter, other crop seeds (including weeds), and
damaged seed from harvested, threshed and dried material to increase marketable value.
Cleaning ensures good seed quality. If done with right equipment and appropriate methods, it
can increase purity and germination by removal of unwanted materials. It can also decrease
the number of diseased seeds and improves the visual, commercial and planting quality of the
seed lot. Seed cleaning can be done manually by sorting out unwanted material from small
seed lots. Mechanical cleaning is more usual due to the labour of manual cleaning. As it
comes from the field, Seed is often mixed with impurities (seeds of weeds, and other plants,
plant debris, soil and stones), which must be separated to obtain pure live crop seeds for
replanting. Seed from each crop is basically different in physical make up from others and
can be identified easily. The physical differences in size, shape, weight, surface area, colour,
texture, stickiness, specific gravity and electrical properties can be measured or sensed by
mechanical devices called separators, which cull unwanted impurities from the seeds on the
basis of one or more of these physical differences. Seed separators can remove dirt, leaves,
stems, and chaff. Cleaning thus reduces the bulk to be handled and stored and removes moist
and green plant material that may cause heating in storage.
Ways of seed cleaning
A. Traditional Cleaning methods:
1. Hand picking: Used for small quantity of high value seed. It is positive when desired
seeds picked from seed lot and negative when undesired materials are removed.

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2. Winnowing: Takes place by blowing the seed to the air over clean floor by subjecting the
seed to air breez. When unclean seed thrown to the air, materials with the first size begin to
fall on an earth; good seed in the middle where as the lighter seed, trash and chaffs blown
furthest.
3. Sieving: Placing the seed on sieve/screen and shaking it. Some of the materials are pass
through while the other retained on the sieve.
The extent by which seed is separated from inert matter largely depends on:
i. size of the seed
ii. Size and shape of perforation of sieve/screen
iii. Speed and distance travelled in each shake
iv. Length of the time the seed subjected to seed processing
B. Modern ways of seed cleaning
The most frequently used cleaning machines are:
1. Air screen cleaner: Separate the seed from other inert materials based on seed size, shape
and density
2. Indented disc and cylinder cleaner: Separate the seed based on seed length
3. Gravity table: Clean the seed based on specific density of the seed.
The other types of seed cleaner which used in specific seed production are:
a. colour sorter: separate seeds based on differences in color and separate lighter color from
dark. E.g. ACOS (Bean exporting company) in Ethiopia has color sorter.
b. spiral separator: based on seed density.
c. Magnetic separator: based on roughness or smoothness of the seed texture.
d. Electronic separator: based on seed coat charging ability.
E. Velvet separator: based on seed texture.
6.1.4 Seed grading
The objective of seed grading is to produce sound even-sized and uniformly shaped seed for
ease of mechanical planting. It also improves the appearance of processed seed which
increase sales appeal. Most seed cleaning machines simultaneously grade the seed into first
grade, second grade, third grade etc, based on uniform size and shape.
6.1.5 Seed treatment
After cleaning and grading, seed must be treated for several different purposes.

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Seed treatment commonly refers to the application of pesticides (fungicides, insecticides, or a
combination of both) to seeds to disinfect and disinfest them from various seed born and soil
born pathogenic organisms and storage insect pests.
Disinfection: refers to the eradication of fungal spores established within the seed coat or the
inner tissues.
Disinfestations: refers to destruction of surface organisms (fungi, bacteria, insects) that have
contaminated but not infected the seed surface.
Methods of Seed Treatment:
Seed treatments are used to prevent or reduce losses from diseases caused by organisms
associated with seed or present in the soil. The pathogens may be present in or on seeds.
There are three seed treatment methods: mechanical, physical and chemical methods.
1. Mechanical methods: are designed to remove infected materials mixed with seeds. Seeds
can be mechanically cleaned before seedling to remove most pathogenic organisms from the
seed surface. Mechanically treated seed is not completely free from pathogens and requires
further treatment.
2. Physical methods: are used primarily to kill pathogens rooted deep in to the seeds.
Physical methods include hot water and soak water treatments and ultraviolet, infrared, x-ray
and other types of irradiation. However, only the hot water and water soak treatments are
more practical. Physical methods, however, do not protect seeds against soil born organisms;
they are effective only against pathogens present on or in the seeds.
The use of this method has been restricted mostly on disinfecting small seed lots and batches
of small seed crops that require low seeding rates. Water soak methods are safer than the
traditional hot water treatments. These are effective to control loose smuts of wheat and
barley and other pathogens. In all water soaked methods, seeds are soaked in water for about
2 hrs and kept under anaerobic conditions for one or more days. In some cases seeds are
soaked for 64 hrs in water at about 22.2 oC and then dried; sometimes seeds are soaked for
only 2 hrs and then placed in airtight containers at 26.3 oC for 48 hrs before being dried. The
higher the temp., the shorter is the time required.
3. Chemical methods: seed dressing is one means of chemical seed treatment which is
applied to protect stored seed through the distribution chain and during the early stages of
crop growth. Seed dressing is a more general used term and includes insecticide/fungicide

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treatment, pelleting, priming and rhizobium inoculation. Pests and diseases can attack the
seed in the storage and in the field. A seed dressing of pesticide, bird repellent, fungicides,
therefore, may be useful. Insecticidal and fungicidal seed dressings should act against seed-
borne diseases, storage pests and fungi, and soil-borne pests and diseases that attack the
seeding and the plant in the later growth stages.
Ideally, the chemical used as fungicide/insecticide should have the following characteristics:
1. Effective against all the major pathogenic organisms;
2. Non-toxic to the plant and people, if misused
3. Environmental safe (persistence)
4. Stable during the storage period
5. Systematic in the plant to increase its effective life
6. Economically competitive
6.1.6. Seed packing
At the end of processing, the seed is packed and sealed into containers of uniform size. The
transfer of the cleaned seed from the processing plant to the field where it is to be sown is
neither a simple nor a speedy operation. The seed may have to be transported long distances
by a variety of means-lorry, animals’ backs, animal-drawn carts or even by hand- and subject
to jolting, rough handling and rain. The journey may be interrupted by period of storage in
country merchants; or village traders’ premises. On arrival at the farm, the seed is kept for a
time in a storage place, in the farmers’ home or even out of doors. Throughout all this, the
package must be able to protect the seed from physical (cracking, bursting), climatological
(rainfall, light, temperature) and biological (disease and pests) damage.
Seeds are packaged in different materials and containers. In determining the kind of
packaging material or container best suited, the following points need consideration
 The quantity of seed each package
 The quality of the seed and protection desired
 The cost of the package
 The value of the seed
 The conditions under which the container is kept

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6.1.7. Seed labelling
After packing some information about the contents of a package must be displayed. This
includes: Name of the species (crop name),The cultivar, Grade and the lot reference number,
Date of sealing, Production year and season, Minimum germination %, Quantity
6.2. Seed Storage
Why we store produce (seed)?
We do not produce throughout the year. Crops are produced in particular seasons; to make
available the seed during this season, we have to store.
2. To assure food security, farmers store food for another coming season because they do not
know what will happen.
3. Famine reserve
4. To have better price (profit) advantage by waiting peak price time because sometimes cost
may become decline.
5. Buffer stock: done by government. Government buy produce (seed) when price is low and
sold when supplies become scarce and price becomes high to have the good market (price)
opportunity.
NB: Loses occurred in plant production part of the system are finite unlike the growing crop
losses. Because, when we grow quality seed, there may be compensation of the loss but if we
grow damaged crop, there may not be compensation of the loss. A number of factors
influence the viability and maintenance of seed quality in the storage. The most important are
seed moisture and temperature in the storage. Harrington and Douglas (1976) developed a
rule of thumb on the relationship between seed moisture content and temperature in the
storage.
1. For every decrees of 1% in seed moisture content, the life of the seed is doubled
2. For every decrease of 50C in the temperature, the life of the seed is doubled
If seed is to be stored for any length of time, it must be at safe moisture content (8-12%).
High moisture contents allow insect and microorganism activity, which cause heating.
Relative humidity (RH) and temperature of the storage environment affect maintenance of
seed quality. RH has the most influence on seed longevity because it affects seed moisture
content. Moist seeds are also more susceptible to attack by insects and diseases. It is therefore
most important to control seed moisture content during storage. The moisture content of seed

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is in equilibrium with the ambient relative humidity during storage. To maintain low seed
moisture content, the storage facilities must be located in area where the RH is low or
artificially controlled. The maximum RH for successful storage, however, will depend on the
kind of seed, length of storage period and ambient temperature.
Storage facilities
Generally, there are two major types of storage facilities
1. Unconditioned storage
2. Conditioned storage
1. Open naturally ventilated (unconditioned) storage
Seeds may be kept in traditional stores or rooms for short periods. They may be threshed or
unthreshed. If it is unthreshed, they require ventilation at the base and must be stacked or
suspended to facilitate lateral and top ventilation. Storing threshed seed is recommended. Re-
absorption of moisture takes place in high relative humidity with temperature stratification
and increased moisture migration in the seed mass. This can lead to localized “wet” spots and
increased temperature.
2. Conditioned Storage
The RH and temperature of the storage are controlled by mechanical means. This is usually
used for processed, packed and high value seed because of the high cost of controlling the
environment. Conditioned stores are required in humid tropical conditions if ambient
temperature exceeds 300C and RH is 75% or more.
All seed stores should be locate in the coolest driest climate, bearing in mind economic
marketing considerations of proximity to produces and consumers. Small changes in location
can benefit from considerable changes in climate. Several basic precautions can facilitate
later storage. These includes an east-west orientation (to minimize solar radiation effects),
insulated ceilings/roofs, damp proof courses in floors and walls, tight fitting doors, windows
etc. ideal safe storage conditions are those that maintain seed quality without loss of vigour
for three years.

6.3 Seed Marketing and Distribution

Seed marketing is one of the key components in seed industry which protects the interest of
all parties (breeders, seed producers, seed distributors and farmers) involved in seed business.

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Seed is a perishable commodity, expensive to produce, store and transport. Therefore,
production must be geared to realistic marketing and distribution targets. Generally,
marketing is an activity directed at satisfying needs and wants through the exchange process.
There are four basic components of seed marketing:
1. Producer: Seed producing, processing and distributing organizations.
2. Product: - Seed is delicate component and vulnerable to damage by temperature, moisture
chemical and biotic stresses and need careful handling in production, processing, storage and
distribution. The value of the seed cannot be assessed only by sight.
3. Customer: - Vital to understand behaviour of the target group, with regard to adoption of
new technology and focusing on the interest of end users. For marketing to be successful, it
must be oriented to the needs of the customer (farmers). If the farmer does not believe the
seed is best suitable to his needs, there will be no seed demand.
4. Competitor: - Any other seed producing and supplying agencies. For example farmers can
compete with the given seed enterprises through home-saved seed or locally exchanged seed.
Thus, there is a need to offer seed of a higher quality, in right place, right quantity, at right
time and acceptable price.
6.3.1 Seed marketing activities
There are about six seed marketing activities.
1. Establishment of marketing strategy
2. Determination of consumers’ needs
3. Accumulation of seed to satisfy needs
4. Communication with potential consumers
5. Setting appropriate price
6. Seed selling & distribution of seed to the consumer
6.3.2 Marketing strategy
Seed marketing strategy is long or short term plan regarding the different activities of the
seed company related to market or marketing itself. It is establishment of effective marketing
policies on production planning, distribution chain, market promotion activities and seed
processing policy. A major function of seed marketing is to facilitate the flow of seeds from
the point of production to the consumers (farmers). In seed enterprises that have both seed
production and marketing units, the accumulation of stocks rests primarily with the

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production section. However, the marketing section communicates expected requirements
(kind, variety, quantity and quality of seed needed) to the production section far enough in
advances of the growing season to permit the seed to be produced and prepared for
marketing. As the seed is prepared, the production section informs the marketing section of
the exact quantity and quality of each variety available.
6.3.3. Seed marketing research/study
It is a continuous and systematic determination of consumers demand. Market demand is the
total volume of seed that will be bought by consumers in defined location within specific
period and certain marketing efforts such as promotion activities and market information. It
is used to analysis the prospective market with regard to potential customers and competitors.
Therefore, assessment of effective seed requirement is crucial to any planned seed programs.
The underlying principle in marketing demand forecast should be that the seed supply keeps
pace with seed demand (both present and future) in terms of quantity, quality, price, place and
time. The outcome of such an approach would be planned seed production and marketing. It
would also avoid shortage and excess and as well ensure stable prices and profits.
Factors affecting seed demand forecasting
Seed demand forecasting mostly unpredictable because of the following factors
1. Food crop market- seed market of food crops depends to a large extent on the food.
Because, a sudden boost in an export grain market may generate high demand for seed which
cannot be predictable and used as true demand forecast.
2. General economic situation of the farming community- the power to purchase high
quality seed (farmers) and high quality product (consumers).
3. Regional production differences- a poor harvest in one area of the country may generate
a specific unpredicted demand. Eg. Drought generated demand in drought prone area is
highly unpredictable.
4. Durability of variety under production- performance of the variety in the production.
E.g. a build-up of disease in a variety may have a dramatic effect on the demand for seed of
that variety or its alternative.
5. Life cycle of seed in the market- it is determined by appropriateness of the variety,
market promotional activities, the area which the variety performs, the average seed
replacement rate and effectiveness of competing local diffusion channels. Thus, estimating a

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market demand is relatively easier for hybrid seed than for self-pollinated crops. Generally,
for seed market assessment using past sales records as a basis is more reliable using the
national home of certain crop.
6.3.4. Market communication
It is important to have good communication links with the farmers, to inform them of the
availability and the quality characteristics of the seed and to create the desire and willingness
to purchase the seed. High quality seed of a superior variety may be priced correctly and
distributed properly but may fail to sell well because communication with potential buyers
was ineffective. To be efficient, seed enterprise and seed marketing groups must establish
their credentials with buyers. Thereafter, communication allow for complete market
efficiency. To this effect, the “AIDME” concept is used in seed market communication. It
stands for:
A= Farmers should be made AWARE of the existence of improved seed
I = INTEREST should be stimulated and
D = the potential should be DEMONSTRATED; then
M=Farmers should be MOTIVATED to try the improved seed, and
E = Farmers should be EDUCATED regarding how to combine the improved seed with other
inputs and how to get the necessary credit
6.3.5. Seed pricing
A seed enterprise should set the price for certified seed based on total cost of seed production.
Generally, high quality seed should be priced higher than grain. For example, price ration of
grain to seed is 1:2 for self-pollinated seed. 1:4 to 1:6 for Open pollinated varieties and 1:8 to
1:12 for hybrid maize.
Factors to be considered in price setting for certified seed:
Mating system of the crop: high price is set for cross pollinated seed than self.
Seed rate: high price is set for low seed rate crops than high seed rate one
Multiplicative factors of the crop: high price is set for high multiplicative seeds than low
multiplicative crops
Level of market orientation of crop production: high price for commercial crops than non-
commercial one

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 Crop specific factors:
 Difficulty to store as vegetable and fruits: set low price
 Difficulty to produce seed: high price
 High incidence of seed transmitted disease-high price
 Specific advantage of seed treatment such as insecticides, fungicides, inoculants,
primers etc- high price
6.3.6. Seed distribution and selling
Seed distribution and selling complete the process that converts the physical and biological
properties of seed produced to economic value for the sellers. Seed distribution is a function
of marketing channels and logistic costs. Seeds pass from the producers to the users through
marketing channels. The key success in seed marketing is the establishment of effective
channel of distribution. The various channels through which seed can be marketed vary
greatly according to the needs of the seed company. Distribution has to be arranged so as to
deliver the right quantity of seed of the right quality at right time (usually before planting)
with reasonable prices. Since producers can sell directly to final customers, they must feel
that they gain certain advantage by following the marketing channels.
Marketing channels for seed distribution

Seed grower Accumulator Intermediate Retailer dealer Seed consumers

seller wholesaler wholesaler

Arrangement of seed distribution chains with whole seller retailer network has the
following benefits
1. Timely delivery- consideration of peak demand time such as planting time, closeness to
target group
2. selling initially set price
3. More effective than direct distribution by producers- addressing large number of customers
and increase market efficiency
4. Feedback mechanism for establishing market demand
5. Cost effective for both seller and buyer- share financial load of logistic costs
Other options of seed distribution channels
 Grain traders
 Government extension service

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There are five types of seed distribution systems in Ethiopia
1. Farmer to farmer seed distribution
2. Distribution by seed enterprise (public and private)
3. Distribution by co-operatives
4. Distribution by ministry (bureau) of agriculture
5. Distribution of seed by non – governmental organization

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 7. SEED QUALITY CONTROL

7.1. Seed Certification

Seed certification is a program to maintain and make available to the public high quality
seeds and propagating materials of genetically distinct crop varieties. Under this program,
certified seed is produced by outstanding farmers and seed producers using careful quality
control, pedigreed planting stock, field inspections during the growing season and seed
inspection following harvest. Certification is an officially recognized method for
maintaining varietals identity of seed on the open market. Seed certification procedures
are designed to ensure genetic purity (trueness-to-variety), physical purity, good germ-
inability, seed health and moisture content of the certified seed. In most developing countries,
seed certification means that certain quality requirements are fulfilled and made evident for
the buyer. To deserve the farmer’s confidence, a seed certification system must be totally
independent of seed production and marketing programs. There are strong relationship
existing between seed certification and production and marketing activities, though they are
independent of one another. Legally sanctioned certification systems operate in many
countries, under various systems. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD), international seed certifying agency, has developed standards,
schemes and guiding relating to varietals certification of herbage and oil, cereal, sugar and
fodder beet, maize and tree, and several other seeds moving in international market. The
objectives are: (1) to establish minimum standards for genetic purity and recommend
minimum standards for classes of certified seed, (2) to standardize seed certification
regulations and procedures, (3) to encourage the use of seed quality in the participating
countries and to facilitate movement of quality seed among the countries, and (4) to assist its
member agencies in the seed promotion, production and distribution. In line to OECD,
different countries establish their own local seed certifying agencies which responsible for
seed certification. Accordingly, the Association of Official Seed Certifying Agencies
(AOSCA) is an organization of certification agencies in the USA and Canada. Seed
Certification in Ethiopia is done by the Agricultural Inputs Certification Department
(AICD) of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. Other international
organizations aim to facilitate the seed certification are: The International Seed Testing

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Association(ISTA), designs uniform seed testing methods and grants licenses to laboratories
that meet its standards and The Union for the Protection of new Verities of plants(UPOV)
established to promote plant variety protection and to release uniform legislation in this field.
Techniques and Steps of seed certification
A. Eligibility of varieties
Only uniform varieties, which have been evaluated for DUS and agronomic performance, are
eligible for certification. In developed seed programs, new varieties are evaluated for
performance, distinctness, uniformity and stability before they are released by a variety
release board.
B. Seed classes
Classes, as well as the maximum number of multiplication in each class, are set for each
species. The number of generations used in the certification system is fixed at the lowest
possible level because the genetic value of seed crop can decrease from one generation to
another. The breeder class has to be considered the maximum obtainable genetic purity
level. Restricting the number of generation is one way to preserve quality. This is more
important with cross pollinating than self-pollinating crops.
C. Seed quality standards
In certification scheme, minimum quality standards have to be established and the seed tested
against quality standards for contaminants in each class. Standards are set for field inspection(
including varietal purity/ off type count), isolation from potentially contaminating crops and
permitted disease and weed levels, seed testing and pre and post control quality standards.
Seed fields that fail to reach these standards are either downgraded or rejected for seed
purposes. During multiplication, a small quality loss is expected, so standards are highest for
early generations. The standards are arrived at by striking a balance between the maximum
obtainable quality and the required seed quantity. When isolation distance creates serious
problems in seed production, barrier crops and time isolation may be used to reduce the
large distance required with cross fertilizing crops.

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Seed certification standards
Factor Breeder Basic Certified
Purity (min) 98 96 94
Inert matter (max) 0 2 4
Other crop seeds (max) 0 0.01 0.02
Other varieties (max) 0.04 0.2 0.5
Germination(min) 85 80 70

Only varieties which have been officially evaluated and satisfy minimum quality standards
can be marketed. Seed certification agencies exercise tight administrative control over the
multiplication process, implement field inspections, various test processes of seed lots, carry
out labelling and post control approved seed.
D. Field inspection
The first certification takes place when seed certification technologies check the seed
growers’ field. It is the risk of the seed quality control unit to increase the quality of the seed
that reaches the end users (farmer). A field inspector checks on the seed used for planting,
confirms the area and variety planted, check isolation, calculate the plant population in order
to assess off type and disease percentages, identifies possible noxious weeds in the field and
evaluate the general crop husbandry and the expected yield. Field inspection consists of two
steps. First, the field is observed in a “field overview” to see that it is uniform in quality.
Second, a statistically determined sample of plants, called “field inspection sample” is
inspected to identify contaminants. These are counted and an occurrence rate established to
determine if the field meets seed production standards. This done during various visits to each
seed field during the cropping season, especially:
 Before sowing: cropping history and general suitability of the field, variety and
generation of seed to planted;
 At flowering: off-types, isolation and cultural practices;
 Before harvesting: final check on the field and yield estimate; and
 After harvesting: threshing, storage, sampling, and fixing transport labels
The field standards are compared with certification norms, specified for each crop in relation
to different factors. Only the officially notified agency for the region concerned has the
authority to perform the field inspection for seed certification

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Crop stages for field inspection
It is very difficult to verify the different factors affecting seed quality in the field in a single
inspection as these factors do not occur at the same time and all may not affect at that growth
stage. Thus the phased inspection is required for all crops. The number of inspection and
growth stage depends upon crop duration, mode of pollination, possibilities of contamination,
nature of contamination factor and stage of disease susceptibility. In sexually propagated
crops, the convenient stages of growth for field inspection are classified as: Pre flowering,
flowering, and post flowering / at maturity, at harvesting. In general; two, three and four
inspection stages are made for self, cross pollinated and hybrid seed crops respectively.
Observation during field inspection:-factors observed during field inspection vary among
crops and growth stage. The source of genetical and physical contamination is a general
factor and must be observed. The following factors are observed during field inspection:
Off-types, objectionable weed plant, inseparable other crop plant, diseased plant,
pollen shader and shedding tassel
Taking field count: - In seed crops, it is not possible to examine all plants in the field. The
number and methods of counts vary from crop to crop. For all crops, it is necessary to take a
minimum of counts up to two hectares area and an additional count for each two hectares.
The number of plants or heads should make a count for different crops as follows:
 For widely spaced and non tillering crop like cotton and caster minimum number of plants
in a count should be 100.
 Medium spaced and non tillering crops like cowpea, black gram and green gram, 500
plants per count should be considered. For other minimum 1000 plant/ ear head per count
should be considered.
E. Seed inspection
After the seed has been cleaned at the processing plant, samples are taken to check quality.
Upon sampling, the homogeneity of the seed lot is assessed, and other aspects such as correct
labelling, lot number, etc are checked. The sample is immediately sent off to the seed testing
station, where, according to the International Seed Testing Association rules (ISTA), tests are
carried out for: physical purity, germination, moisture, varietals purity and seed health. Other
tests (e.g. vigour test, viability test, 1000 grain weight test) are often carried out.

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F. Labels
After processing, several small seed lots of the same variety but from a number of different
seed growers may be combined to form an official seed lot. Certification labels are put on
every seed container indicates that the seed has met the minimum certification and seed
testing standards. A lot number is given to any such thoroughly mixed blend which states the
variety, crop name, season of production, seed class, growers, seed test date, date of sealing
and seed quality. Other aspects of labelling are:
The information is written in all major languages of the country
There are two labels on each bag: one on the outside the bag for identification and
information and a copy inside the bag for confirmation (and as a back-up should the outer
label be lost)
Each label has an individual number so that the history of every individual seed packet
can be traced
G. Control plots
Advanced certification schemes usually include further checks on varietals identity, genetic
purity, weeds and seed-borne disease of seed lots that have been certified. Post-control plots
are mainly a check on the certification agency’s work. They are a useful tool to train
inspectors, and act as a warming system to identify problems in multiplication fields. Results
of pre-control plots are used when certifying a seed lot. The OECD and ISTA have
guidelines and rules for plot testing of various species.
In addition to these main certification techniques, processing facilities are inspected
throughout the factory operation. The main checks are on proper cleanliness of the machines,
most importantly when changing varieties and crops.
Maintenance of the quality of the seed is highly influenced by the method of storage.
Temperature, humidity, storage disease and insects can reduce viability in a relatively short
time. Seed inspectors, therefore, need to check seed storage properly and, in particular, the
labelling of the seed lots. Primary certification deals with the proof of origin of the different
seed classes. In highly regulated seed production programs, intensive marketing control has
been developed whereby inspectors visit each retail outlet on a regular basis to check samples
for maintenance of standards. Labels are re-validated as necessary depending on the seed
testing results.

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7.2. Seed Legislation
The purpose of a seed law is to protect the farmer against purchase of poor quality seed. Seed
quality is much more difficult to judge than the quality of other commodity. For example, it is
impossible to judge the germination capacity of seed by sight. Seed is also different from
other forms of commodity because poor quality is not only confined to the seed itself, but can
result in the total loss of crop, and perhaps a year’s livelihood for the farmer. Progress
requires safeguarding farmer interests and protecting seed producers and merchants from
unfair competition. Seed legislation aims at promoting the overall development of agriculture,
but it does not guarantee that quality seed reaches the farmer. Seed laws can only achieve
their aim if high-quality seed is available. Seed laws must be enforceable and must be fit the
social, economic and judicial make-up of the country.
There are two alternative systems of seed legislation. The first is the comprehensive
regulatory system, wherein the law prohibits the sale of seed that does not meet a minimum
standard of quality. In its extreme form the system requires a list of cultivars, and only
certified seed of registered cultivars can be offered for sale. Seed producers and trader
companies must be registered in order to do business. The second is the truth in labelling
system, wherein the seller must provide correct information about the seed to be sold. All
seed is allowed to be marketed, but the quality is indicated on the label. In practices, each
country’s seed legislation has its own odd characteristics. In general, seed legislation consists
of laws and regulations. The basic law establishes the object and scope of seed legislation.
Control of imports is often included in seed legislation to protect the national seed industry
and farmer, or for quarantine purposes. Imported seed must comply with the laws and
regulations applied to home-produced seed. Quarantine restrictions may refer to seed-borne
disease, insect and weed seed. In improperly used, they can distort the international seed
trade.
Seed Law
Laws governing the development of seed industry include quality control and certification,
variety testing and registration, PBR, Phyto-sanitary regulation, import and export of seeds
etc, in public and private. It has been developed with the aim of [protecting farmers from poor
quality plantings materials. Government shall establish a Seed Law which reflects long-term
quality-oriented policy. Details shall be established through Regulations under the Law, and

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issued in accordance with Government procedures and an adequate implementation agency
shall be maintained, a regular sampling and testing program shall be conducted, and all seed
offered for sale be subject to the Seed Law. The Seed law is mainly established for:
 Variety Development, Testing and Release (NVRC)
 Quality Control ( National seed standards): Seed Quality Control, Seed
Testing, Certification (Conformity of quality, packing and labeling)
 Marketing and Promotion
 Credit, Pricing and Subsidies
 Import and Export ( quarantine, registration, customs processes)
 Administration of the seed policy ( government, national seed council, seed
industry agency, Plant health services
7.3. Intellectual Property Rights
What are "Plant Breeder's Rights”?
Plant Breeder's Rights are intellectual property rights given to a person who has developed a
variety. The variety must be: New, Clearly distinguishable from any other variety and
sufficiently uniform in its relevant characteristics, and stable
The duration of right is always limited in time. Its scope and the duration are defined a
minima in the various acts of the Union for the Protection of new Verities (UPOV)
Convention. There are certain compulsory exceptions and Plant Breeder's Rights don't extend
to acts done:
 Privately and for non-commercial purposes (subsistence farmers are not bound by
Plant Breeder's Rights)
 For experimental purposes
 For the purpose of breeding new varieties from the protected variety. The newly bred
varieties, if not essentially derived from the initial one, may be freely commercialised
by their developers
Is a "Farmer's Variety protectable by Plant Breeder's Rights”?
A variety developed by a farmer is eligible to be protected by a Plant Breeders Right (PBR) if
it meets the requirements of distinctness, uniformity, and stability. Eligibility will also be
determined by the requirements of the national PBR act and regulations in the country of
application including provisions of prior sale and duration of rights.

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 8. SEED SUPPLY SYSTEM
A seed supply system (seed system) can be defined as an outline of measures to be
implemented and activities to be carried out to secure the timely production and supply of
seed of prescribed quality in the required quantity. Two important approaches to seed supply
exist, i.e. formal and informal seed supply. The formal seed is carried out by the public sector,
often with private seed enterprise assistance, while with informal systems farmers produce
seed for themselves or their neighbors. Both systems are needed and the one another
substitute for the other. The formal system produces, releases, and distributes new varieties to
the farming community. The informal seed system ensures that resource- poor, low-income
farmers also have access to seed and benefit from public and private developments.
8.1. Formal seed supply system
The main seed supply system in the official government seed program, assisted by private
seed enterprises. This program is a complex and organizational concept and has several
essential components that are strongly inter-related. The most important of these are: (1)
variety breeding, evaluation and release; (2) seed production, processing and storage; (3) seed
quality control; and (4) marketing and distribution. Each component must be implemented at
the proper time and in the correct sequence and every component is essential. If one
component is not operating, the entire seed program will not work properly. It usually starts
with plant breeding and promotes materials for formal variety release and maintenance.
Regulations exist in this system to maintain variety identity and purity as well as to guarantee
physical, physiological and sanitary quality. Seed marketing takes place through officially
recognized seed outlets and by way of national agricultural research systems and even through
relief seed programs. The central premise of the formal system is that there is clear distinction
between “seed” and “grain”. Formal systems are especially important when seed is used to
grow crops for commercial purposes (for example export or further food processing) and the
uniformity and high quality of the product has to be guaranteed.
8.2. Informal seed supply system
Informal systems, where by farmers produce seed for themselves or for neighbours. This seed
supply system can play a very important role in the national seed supply system. Informal
seed production systems also play a complementary role in producing seed of improved
landraces, and population and mixtures. They have problem with uniformity, distinctness, and

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stability; existing standards are difficult to apply. This system should be given more attention
because they produce a very large amount of seed. In developing countries they will probably
play a larger role in the coming years, because national seed organizations will not be able to
cope with the increased demand for quality seed.

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