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29

Uploaded by

Long Ngo Duy
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Example 1.2.

For f (x)=x(1−x) with x 0=1/2 and n=3, one has

'
f ( x)=1−2 x , x1=f ( x 0 )=1 /4 , and x 2=f ( x 1 ) =3/16

so that
'
( f 3 ) (1/2) ¿ f ' (3 /16) f ' (1 /4)f ' (1/2)
¿ ¿0

Finally, consider a function or map f given by either (1.13) or (1.14).


Definition 1.1. For a positive integer n , a point x ¿ is called a periodic point of
period n , or an n -periodic point, of f , if it satisfies

f ( x )=x but f ( x ) ≠ x for 0< k <n .


n ¿ ¿ k ¿ ¿

If x ¿ is of period one (n=1) , then it is also called a fixed point, or an


equilibrium point, which satisfies

f ( x ¿ )=x ¿

Moreover, a point x ¿ is said to be eventually periodic of period n if there is an


integer m>0 such that

f ( x ) is a periodic point and f ( x )=f ( x ) .


m ¿ m+n ¿ m ¿

Consequently,

f
n+q
( x ¿ ) =f q ( x ¿ ) for all q ≥ m.

This justifies the name "eventually".


¿
Example 1.3. The map f (x)=x3 −x has three fixed points: x 1=0 and x 1 ,2=± √ 2,
¿

which are solutions of the equation f ( x ¿ )=x ¿. It has two eventually fixed
¿
points of period one: x 1 ,2=± 1, since their first iterateDefinition 1.2. For a
continuous-time function or map, f, with a fixed point $\mathbf{x}^*$, the
forward orbit of $\mathbf{x}^*$ is

$$

\Omega^{+}\left(\mathbf{x}^*\right):=\left\{\mathbf{f}^k\left(\
mathbf{x}^*\right): k \geq 0\right\}

$$
If $\mathbf{f}$ is invertible, then the backward orbit of $\mathbf{x}^*$ is

$$

\Omega^{-}\left(\mathbf{x}^*\right):=\left\{\mathbf{f}^k\left(\
mathbf{x}^*\right): k \leq 0\right\} .

$$

The whole orbit of $\mathrm{x}^*$, thus, is

$$

\Omega\left(\mathrm{x}^*\right)=\Omega^{+}\left(\mathrm{x}^*\right) \
cup \Omega^{-}\left(\mathrm{x}^*\right)=\left\{\mathbf{f}^k\left(\
mathrm{x}^*\right): k=0, \pm 1, \pm 2, \ldots\right\}

$$

Nonlinear Systems: Preliminaries

Definition 1.3. For a continuous-time function or map, $\mathbf{f}$, a set $\


mathcal{S} \subset R^n$ is said to be forward invariant under $\mathbf{f}
$, if $\mathbf{f}^k(\mathbf{x}) \in \mathcal{S}$ for all $\mathbf{x} \in \
mathcal{S}$ and for all $k=0,1,2, \ldots$. Furthermore, for an invertible $\
mathbf{f}$, a set $\mathcal{S} \subset R^n$ is said to be backward
invariant under $\mathbf{f}$, if $\mathbf{f}^k(\mathbf{x}) \in \mathcal{S}
$ for all $\mathbf{x} \in \mathcal{S}$ and for all $k=0,-1,-2, \ldots$.s go to
the fixed point 0 .

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